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Agaricus bisporus is also known as the portobello or common mushroom.  The fungi is in the basidiomycota division.

A. bisporus has a hemispherical cap, 5-10 cm, that flattens out as it grows. The flesh of the mushroom is firm and white. The spores are oval shaped and the basidia are two-spored.

A.bisporus is found in grassy fields between late spring and autumn.

The mushroom contains Vitamin D which helps regulate calcium and phosphate in the human body and needed to keep bones, teeth and muscles healthy.

Composition and Biological Properties of Agaricus bisporus
https://content.sciendo.com/configurable/contentpage/journals$002fpjfns$002f67$002f3$002farticle-p173.xml

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Yeast - Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii                       ''Fungemia following Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii probiotic treatment in an elderly patient.'' 

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Yeast - Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii                       ''Fungemia following Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii probiotic treatment in an elderly patient.'' 

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Probiotic known health effects including prevention and treatment of intestinal diseases and immunomodulatory effects. Also  improvement of bioavailability of minerals through the hydrolysis of phytate, folate biofortification and detoxification of mycotoxins due to surface binding to the yeast cell wall.

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Affiliations

¹ Centro de Micología, Departamento de Microbiología, Parasitología e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Sanatorio Municipal Dr. Julio Méndez, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

² Centro de Micología, Departamento de Microbiología, Parasitología e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

³ Sanatorio Municipal Dr. Julio Méndez, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

⁴ Centro de Micología, Departamento de Microbiología, Parasitología e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Electronic address: mtmujica@gmail.com.

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Affiliations

¹ Centro de Micología, Departamento de Microbiología, Parasitología e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Sanatorio Municipal Dr. Julio Méndez, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

² Centro de Micología, Departamento de Microbiología, Parasitología e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

³ Sanatorio Municipal Dr. Julio Méndez, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

⁴ Centro de Micología, Departamento de Microbiología, Parasitología e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Electronic address: mtmujica@gmail.com.

Abstract

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii is a biotherapeutic agent used for the prevention and treatment of several gastrointestinal diseases. We report a case of fungemia in a patient suffering from Clostridiumdifficile-associated diarrhea and treated with metronidazole and a probiotic containing S. cerevisiae var. boulardii. The yeasts isolated from the blood culture and capsules were identified by MALDI-TOF MS and API ID 32 C as S. cerevisiae, and showed the same appearance and color on CHROMAgar Candida. Treatment with fluconazole 400mg/day was initiated and the probiotic was stopped. The patient was discharged from hospital in good condition and was referred to a rehabilitation center. We suggest that the potential benefit of S. cerevisiae var. boulardii should be accurately evaluated, especially in elderly patients. Moreover, all physicians should be trained in the use of probiotic agents and enquire whether the use probiotics was included in the patients'medical histories.

Keywords: Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea; Diarrea asociada a Clostridium difficile; Fungemia; Probiotics; Probiótico; Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii.

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saccharomyces cerevisiae / isolation & purification*

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national center for biotechnology information

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Fungemia following Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii probiotic treatment in an elderly patient - PubMed

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The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii is a biotherapeutic agent used for the prevention and treatment of several gastrointestinal diseases. We report a case of fungemia in a patient suffering from Clostridiumdifficile-associated diarrhea and treated with metronidazole and a probiotic con ...

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these fungus are found the soil or in the droppings of bats. histoplasmosis is an lung infection caused by the inhaling of Histoplasma Capsulatum.

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This fungus produces airborne spores called conidia.

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A fungus that lives on the healthy human body, but can cause deadly infections.

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Description and Natural Habitats

Epicoccum is a dematiaceous mitosporic mould widely distributed and commonly isolated from air, soil and foodstuff. It is found also in some animals and textiles. It is the common causative agent of leaf spots of various plants.

Species

The genus Epicoccum contains a single species, Epicoccum purpurascens.

Synonyms

See the summary of synonyms for the Epicoccum sp.

There are no documented cases of Epicoccum infection in humans or animals. Epicoccum is occasionally isolated from clinical samples. However, Epicoccum has not been documented as a pathogen and these isolates are considered as contaminants [ 1847].

