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PAIN AND ANALGESIA IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

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PAIN AND ANALGESIA IN REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

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This report talks about studies where crocodiles show a decrease in response whilst on a hot plate when administered with morphine. Mammals in similar studies showed the same response, although it took up to 20 times more morphine to show the decrease in response.

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Veterinary Clinics: Exotic Animal Practice 14 (1), 45-60, 2011

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They don’t exhibit any facia expressions, however research studies show that they are able and motivated to learn to avoid noxious stimuli.

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After intoroduction to noxious stimuli, fish were immediately rubbing the affected area and rocking back and forth, as well as swimming less.
Sneddon, 2018.

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They release stress hormones when introduced to pain (Stevens & Brenner, 1997)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014299996006814

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http://www.eurekaselect.com/84501/article
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1073858403261077
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0018506X04000911
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17415349.2017.1395304?scroll=top&needAccess=true

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Birds are likely often under treated for pain relief as avian pain assessment cannot be reliably measured due to insufficient studies. Administration of anaesthetic is often designated to birds by vets on a moral status, e.g. a show falcon is worth more than a street pigeon and is given more pain relief. Behaviour is a key identifier of pain which differs between bird species, and therefore it can be difficult to detect abnormal behaviour and presence of pain, particularly if the bird masks the pain to avoid predation.

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Nociception allows for immediate reflex withdrawal whereas pain allows for longer-term protection via rapid learning. We examine here whether shore crabs placed within a brightly lit chamber learn to avoid one of two dark shelters when that shelter consistently results in shock. Crabs were randomly selected to receive shock or not prior to making their first choice and were tested again over 10 trials. Those that received shock in trial 2, irrespective of shock in trial 1, were more likely to switch shelter choice in the next trial and thus showed rapid discrimination. During trial 1, many crabs emerged from the shock shelter and an increasing proportion emerged in later trials, thus avoiding shock by entering a normally avoided light area. In a final test we switched distinctive visual stimuli positioned above each shelter and/or changed the orientation of the crab when placed in the chamber for the test. The visual stimuli had no effect on choice, but crabs with altered orientation now selected the shock shelter, indicating that they had discriminated between the two shelters on the basis of movement direction. These data, and those of other recent experiments, are consistent with key criteria for pain experience and are broadly similar to those from vertebrate studies.

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Nociception refers to the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. 

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Nociception refers to the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. 

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It is argued that these results show that the belief that nonhuman animals experience pain in a morally relevant way is reasonable, though not certain.

https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=can+mammals+feel+pain&oq=can+mammals+feel+pai#d=gs_qabs&p=&u=%23p%3DW-S8ko73rVYJ

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Testosterone has been found to reduce responsiveness to nocieceptive stimuli.

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A study in to if hermit crabs can feel pain. A small electric shock was given within their shell. Results showed that the experience of shock altered future behaviour in a manner consistent with a marked shift in motivation to get a new shell to replace the one occupied. The results are consistent with the idea of pain in these animals.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347209000712

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Vocalising, removing self from stimuli, gait and position change, bearded dragon and chameleons colour change, poss avoidance with source of pain.
Tokay gecko have spinal projections originating in the brain stem region, suggests the presence of similar nociceptor structure to mammals.
Geckos lose tails if in a situation of life or death they will release their tail if an animal is holding it to allow them to get away

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They have the ability to vary the activity of different neural circuits, providing them with the ability to learn and have motivated behaviour

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Over a million Atlantic salmon fish that were put briefly through churning boiling water to remove the lice on them were expected to live through this however many died due to emotional stress rather than a physical causes of death. Powell et al, 2015; o’donohue et al, 2017.

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Birds have several types of nociceptors but comparison to mammals isdifficult due to differences in organisation of the forebrain.

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Mammals also show ‘pain relief learning’ in which stimuli that are temporally associated with the termination of a noxious stimulus, e.g. electric shock, have a positive valence and are preferred over neutral stimuli.

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Mammals also show ‘pain relief learning’ in which stimuli that are temporally associated with the termination of a noxious stimulus, e.g. electric shock, have a positive valence and are preferred over neutral stimuli.

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https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/63d0/f5d6272d1e376b6f4ce819b01814e599f6f7.pdf

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It is a popular notion that, compared to vertebrates, invertebrates have a reduced capacity to experience suffering. This is usually based on arguments that invertebrates show only simple forms of learning, have little memory capacity, do not show behavioural responses to stimuli that would cause'higher'vertebrates to exhibit responses indicative of pain, and have differences in their physiology that would preclude the capacity for suffering.

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https://sencanada.ca/content/sen/committee/372/lega/witn/shelly-e.htmhttps://sencanada.ca/content/sen/committee/372/lega/witn/shelly-e.htm

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For example, Drosophila larvae attacked by a parasitoid wasp respond by rolling toward the stimulus, which causes the wasp’s ovipositor to pull out and the wasp to leave (Hwang et al. 2007).

Pain and Suffering in Invertebrates? (PDF Download Available). Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51253777_Pain_and_Suffering_in_Invertebrates [accessed Apr 24 2018].

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insects do have areas that are functionally equivalent to reward circuits in vertebrates (Giurfa, 2013).

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Insects have small nervous systems (typically less than a million neurons), consisting of several distributed brains (ganglia) (Bullock et al., 1977).

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Almost all invertebrates are short-lived and their behaviour is thought to be largely genetically determined7.  Therefore, there is less evolutionary pressure selecting for the evolution of pain in this group of animals.

2. The neural capacity of invertebrates.

Except for the cephalopods, invertebrates have small nervous systems, consisting of many small brains (ganglia).  Because of the small number of neurons and the distributed organization of their nervous systems, invertebrates are thought to have limited cognitive capacity6.  High cognitive capacity is thought to be a prerequisite for the development of an emotional response

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Stimuli that are considered painful in humans have been shown to induce similar physiological and behavioural changes in other nonhuman mammals. The majority of physiological changes associated with potentially painful stimuli are mediated by the sympathetic nervous system

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Stimuli that are considered painful in humans have been shown to induce similar physiological and behavioural changes in other nonhuman mammals. The majority of physiological changes associated with potentially painful stimuli are mediated by the sympathetic nervous system

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https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/63d0/f5d6272d1e376b6f4ce819b01814e599f6f7.pdf

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Frogs possess pain receptors and pathways that support processing and perception of noxious stimuli however the level of organization is less well structured compared to mammals.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/23615302/

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Frogs can feel pain but have less organised structures compared to mammals. 

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Frogs can feel pain but have less organised structures compared to mammals. 

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/23615302/