# data[].attributes.body
und you are dry and will remain that way until winter or spring. It’s a beautiful but extremely harsh environment. Suddenly, your trail turns a corner and before you is a patch of lush green vegetation – ferns and grasses and flowers and algae – growing seemingly straight out of the rock, some even upside down. 
Darius
Darius
These  olive trees  have  very  close  relationships with 
owners,  livestock  and  poultry.  This  means  that  the 
animals provide  the manure and  help in  fighting the 
diseases and parasites, eating infected fruits and leaves.
Olive fly (Bactrocera oleae) is the main pest affecting the 
olive  trees  in  Vlora  and  Tirana.  This  pest  becomes  more 
problematic in humid, frost-free areas, where it  can decimate 
the olive crop leading to a low quality of olive oil. However, in 
dry, high-altitude areas, the olive fly tends to be less aggressive 
and control measures may not be taken necessarily on a regular 
basis 
There  are  three  generation  of  olive  flies  annually.  Flies 
survive winter as puparia. The first generation is ready on June-
July. The larvae  feed within the  olive for a  period 9-37 days 
depending on the temperature [5]. In 1950-1960 no pesticides 
were used in traditional of olive plantations to fight the olive 
fly.    


These olive trees h


These  olive trees  h
Emilijus G.
Emilijus G.
Oases From Bare Rock – The Hanging Gardens of the Southwest United States
 You’ve just encountered a hanging garden, a peculiar plant community found in the greater Colorado Plateau. Hanging gardens, at their most basic, are places where water seeps out of bare rock, often year round, in an otherwise desert environment and allows water-loving plants to thrive in places where they would otherwise never be able to grow. 
Gabija V.
Gabija V.
☆Olive is one of the most abundant tree crops in the Mediterranean countries.
☆The proposed environment-friendly agricultural practices were implemented in three areas in Greece: (a) southwest Peloponnese (Nileas group of farmers), (b) northeastern Crete (Mirabello Union of Agricultural Cooperatives), and (c) northcentral Crete (Peza Union of Agricultural Cooperatives)  Forty olive groves per area were selected, of which 20 were used as control plots (C: control) and 20 as demonstration plots (T: treatment).
☆Olive groves differed significantly in size between Crete and Peloponnese.
☆Although not relevant to the total farmer’s property size, this figure is indicative of the management problems arising, especially in Crete, where one family may have to manage as many as 20 small-sized olive groves dispersed in their area.

Matas Z.

# data[].attributes.body
These  olive trees  have  very  close  relationships with

owners,  livestock  and  poultry.  This  means  that  the

animals provide  the manure and  help in  fighting the

diseases and parasites, eating infected fruits and leaves.

Olive fly (Bactrocera oleae) is the main pest affecting the

olive  trees  in  Vlora  and  Tirana.  This  pest  becomes  more

problematic in humid, frost-free areas, where it  can decimate

the olive crop leading to a low quality of olive oil. However, in

dry, high-altitude areas, the olive fly tends to be less aggressive

and control measures may not be taken necessarily on a regular

basis

There  are  three  generation  of  olive  flies  annually.  Flies

survive winter as puparia. The first generation is ready on June-

July. The larvae  feed within the  olive for a  period 9-37 days

depending on the temperature [5]. In 1950-1960 no pesticides

were used in traditional of olive plantations to fight the olive

fly.

# data[].attributes.body
There are canyons and rock formations of soaring sandstone all around you. The vegetation is dry and scrubby, designed to withstand long periods of drought. The stream beds around you are dry and will remain that way until winter or spring. It’s a beautiful but extremely harsh environment. Suddenly, your trail turns a corner and before you is a patch of lush green vegetation – ferns and grasses and flowers and algae – growing seemingly straight out of the rock, some even upside down. 

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Oases From Bare Rock – The Hanging Gardens of the Southwest United States
You’ve just encountered a hanging garden, a peculiar plant community found in the greater Colorado Plateau. Hanging gardens, at their most basic, are places where water seeps out of bare rock, often year round, in an otherwise desert environment and allows water-loving plants to thrive in places where they would otherwise never be able to grow.

First thing first: How and why does a hanging garden form? Let’s start with the seep. In the areas which hanging gardens are found, the geology consists of layers of highly porous sandstone (laid down in ancient, wind swept deserts) and ones of impermeable sedimentary rock which formed the bottoms of prehistoric lakes. Rivers have cut through these layers to form the deep canyons of the southwest, and it’s this particular arrangement of rock types that allows theses seeps to form.