Macroscopic Features

Epicoccum grows rapidly and produces woolly to cottony or felty colonies on potato dextrose agar at 25°C. From the front, the colonies are yellow to orange, orange to red or pink initially and become greenish brown to black by aging. From the reverse, the same color is observed but is usually more intense than in the front view. Epicoccum may produce a diffusable pigment which turns the color of the inoculated medium to yellow, orange, red or brown. Black dots (100-2000 µm in diameter) may be observed macroscopically on the colony surface. These are the tufts of hyphae which have conidiophores on their surface. These tufts of hyphae are cushion-shaped and nonconvoluted and are called sporodochia [ 1295, 2202].

Microscopic Features

Hyphae, conidiophores, sporodochia, and conidia are visualized. The hyphae are septate and yellow to brown in color. Short conidiophores that originate on hyphae form clusters. These conidiophores branch repeatedly and are visible as dense masses. Conidiophores give rise to conidia. Young conidia are round, nonseptate, and pale in color. Mature conidia (15-25 µm in diameter), on the other hand, are rough, verrucose to warty, and brown to black in color. Besides, mature conidia contain multiple transverse and vertical septa and have a funnel-shaped base and attachment scar that is formed from aggregated conidiophores on the sporodochium. In hardly sporulating strains, sporulation may be induced by growing the isolate under UV light or by inoculating it onto 2{64e6c1a1710838655cc965f0e1ea13052e867597ac43370498029d1bc5831201} water agar [ 1295, 2202].

Laboratory Precautions

No special precautions other than general laboratory precautions are required.

Susceptibility

There are no data on in vitro susceptibility of Epicoccum to antifungal agents. Given the lack of its clinical significance, the relevance of such data is unclear.

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(described by Link ex Steudel in 1824) Description and Natural Habitats Epicoccum is a dematiaceous mitosporic mould widely distributed and commonly isolated from air, soil and foodstuff. It is found also in some animals and textiles. It is the common causative agent of leaf spots of various plants.

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The drug anti biotic penicillium is derived from this fungus. These are used as medicine to treat infection in or on the body. they were once found on the body of a Neolithic traveller in the Alps who used it as tinder. A 2008 study published in the "journal of Natural products" discovered compounds and nutrients which are effective against viruses which were found in the mushroom.
Mittal. P. "List of Fungi Benefits" sciencing.com. https://sciencing.com/list-fungi-benefits-8606974.html
. 15 November 2019.

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Streptococcus thermophilus- is a type of fungi present in yogurt. Streptococcus thermophilus is gram-positive bacterium, and a fermentative facultative anaerobe, of the viridans group. It tests negative for cytochrome, oxidase, and catalase. The structure is bacilli and it is chained. This has been associated to reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes alongside decrease the metabolic syndrome and heart disease rates. This bacteria has also been recognised to improve weight management. Several studies have shown that consumption of yogurt and other fermented foods may improve intestinal and extra intestinal health and might be useful in improving lactose malabsorption, treating infectious diarrhea, reducing the duration and incidence of respiratory infections, and enhancing immune and anti-inflammatory responses.

Further research- https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/streptococcus-thermophilus

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Leave a bagel on the counter for a few days, and you’ll probably notice purple splotches growing over it. At some point a mold spore wafted across the kitchen, landed on the bagel, and started to eat your food. Molds are a kind of fungus–just like toadstools, brewer’s yeast, and death cap mushrooms. They don’t […]

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Aspergillus niger is a superior expression host for the production of bioactive fungal cyclodepsipeptides - Fungal Biology and Biotechnology

