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Action Research Question:  What oral communicative instructional practices best impact novice level second language learners?

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Action Research Question:  What oral communicative instructional practices best impact novice level second language learners?

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INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

ORAL LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY

MEANINGFUL TASKS

TECHNOLOGICAL SUPPORT FOR SPEECH PRODUCTION AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

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ASSESSING ORAL LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY

Meador, D. (2018). How depth of knowledge drives learning and assessment. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/how-depth-of-knowledge-drives-learning-and-assessment-3194253

With all classroom instruction,  the teacher must assess what students have learned--what they know, understand, and can do with the information that they have been taught and/or practiced.  While assessments may take various forms (i.e. tests, performance tasks, projects with rubrics, and even informal checks for understanding), depth of knowledge questioning and incorporation into lessons and tasks are also important to improve critical thinking skills.

"Depth of Knowledge—also referred to as DOK— refers to the depth of understanding required to answer or explain an assessment-related item or a classroom activity. Learning and assessment should include a diversified set of tasks requiring students to exhibit a range of problem-solving skills within each level of complexity.

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HESS WORLD LANGUAGE COGNITIVE RIGOR MATRIX

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HESS WORLD LANGUAGE COGNITIVE RIGOR MATRIX

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This link shows a detailed communicative rubric for world language learners, based on  Depth of Knowledge descriptors.

http://resources.corwin.com/sites/default/files/tool_5c_1.pdf

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MEANINGFUL TASKS VIA COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT

Hamsa, T.  (2016, January 28).

Stephen krashen: Language acquisition and comprehensible input [Video file]. Retrieved from

https://youtu.be/fnUc_W3xE1w

The video is an excerpt from Stephen Krashen's explanation of his language acquisition theory of comprehensible input.  He reduces the reliance on grammar instruction, drills, and computerized lessons for more meaningful exchanges in the target language.  He emphasizes the importance of stimulating the affective domain in order to eliminate barriers between the novice learner and target language acquisition and production.  He stresses that students will acquire the language if they are motivated, have positive self-esteem, and low anxiety in the the learning process.  He emphasizes that "talking is not practicing."  Input and interaction are critical foundations for the gradual emergence of authentic oral production in learners.

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Interpersonal Communication and Meaningful Tasks

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Interpersonal Communication and Meaningful Tasks

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Guzmán-Alcón, I. (2019). Investigating the application of communicative language teaching principles in primary-education and foreign language classrooms. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1202174

Guzmán Alcon compares both Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) methods of teaching second languages.  Despite the age, both are used in world language instructional settings.  CLT is more commonly used in multilingual school settings, whereas CLIL is more often used in monolingual classrooms.  Corrective feedback was more common in the CLT, giving students more opportunities to get explanations for linguistic errors.  CLIL focused primarily on completing the tasks, with little attention to the language errors in practice, by recasting or eliciting corrections via questioning.  Neither method of instruction was deemed "better" than the other, but teachers are encouraged to further explore both strategies and, perhaps find a way to merge both into the classroom.

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Ramírez Ortíz, S. M & Artunduaga Cuéllar, M. T. (2018).  Authentic tasks to foster oral production among english as foreign language learners. HOW v. 25(1), pp. 51-68.  Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1166174.pdf

Though the authors look at English as a foreign language, the parallel implications are unmistakeable in connection to the teaching of world languages to non-native speakers.  The authors suggest that greater motivation is the direct result of learners having a say in the communicative tasks assigned.  Learners showed the most engagement "in tasks related to sharing personal experiences, talking about their likes
and interests, and planning or creating something."  Two immediate challenges for teachers are planning for a variety of interpersonal tasks, based on students' interests, in alignment with curriculum requirements, as well as choosing or developing instruments that assess students' growth in communicative skills and language control.

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Interpersonal Communication

Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Rothenberg, C. (2008). Content-area conversations. Retrieved from
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/108035/chapters/Why-Talk-Is-Important-in-Classrooms.aspx

The parallels between students of English as a second or foreign language and those who are learning Spanish (or other world language) are evident.  High expectations and modeling from the teacher are critical, but valuable time must be given to oral discourse in the classroom.  Students may have no other examples outside of the classroom for language reinforcement, so the teacher is tasked with planning meaningful communicative tasks that allow students to practice vocabulary that is intertwined with supporting reading and writing literacy. Identifying students' level of oral proficiency also is important for instructional planning--differentiating tasks and groupings can impact motivation for using the target language for communicative tasks.

