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The Comanche and Apache were similar in their religious beliefs and the idea that natural objects and animals had powers and sports.

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Dillon and Avi

Religious Beliefs

Sioux Religion embraced Shamanism and polytheism. They believed that all animals, plants, and humans came from Mother Earth. The Great Spirit manifested all things and had help from spirits called wakanpi, and holy men and women in the tribe were the only ones who could communicate with them.

Traditional Homeland

Sioux were usually Nomadic people. In general, Sioux moved around a lot usually following buffalo guaranteeing food for the tribe.

Gender Roles

Sioux men were usually free to do whatever job they were good at. Sioux believed that a person should partake in a position where a person can be successful. Women, on the other hand, had the roles of hunter-gathers and caretakers of children. Women were confined to the jobs of maintaining a camp and doing the necessary jobs to sustain the functionality of a camp.

Economic Traditions

The Sioux traded with other tribes from the great plains, most commonly the Arikara tribe. They would trade buffalo hides and meat in exchange for corn.

Traditional Enemies

Sioux had deep tension with pursuing whites. Many time white settlers tried waged war against the Sioux as there was a belief that gold was in their land.

Important Leaders

Chief Red Cloud

Sitting Bull

Interactions with the Federal Government (Treaties) / US Army (Conflicts)

Display in chronological order (a timeline)

First Fort Laramie Treaty was signed between Sioux and US government creating land rights and attempted to create peace between white miners traveling to California for the Gold Rush and the Sioux people.

1800

Sioux Nation resides in the northern part of the Great Plains.

1803

This was the time of the Louisiana Purchase leading to a dramatic decrease in the buffalo population, hurting the Lakota way of life.

1866-68

Red Cloud lead a winning push during the Bozeman Trail

1868

The Great Sioux Reservation is established which included most of South Dakota west of the Missouri River.

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Tribe |
Cheyenne
Religious Beliefs |
The Cheyenne believed the world was divided into seven major levels. According to the Cheyenne, Ma'heo'o was the creator of all physical and spiritual life, including spirit-beings that took both plant and animal form. Their most sacred objects were the four sacred arrows. Ceremonies were conducted by individuals with access to the spiritual world, such as medicine men, priests, and shamans, and symbolized hope, renewal, and survival, among other aspirations. Key ceremonies included the Animal Dance, Arrow Renewal, and Sun Dance, which even today, remain sacred and private

Traditional Homeland |
The Great Plains, specifically South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska, Colorado, and Kansas.

Gender Roles |
Men are the providers of food and protection. They have the responsibility to protect the family from other tribal attacks and/or animals (warrior image) and to hunt. Another role of the men is to teach their sons how to hunt, fish and use weapons. Men are also involved with politics of the family and the tribes. Men also introduce their children into religion.
Females clean, cook, and tend to the children. Women are also in charge of the homemaking and building tipis and caring for the animals.

Economic Traditions | the Cheyenne traded horses, dried bison meat, and decorated robes, shirts, and leather pouches with the Missouri River tribes. In exchange, the Cheyenne obtained European items such as guns, powder, and foodstuffs as well as native maize and tobacco. By 1830, they had become involved in the bison robe trade with Europeans, which ended in the 1880s, leading to complete Economic dependency on the U.S. government.

Traditional Enemies |
The Crow and later the US army.

Important Leaders | Black Kettle- Sand Creek Massacre (tribe in Sand Creek, Colorado attacked by Colorado militia) Dull Knife- present in the Custer Massacre

Interactions with the Federal Government (Treaties) / US Army (Conflicts)
Display in chronological order (a timeline) | July 6, 1825- Treaty declaring peace between the tribe and the USA
February 15, 1861- The Arapaho and Cheyenne Confederation agreed to cede all land claimed by them in the present states of Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska and Wyoming, except one reserved tract, which would be called the “Reservation of the Arapahoes and Cheyennes of the Upper Arkansas.”
Sand Creek Massacre, occurring on November 29, 1864, was one of the most infamous incidents of the Indian Wars. Initially reported in the press as a victory against a bravely fought defense by the Cheyenne, later eyewitness testimony conflicted with these reports, resulting in a military and two Congressional investigations into the events.