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Background Fungal cyclodepsipeptides (CDPs) are non-ribosomally synthesized peptides produced by a variety of filamentous fungi and are of interest to the pharmaceutical industry due to their anticancer, antimicrobial and anthelmintic bioactivities. However, both chemical synthesis and isolation of CDPs from their natural producers are limited due to high costs and comparatively low yields. These challenges might be overcome by heterologous expression of the respective CDP-synthesizing genes in a suitable fungal host. The well-established industrial fungus Aspergillus niger was recently genetically reprogrammed to overproduce the cyclodepsipeptide enniatin B in g/L scale, suggesting that it can generally serve as a high production strain for natural products such as CDPs. In this study, we thus aimed to determine whether other CDPs such as beauvericin and bassianolide can be produced with high titres in A. niger, and whether the generated expression strains can be used to synthesize new-to-nature CDP derivatives. Results The beauvericin and bassianolide synthetases were expressed under control of the tuneable Tet-on promoter, and titres of about 350–600 mg/L for bassianolide and beauvericin were achieved when using optimized feeding conditions, respectively. These are the highest concentrations ever reported for both compounds, whether isolated from natural or heterologous expression systems. We also show that the newly established Tet-on based expression strains can be used to produce new-to-nature beauvericin derivatives by precursor directed biosynthesis, including the compounds 12-hydroxyvalerate-beauvericin and bromo-beauvericin. By feeding deuterated variants of one of the necessary precursors (d-hydroxyisovalerate), we were able to purify deuterated analogues of beauvericin and bassianolide from the respective A. niger expression strains. These deuterated compounds could potentially be used as internal standards in stable isotope dilution analyses to evaluate and quantify fungal spoilage of food and feed products. Conclusion In this study, we show that the product portfolio of A. niger can be expanded from enniatin to other CDPs such as beauvericin and bassianolide, as well as derivatives thereof. This illustrates the capability of A. niger to produce a range of different peptide natural products in titres high enough to become industrially relevant.

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Trichophyton rubrum is a dermatophytic fungus, it colonises the upper layers of dead skin. It is in the phylum ascomycota also known as sac fungi. T.rubrum causes athlete's foot, nail infections and ringworm.

The colony has a white cotton like surface and a red underside. The microconidia (asexual, non-motile spore) is teardrop shaped.

The Immunological Response to Trichophyton Rubrum
http://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/1/2/130/pdf

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Research has found that S. cerevisiae, can support the immune system and reduce inflammation resulting from bacterial infection. It may also be helpful in treating diarrhoea. it also has probiotic qualities and is therefore good for healing wounds and is good for the skin.
S. boulardii
it helps to regulate the intestines and protect them from pathogens and other things that can damage the intestinal lining

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Is a yeast that is part of body's microflora (microorganisms that live either on or in the human body). It is present in the mouth, vagina and the GI tract. The yeast appears white when cultured on a plate.

It is the most common cause of fungal infections. it can also go on to infect skin and mucus membranes. 🤬 like fluconazole or clotrimazole will be prescribed.

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Candida is typically found in small amounts in the mouth and intestines and on the skin. Most of the time the fungus is not problematic and has so long term of short term effects on humans. However, when Candida begins to grow uncontrollably, it can cause an infection known as candidiasis. candidas in one of the most common types of fungal infections.

The reason why candida may grow uncontrollably is due to factors such as:

Taking antibiotics

Eating a diet high in sugar and refined carbs

High alcohol intake

A weakened immune system

Taking oral contraceptives

Diabetes

High stress levels

As a result of candidiasis, the common issues this may lead to oral thrush, insufficient digestion as well as  chronic sinus infections
which may last over 1 month.

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''Perhaps the deadliest of all mushrooms, the death cap is found throughout Europe and closely resembles edible straw mushrooms and caesar’s mushrooms. Its heat-stable amatoxins withstand cooking temperatures and quickly damage cells throughout the body. Within 6 to 12 hours after consumption, violent abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea appear, causing rapid loss of fluid from the tissues and intense thirst. Signs of severe involvement of the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system soon follow, including a decrease in urinary output and a lowering of blood sugar. This condition leads to coma and death in more than 50 percent of the incidents. Notable deaths include Pope Clement VII, who died of accidental death cap poisoning in 1534, and possibly Roman Emperor Claudius in 54 CE.''
Link to 7 of the World’s Most Poisonous Mushrooms

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Although only a few of the 70-80 species of poisonous mushrooms are actually fatal when ingested, many of these deadly fungi bear an unfortunate resemblance to edible species and are thus especially dangerous. Read on to learn more about these terrifyingly lethal mushrooms.

Death Cap (Amanita phalloides)

Perhaps the deadliest of all mushrooms, the death cap is found throughout Europe and closely resembles edible straw mushrooms and caesar's mushrooms. Its heat-stable amatoxins withstand cooking temperatures and quickly damage cells throughout the body. Within 6 to 12 hours after consumption, violent abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea appear, causing rapid loss of fluid from the tissues and intense thirst. Signs of severe involvement of the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system soon follow, including a decrease in urinary output and a lowering of blood sugar. This condition leads to coma and death in more than 50 percent of the incidents. Notable deaths include Pope Clement VII, who died of accidental death cap poisoning in 1534, and possibly Roman Emperor Claudius in 54 CE.