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Hanging gardens take three distinct forms, depending on the geology around the them, the thickness of the rock layers, and the placement of the joints in the rock. The most gravity-defying are the “window blind” gardens which appear to grow directly out of a sheer rock face, when the joint between the permeable and impermeable layers of rock is flush with both layers. This type of garden, while impressive, often supports smaller and fewer species the other types.

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☆Olive is one of the most abundant tree crops in the Mediterranean countries.
☆The proposed environment-friendly agricultural practices were implemented in three areas in Greece: (a) southwest Peloponnese (Nileas group of farmers), (b) northeastern Crete (Mirabello Union of Agricultural Cooperatives), and (c) northcentral Crete (Peza Union of Agricultural Cooperatives)  Forty olive groves per area were selected, of which 20 were used as control plots (C: control) and 20 as demonstration plots (T: treatment).
☆Olive groves differed significantly in size between Crete and Peloponnese.
☆Although not relevant to the total farmer’s property size, this figure is indicative of the management problems arising, especially in Crete, where one family may have to manage as many as 20 small-sized olive groves dispersed in their area.

# data[].attributes.body
Hanging gardens usually have very thin, poor soils, formed by natural erosion of the rock by the water and through the action of Southern maidenhair fern (Adiantum capillus-veneris), an indicator species for hanging gardens.
Southern maidenhair fern (Adiantum capillus-veneris), an indicator species for hanging gardens. The first species of plants to colonize the area, ones that take hold on the rock itself or on the calcareous deposits (known as tufa) that are often left on the rock by calcium-rich water. The tufa contains not just calcium but other nutrients trapped from the rainwater as it flows through the ground, and some plants can root directly in it in lieu of soil.

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Adoption of modified pruning also had important contribution toward sustainable management of olive trees. Sustainable pruning resulted in a well-balanced ratio between vegetative growth and fruiting (balanced, every year, in order to eradicate biennial bearing). Significant fluctuation in olive yields was observed in the first years of the project while yields were gradually stabilised by applying sustainable crop management.Olive is one of the most abundant tree crops in the Mediterranean countries . Olive cultivation is adapted to sloping land and poor soils providing ecological, economic, and social benefits to the areas it is realized . Over the 70% of olive trees globally are cultivated in European Union’s Mediterranean countries with Greece being the third producer country in the world with an average annual production of 300.000 Mg olive oil, following Spain and Italy.Olive groves differed significantly in size between Crete and Peloponnese. Although not relevant to the total farmer’s property size, this figure is indicative of the management problems arising, especially in Crete, where one family may have to manage as many as 20 small-sized olive groves dispersed in their area. Organic material added in T olive groves contributed to the addition of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to the soil.

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This study revealed considerable differences between olive farming areas and, in some cases, between different farms within a given area. These differences are strongly apparent in the physical characteristics of the plantations, management practices, socioeconomic situation and environmental effects. Olive farms in the EU range from the very small (<0.5ha) to the very large (>500ha) and from the traditional, low-intensity grove to the intensive, highly mechanised plantation.
Overall, three broad types of plantation were identified:

1. As a result of their particular plantation characteristics and farming practices, the low-input traditional plantations have potentially the highest natural value and most positive effects as well as the least negative effects on the environment. These plantations are also the least viable in economic terms and hence most vulnerable to abandonment.

2. The intensified traditional and modern intensive systems are inherently of least natural value and have potentially, and in practice, the greatest negative environmental impacts, particularly in the form of soil erosion, run-off to water bodies, degradation of habitats and landscapes and exploitation of scarce water resources.

3. Intensive modern plantations of smaller tree varieties, planted at high densities and managed under an intensive and highly mechanised system, usually with irrigation.

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The sources make it clear that in Baena
there were major changes in the character of oil production, involving in particular more
intensive methods of soil management. They describe how the soil was now tilled three
times a year, between March and May, and although the bases of the olive tree trunks were
still dug out, manual reaping during the summer was replaced by very superficial tilling
using harrow passes

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Olive yield per hectare barely surpassed 600 kilograms

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Much of the historiography relating to olive growing during the Ancien Regime
maintains that the first olive groves were probably in the hands of small and medium
landowners who managed a crop that required little investment

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Baena responded that it was due to the ‘impoverishment of the fields,
lacking in fertiliser, poorly worked and tired of producing’.2
Some authors have argued that productive crises of this kind tend to accelerate the
industrialisation of agriculture (Soto et al., 2010). It is certainly true that southern
Spain, during the period of the autarkic policies of the Franco regime, industrialised its
agriculture by multiplying the use of industrial inputs, radically changing the traditional
functioning of the sector. The use of inorganic fertilisers meant that former strategies,
such as the fallowing of land and the application of manure, could be abandoned. The
costs of applying the new methods of fertilisation were much lower than those involved in
managing livestock or renouncing a year’s harvest.