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Religious Beliefs: Individualistic (not many priests), belief in a creator, and thought the Sun, Moon and Earth as deities. Believed natural objects and animal spirits had powers.

Traditional Homeland: The Southern Great Plains

Gender Roles: Males were hunters and fighters, while women did household chores

Economic Traditions: Buffalo products were the backbone of their economy, manufactured goods like water pouches, tepee covers, and sinews made of buffalo.

Traditional Enemies: Apache, US govt, Spanish, Mexicans (who influenced the Shawnee and Cherokee to fight them)

Important Leaders: Quanah Parker

Interactions with the Federal Government (Treaties) / US Army (Conflicts)
Display in chronological order (a timeline): Signed a treaty with the US in 1865, this gave the Comanche Western Oklahoma. however, the US impeded on this treaty and conflict resurfaced.
The 1867 Treaty of Medicine Lodge Creek was the last treaty with the US government, established a reservation in Oklahoma for the Kiowa, Kiowa Apache and Comanche
Red River War occurred in 1874. The US Army’s goal was to drive Comanche into their reservation (because they were refusing to go and trying to plot against the US government).

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Jake and Marykate

Religious Beliefs |
The belief that dreams and visions gave individuals supernatural power in war, hunting, and healing. Also participated in the sun dance.

Traditional Homeland | Southwestern Oklahoma has distinctive markings by the tribe, both visible and invisible

Gender Roles | Men- Hunt, participate in religious ceremonies and warfare/ fightingWomen- gather herbs, cooking, mending clothing, caring for children, responsible for dogs and preparing for travel

Economic Traditions |
The Kiowa celebrate powwows and consider them sacred because it is integral to the Kiowa Identity. One of the most popular, was the Sun Dance, held once a year, usually in the summer. They would stare into the sun and dance facing the Tai-me image, the dancers raised themselves up and down on their toes in time with the music, flexing their knees and holding their arms out and raised upwards.

Traditional Enemies | Cheyenne, Arapaho, Navajo, and occasionally Lakota, Osage.
Kiowa warriors attained rank according to their exploits in war, including killing an enemy or touching his body during combat.

Important Leaders | Dohasan, Lone Wolf, Sleeping Wolf, Satana, Setangya

Interactions with the Federal Government (Treaties) / US Army (Conflicts)
Display in chronological order (a timeline) |
They signed a treaty with the United States of America calling for peace and giving the tribe hunting rights in the southwest prairies.
During the Era of Extermination, in 1850s,  Kit Carson and a group of texas rangers attacked the Kiowa.

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Tribe | Crow

Religious Beliefs | The Crow believed in Animism.  Every animal and thing had a soul.  They believed in Manitou, the Great Spirit, as did many other Great Plains tribes.

Traditional Homeland | Yellowstone River Valley, in Wyoming, Montana, and North Dakota

Gender Roles | Men would grow their hair out indefinitely and so it would grow to touch the ground under them.Women had to make most of the clothes for the tribe.

Economic Traditions | They have a largely untapped source of coal under the eastern part of the reservation, which now has a mine providing royalties and jobs to their peopleThey have a buffalo herd of 300 people They use some of their farmland and grazing lands but not all of it

Traditional Enemies | Got into conflicts with the Blackfoot Confederacy and the Sioux (Lakota) often in the 19th centuryEuropean immigrants challenged them for land

Important Leaders | White Temple (aka Iron Bull) was second in chief in the mid 1800sAlvin Not Afraid, Jr. (Present day)

Interactions with the Federal Government (Treaties) / US Army (Conflicts)
Display in chronological order (a timeline) | 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie put the Crow on a reservation and they agreed to remain peaceful with the US government and other native American tribes1882: By now, the Crow had been further reduced in land and the redistribution of land to individual members of the corw1887 Dawes Act attempted to split up the reservations and push the natives into American culture and society

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Religious Beliefs | According to the Apache one’s ancestors are guiding forces that live among people in the form of natural structures, such as rocks and trees. Dances were used in order to communicate with the spirits in attempt to deal, call for rain and celebrate the puberty of women. The Apache believed their Creator to be called Ussen, a figure who they would call upon for guidance. Ussen was said to have created Earth in four days, a number that was sacred.