Conocybe filaris

Conocybe filaris blickwinkel/Alamy

Conocybe filaris is an innocent-looking lawn mushroom that is especially common in the Pacific Northwest. Featuring the same mycotoxins as the death cap mushroom, C. filaris is potentially fatal if eaten. The onset of gastrointestinal symptoms often occurs 6-24 hours after the mushrooms were consumed, frequently leading to an initial misdiagnosis of food poisoning or the stomach flu. The patient may appear to recover, only to suffer from a life-threatening reappearance of the gastrointestinal distress, coupled with liver and kidney failure.

Webcaps (Cortinarius species)

The two species of webcap, the deadly webcap ( Cortinarius rubellus) and the fool's webcap ( Cortinarius orellanus), are very similar in appearance to both each other and to a number of edible varieties. These mushrooms feature a poison known as orellanin, which initially causes symptoms similar to the common flu. Orellanin has an insidiously long latency period and may take 2 days to 3 weeks to cause symptoms, often leading to a misdiagnosis. The toxin ultimately causes kidney failure and death if left untreated. In 2008, English author Nicholas Evans mistakenly collected and served webcap mushrooms to his relatives, resulting in hospitalization for four of them. He, his wife, and his brother-in-law all required kidney transplants as a result of the poisoning.

Autumn Skullcap (Galerina marginata)

Common throughout the Northern Hemisphere and parts of Australia, Galerina marginata is a gilled, wood-rotting mushroom with the same amatoxins as the death cap mushroom. Ingestion causes diarrhea, vomiting, hypothermia, and liver damage, and can result in death if left untreated. While it is not especially similar to edible species, several deaths and poisonings have been attributed to collectors mistaking the autumn skullcap for hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushrooms.

Destroying Angels (Amanita species)

Mary W. Ferguson

The destroying angels are actually several species of all-white mushrooms in the genus Amanita. These incredibly toxic fungi are very similar in appearance to edible button mushrooms and the meadow mushrooms, and have been collected by mistake on numerous occassions. One of these species, Amanita bisporigera, is considered to be the most toxic North American mushroom. Symptoms take 5 to 24 hours to appear and include vomiting, delirium, convulsions, diarrhea, liver and kidney failure, and often lead to death.

Podostroma cornu-damae

Podostroma cornu-damae Image Republic Inc./Alamy

This rare fungus is native to Asia and has been responsible for a number of fatalities in Japan and Korea. Its red fruiting bodies contain potent toxins known as trichothecene mycotoxins and can cause multiple organ failure in those unlucky enough to consume them. Symptoms of poisoning include stomach pain, peeling skin, hair loss, low blood pressure, liver necrosis, acute kidney failure, and result in death if left untreated.

Deadly Dapperling (Lepiota brunneoincarnata)

The deadly dapperling is a gilled mushroom known to contain amatoxins. Widely distributed throughout Europe and parts of Asia, the mushroom is fairly innocuous and has been mistaken for edible varieties, though poisonings are not very common. Accidental consumption leads to severe liver toxicity and can have lethal consequences if immediate treatment is not received.

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7 of the World's Most Poisonous Mushrooms

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Although only a few of the 70-80 species of poisonous mushrooms are actually fatal when ingested, many of these deadly fungi bear an unfortunate resemblance to edible species and are thus especially dangerous.

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Candida albicans, the opportunistic yeast.

PICTURE BELOW

Found in the human intestinal tract, these yeast organisms are found in small amounts. Other gut flora keeps them in check but when the balance of gut flora is disturbed, these yeasts can cause Gastrointestinal candidiasis. Gut flora can be disturbed for several reasons including; antibiotics, diet or health issues. Toxins released by the yeast enter the bloodstream and are carried to all parts of the body effecting organs and the CNS.

Symptoms of Gastrointestinal candidiasis include:

·         Belching

·         Bloating

·         Indigestion

·         Nausea

·         Diarrhea

PICTURE BELOW

Above picture shows the overgrowth on candida albicans yeast

Candida albicans are facultative anaerobes. ATP is its primary source of energy. In the gut this yeast is mainly anaerobic meaning the yeast uses the process of fermentation to gain energy.