Traditional Homeland | The Apache originally lived in Arizona and Colorado before they were forced to move to the plains.

Gender Roles | The men in the tribes were the warriors and hunters. Women took care of children and the house. At a young age boys and girls were taught the same skills in case there was a reason for them adapt to changes in their way of life.

Economic Traditions | Apaches traded with some of the surrounding tribes for a variety of items. Individual handicrafts are still occasionally traded to local stores or sold to dealers, but for the most part the economic system on the reservations is part of the larger American cash economy.

Traditional Enemies | They fought a war called the Apache wars against the United States. They also fought with the Comanche and Navajo tribes.

Important Leaders | Chief Cochise, Warrior Woman Dahteste, Geronimo, Warrior Woman Lozen, Chief Mangas Coloradas, and Chief Victorio

Interactions with the Federal Government (Treaties) / US Army (Conflicts)
Display in chronological order (a timeline) | During the Mexican War in 1846, the United States subjugated the Apaches, making many prisoners of war and shipping many to Florida then Alabama and finally to Oklahoma.
1863—Mangas Coloradas, a chief of the Mimbreno band of Apaches, was lured into a parley and killed 1867-- “Medicine Lodge” treaty, giving Apaches (and other tribes) land in western Oklahoma 1869—Congress created a Board of Indian Commissioners, who would, along with Dept. of Interior,monitor the allotment of land to the Indians, which clearly demonstrated disillusionment with the BIA. Vincent Coyler, the secretary of the Board, and a Quaker, visited the Apaches and wrote back to Washington DC that they actually wanted peace, but were only offered war.1870—President Grant's Peace Policypromoted moving American Indians onto reservations invited many Indian chiefs to Washington, D.C.Allowed religious organizations to nominate regional directors of Indian affairs (instead of allowing generals to do the job) April 30, 1871—Camp Grant Massacre 1872—Cochise surrendered and sent to reservation 1886—Geronimo surrendered, ending the Apache Wars 1887—Dawes Act divided Indian land on the reservations into individual plots (160 acres to a head of family, less to other individuals), which could not be sold for 25 years. However, from 1887 to 1934 (when the act expired), American Indian land claims shrunk from 130 million acres, to 44 million acres. Land not deemed needed by individual Indians was sold to white settlers.1934—Dawes Act terminated, at the recommendation of a federal commission that detailed many problems with it, including depriving Native Americans of their land.

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Tribe: Blackfoot

Religious Beliefs: Led by chiefs and periodically observes the “Sun Dance” every summer for eight days to worship their “creator.

Traditional Homeland:

Northwestern Plains

Migrated from the Great Lakes area to the west

Montana and Alberta, Canada

Gender Roles: Women made clothing, wore deerskin, and earrings and would dye their hair red if needed to be impregnated.

Economic Traditions:
- Hunted buffalo and traveled in groups.
- Switched to farming as the buffalo population diminished

Traditional Enemies:

Neighboring tribes

People that got in their way

Important Leaders: Mountain Chief (Ninna-stako) and Chief Heavy Runner

Interactions with the Federal Government (Treaties) / US Army (Conflicts):

Considered fur trappers to be poachers and prevented them from getting beavers in their territory

Signed treaty with America in 1855 but refused to take up farming and continued to hunt

In 1870 the Marias Massacre took place where American soldiers killed many Piegan Indians apart of the Blackfoot Confederacy

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Religious Beliefs | Based on Animism, which held the idea that the universe and all natural objects have souls and spirits.Arapaho believed the Great Spirit, Manitou.

Traditional Homeland | Eastern plains of Colorado and Wyoming, Nebraska, Kansas

Gender Roles | The women took care of the home. They built the tipis, which were the main form of living arrangements for the Arapaho. Men were the primary hunters of the tribe. Buffalo was their main food source.

Economic Traditions | The Arapaho tribe was based on subsistence. Since hunting was what they were known for, the Arapaho focused on trade goods and rations as the basis of their economy.

Traditional Enemies | The Utes and Eastern Shoshone to the West, The Crow to the North The Pawnee in the East, and the Southern tribes along the Arkansas River such as the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache. The Arapaho tribe would have war parties raid the neighboring tribes.

Important Leaders | Chief Left Hand, Young Crow, Black Kettle, Little Raven

Interactions with the Federal Government (Treaties) / US Army (Conflicts)
Display in chronological order (a timeline) |
November 29, 1864, 130 Arapaho natives were killed during a sneak attack from the Colorado militia. Chief Left Hand was killed, but most of the natives that were killed were women and children. Little Raven led the remaining Arapaho away and later joined the Cheyanne in 1865 for a full-scale assault on the Euro-Americans. The Southern Arapaho wanted to separate themselves from the Cheyanne and the Northern Arapaho as they would accept the treaty for peace and would also accept a reservation that was on the Arkansas River. They found the land unfit so a reservation for the Arapaho and the Cheyanne would be created from an executive signed by Ulysses S. Grant in present-day Oklahoma along the Canadian river in 1869.

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Tribe | Pawnee

Religious Beliefs | They believed some of the stars to be gods and performed rituals to entreat their presence, and they also used astronomy in practical affairs (e.g., to determine when to plant corn). Corn was regarded as a symbolic mother through whom the sun god, Shakuru, bestowed his blessing. Other important deities were the morning and evening stars and Tirawa, the supreme power who created all these. For a time, Pawnee religion included the sacrifice of a captive adolescent girl to the morning star, but this practice ended in the 19th century.

Traditional Homeland | Nebraska and Kansas

Gender Roles | Pawnee men were hunters. Pawnee women were farmers and also did most of the child care and cooking. Only men became Pawnee chiefs, but both genders took part in storytelling, artwork and music, and traditional medicine.

Economic Traditions | They relied mainly on hunting and farming. Before the 1800’s, the Pawnee mainly farmed for food until they discovered horses and used them for buffalo hunting. The pawnee mainly grew maize, squash, beans, and pumpkins. They remained mostly agriculture people due to them knowing a lot of about drought season, and proper techniques to farm. They would apparently go on 2 big bison hunts each year and that would be about all the hunting they would do.

Traditional Enemies | Mainly amongst the other Plains Tribes including Cheyennes, Arapahos, Delawares, Sioux, Comanches, Apaches, and the Kiowas.
Important Leaders |
Man Chief                Brings HerdsCrooked Hand          Struck with a TomahawkEagle Chief               Rattlesnake
Interactions with the Federal Government (Treaties) / US Army (Conflicts)
Display in chronological order (a timeline) | Relations between the Pawnee and settlers were peaceful, and many Pawnee individuals served as scouts in the U.S. Army of the Frontier. The Pawnees probably served most famously in battalions under Frank J. and Luther North from 1865 to 1877. Pawnee have served in various branches of the U.S. military and in each of the country’s conflicts since the Plains Wars of the 19th century. The Pawnee ceded most of their land in Nebraska to the U.S. government by treaties in 1833, 1848, and 1857. In 1876 their last Nebraska holdings were given up, and they were moved to Oklahoma, where they remained.

1818: Treaties with the US were signed in June 1818 by all the Pawnee bands
1861-1865: The Pawnee held positions as scouts in the U. S. Army during the Civil War. A battalion of Pawnee being in active service.
1873: The Pawnee Dispersal (1873 - 1878). The Pawnees removed from homeland along the Platte River in Nebraska to a reservation in Indian Territory near the Cimarron River (Pawnee County, Oklahoma)
1900: Christianity had replaced the Pawnee’s older religion and smallpox, cholera, warfare and devastating reservation conditions had reduced their number to only about 600.
1964: Awarded the Pawnee Nation $7,316,096.55 for undervalued ceded land from the previous century.

Sources:

https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/bmp52

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pawnee-people

https://www.pawneenation.org/page/home/pawnee-history

https://www.warpaths2peacepipes.com/indian-tribes/pawnee-tribe.htm

https://www.legendsofamerica.com/na-pawnee/