Link to journal discussing Candida albicans:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2901676/

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Jamie-lee Vickers

Diseases Caused by Malassezia Species in Human Beings
Malassezia yeasts are members of normal cutaneous microflora in humans and many domestic and wild animals. As lipophilic fungi, they colonize skin rich in sebaceous glands. They are considered opportunistic pathogens that may cause, under favorable circumstances, various skin diseases. Recent molecular techniques have resulted in the revision of the genus Malassezia. Fourteen different species have been recognized so far. Malassezia globosa, Malassezia restricta and Malassezia furfur are the most common species responsible for skin diseases in humans.

The interaction of Malassezia yeasts with the skin is complex and involves inflammatory, immunological and metabolic pathways. Malassezia yeasts play a pathogenic role in pityriasis versicolor, Malassezia folliculitis, seborrheic dermatitis and dandruff, but have also been implicated in atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, and several other skin diseases. Rarely, they can cause severe systemic infections in premature neonates and immunosuppressed patients. Treatment of Malassezia-related diseases is usually effective using topical or systemic azole antifungal.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811079-9.00005-7
http://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large/malassezia-furfur-science-source.jpg

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Saccharomyces cerevisiae is commonly known as baker's or brewer's yeast. Its essential in brewing, baking and winemaking. It belongs to the division, ascomycota also known as sac fungi.

S. cerevisiae is a model organism and is studied to learn the fundamental aspects of eukaryotic cells, its whole genome has been sequenced.

S.cerevisiae acts as a leavening agent in bread, whilst the process of fermentation occurs, carbon dioxide is generated causing the dough to rise.

S.cerevisiae reproduces through budding and can live in aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

Investigation of the Best Saccharomyces cerevisiae Growth Condition
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5308499/

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The mycorrhizal relationship between fungi and plant roots is essential for the productivity of farm land. Without the fungal partner in root systems, 80–90 percent of trees and grasses would not survive. Mycorrhizal fungal inoculants are available as soil additives from gardening supply stores and are promoted by supporters of organic agriculture.

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Aspergillus spp has been responsible for the continuing increased frequency in patient diagnosed with hematologic neoplasms. 40%- 50% of the infections are a consequence of such  active fungi present. This form of fungi is considered to be as “Opportunistic fungi” The former organisms cause infections in the general population but are more likely to cause disseminated infection in the cancer patient. Opportunistic fungi usually cause only superficial infection in immunocompetent hosts but are the most common cause of systemic fungal infection in patients with impaired host defence mechanisms.

Further information- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK13518/

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overgrowth of cadida albicans can be harmful to the body as it can cause yeast infections like thrush that is found in both men and women.
https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=10313

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Bakers yeast is useful to sensitize metastasic breast cancer cells. Earlier studies suggested that Bakers yeast has been useful to induce apoptosis in different cancer lines in vitro and in vivo.  It has also been useful to help maintain healthy skin, eyes, hair and mouth. It has been recognised for also reduce sugar levels by improving glucose tolerance therefore supporting type 2 diabetes patients.

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How can Baker's yeast beta glucan help with cancer, diabetes and other ailments  DOSAGE EXPLAINED!

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Athletes foot, ringworms and vaginal yeast infection are mostly result of diverse collection of fungi and yeast. Yeast such asSaccharomyces which is used to brew beer and make bread are among the causes of these infections.

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Fungal Insecticides: is type part of an insect known as the emerald ash borer which attacks ash trees. but it is parasitized by a pathogenic fungus that holds promise as a biological insecticide. The parasitic fungus is like a white fuzz on the body of the insect. This is an important and beneficial relation ship between fungus and human in the farming world and growing of crops.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/importance-of-fungi-in-human-life/ . 15 November 2019.

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Bifidobacteria are one type of bacteria that occur naturally in the body. They live in the intestines and help break down the food you eat, which allows your body to use the nutrients for energy. One side effect of their work is that they release gas. So just remember the next time you feel gassy, that just means the bacteria in your intestine are doing their job!

Bifidobacteria help keep your gut healthy and working properly, and prevent issues like constipation and diarrhea. For the most part, they grow naturally in the gut. However, if necessary, they can be taken in the form of a supplement.

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Fungi- mushroom, which are under the class of Basidiomycetes .Several fungi are edible. These include straw mushrooms, oyster mushrooms, shiitakes, truffles, milk mushrooms and black trumpets. Button mushrooms and Portobello mushrooms are commonly used in salads and soups. Mushrooms also add flavour to any dish they accompany. Mushrooms contain large amount of vitamin D2, when exposed to ultraviolet light.

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Fungus- Molds, they are classes of Aspergillus. Molds form in humid environments. They consist of visible portions called stalks, threadlike appendages anchoring the mold, and spores that cling to the stalk. The spores, the reproductive structures of the mold, become airborne. The spores, when inhaled, cause breathing problems and trigger allergies. Some molds produce poisons, or mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin, a cancer-causing agent.

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Fungi- genus Amanita, also known as mushroom( poisonous).This is among the deadliest mushrooms, the death cap is found throughout Europe and closely resembles edible straw mushrooms and caesar’s mushrooms. Its heat-stable amatoxins withstand cooking temperatures and quickly damage cells throughout the body. Within 6 to 12 hours after consumption, violent abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea appear, causing rapid loss of fluid from the tissues and intense thirst. Signs of severe involvement of the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system soon follow, including a decrease in urinary output and a lowering of blood sugar. This condition leads to coma and death in more than 50 percent of the incidents

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Jamie-lee Vickers

Penicillins are a group of antibacterial that attack a wide range of bacteria. They were the first of this type that doctors used. The discovery and manufacture of penicillins have changed the face of medicine, as these have saved millions of lives.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/216798.php

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Jamie-lee Vickers

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi form a widespread and ecologically important symbiosis with plants in the land ecosystem. The phylogeny of the largest presently accepted genus, Glomus, of the monogeneric family Glomaceae (Glomales; AM fungi) was analyzed. Phylogenetic trees were computed from nearly full-length SSU rRNA gene sequences of 30 isolates, and show that “Glomus” is not monophyletic. Even after the very recent separation of Archaeospora and Paraglomus from “Glomus,” the genus further separates into two suprageneric clades. One of them diverges further into two subclades, differing by phylogenetic distances equivalent to family level. The other, comprising Glomus versiforme, G. spurcum, and a species morphologically similar to G. etunicatum, is not closely related to the Glomaceae, but clusters together with the Acaulosporaceae and Gigasporaceae in a monophyletic clade. Based on the molecular evidence, a new family, separate from the Glomaceae, is required to accommodate this group of organisms, initially named Diversisporaceae fam. ined. The current taxonomic concept of the recently erected family Archaeosporaceae also requires future emendation, because Geosiphon pyriformis (Geosiphonaceae) renders Archaeospora, the sole genus formally included in this family, paraphyletic. The suborders Gigasporineae and Glominaeae are not congruent with the natural phylogeny of the AM fungi. Our data necessitate a general reexamination of the generic concepts within the Glomales. In addition to the new family structure hypothesized herein, establishment of at least three new genera will be necessary in the future.
https://doi.org/10.1006/mpev.2001.1007

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Jamie-lee Vickers

In Nigeria, maize, sorghum, and millet are very important cash crops. They are consumed on a daily basis in different processed forms in diverse cultural backgrounds. These crops are prone to fungi infestation, and subsequently may be contaminated with mycotoxins. A total of 363 samples comprising of maize (136), sorghum (110), millet (87), and ogi (30) were collected from randomly selected markets in four agro-ecological zones in Nigeria. Samples were assessed for Fusarium mycotoxins contamination using a multi-mycotoxin liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. Subsequently, some selected samples were analysed for the occurrence of hidden fumonisins. Overall, 64% of the samples were contaminated with at least one toxin, at the rate of 77%, 44%, 59%, and 97% for maize, sorghum, millet, and ogi, respectively. Fumonisins were the most dominant, especially in maize and ogi, occurring at the rate of 65% and 93% with mean values of 935 and 1128 μg/kg, respectively. The prevalence of diacetoxyscirpenol was observed in maize (13%), sorghum (18%), and millet (29%), irrespective of the agro-ecological zone. Other mycotoxins detected were deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and their metabolites, nivalenol, fusarenon-X, HT-2 toxin, and hidden fumonisins. About 43% of the samples were contaminated with more than one toxin. This study suggests that consumption of cereals and cereal-based products, ogi particularly by infants may be a source of exposure to Fusarium mycotoxins.
10.3390/toxins8110342