"If students aren't using the words, they aren't developing academic discourse. As a result, we often think we've done a remarkable job teaching students and then wonder why they aren't learning."  Additionally,  teachers must remember that "oral language is the foundation of literacy, and as such, it requires focused attention in planning [for] the ratio of teacher to student talk doesn't just happen [but] it occurs through both believing in the importance of student talk and planning with a clear purpose and expectations."

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Liu, Y. C. (2016, July-December).  Cultural collision: The interference of first language cultural identity on pragmatic competence of the target language.  GIST Education and Learning Research Journal (10), pp. 131-147.  Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/? q=Spanish+Communication&ft=on&id=EJ1123938
Learners come to the world language classroom with a complete language intact as well as cultural nuances that affect, or interfere, with second language acquisition, depending on the sociocultural distance.  She compiles the results of interviews of learners who are transitioning to Colombia, and share their challenges to improve "intercultural communicative competence," or ICC. Sample cultural "clashes" include, everyday greetings, addressing people appropriately, depending on social distance, use of terms of endearment, and different ways of sharing thank yous for services rendered in the public arena.  Ultimately, Liu believes that "it is essential to incorporate pragmatics in knowledge of the foreign language curriculum to make the foreign culture less threatening and more accessible to the language learner."

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Ridge, E. (2014). Communicative language teaching: Time for review?. Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus, 21. doi:https://doi.org/10.5842/21-0-533

Ridge (2014) states "a key guiding principle would
be that the goal of language teaching should be kept firmly
in mind and that methods or techniques should be less
important than the learning goal of being able to use the
language effectively."

The challenge to the instructor is   to ensure clarity for students as to what constitutes "effective" communication--a foundational combination of oral production, grammar, and contextual accuracy of speech production in interactive situations that serve a real-world based purpose for students.

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Oral Language Proficiency Strengthening via Interpersonal Communication

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Oral Language Proficiency Strengthening via Interpersonal Communication

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Alamri, W. A. (2018). Communicative language teaching: Possible alternative approaches to clt and teaching contexts. English Language Teaching, v11 (n10), pp132-138. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?q=communicative+language+teaching&id=EJ1192263

The debate continues on the effectiveness of communicative language teaching versus a more grammatical focus.  Alamri (2018) believes that "whenever a
teaching or learning approach or method focuses on a specific aspect at the expense of others, an area of imperfection results.  Context should be as important as communication in teaching and learning processes."

Both interactive and communicative opportunities via CLT (including  interviews, information gap exercises, TPR-Total Physical Response, role-play, student-generated videos, group tasks, and the like) need teacher input and feedback on the grammatical structures necessary for effective oral interpersonal communication.

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Oral Language Proficiency                      

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Oral Language Proficiency                      

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Mejía, G. (2014). A case study of anxiety in the spanish classroom in australia. Journal of

University Teaching and Learning Practice, 11(3).  Retrieved from  https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1048879.pdf

The study looks at common causes and effects of anxiety on Spanish learners, which threaten to stunt progression in oral speech production. Students are "aware of making mistakes and of being judged or evaluated by
those who consider themselves more knowledgeable," engendering anxiety.  Factors that reduced the stress included: the teacher's creating a positive learning environment, being open to conversational practice outside of class, use of smaller class sizes, and choices in oral presentations (p.7). Reciprocal respect for the teaching and learning process fostered students' efforts.

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This webinar discusses the challenges teachers face when working with reluctant learners in the classroom.  The reality is not that students are not lazy or cannot learn. They need bridges to overcome barriers and connect their "currencies" (a combination of knowledge and skills) with those of their teachers, where both parties reciprocally value and can understand the work required in the learning process.

"Our job is to make communication tasks engaging, reality-based, and answer the question 'How can I use this?'"

"Authentic communications involve a true exchange of information [and] the communicators have a shared sense of the context of their interaction."

Jackson, R.  (2011, September 22). How to motivate reluctant learners. [Webinar]. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/professional-development/webinars/how-to-motivate-reluctant-learners.aspx

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ASCD Webinars - How to Motivate Reluctant Learners

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Pearson, L. (2006). Patterns of development in spanish l2 pragmatic acquisition: An analysis of novice learners' production of directives. The Modern Language Journal, 90(4), 473-495. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4127038.

The author investigates the influence of pragmatic L1 (first language) functions on the production of L2 (second language) acquisition, that empower students of another language with real-world connections versus an emphasis on grammatical aspects of learning  a second language.

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Language Acquisition

Rocío, S. A. (2015). The importance of teaching listening and speaking skills. (Master's Thesis, Universidad Cumpletense, Madrid, Spain). Retrieved from https://www.ucm.es/data/cont/docs/119-2015-03-17-12.RocioSeguraAlonso2013.pdf

The research takes an indepth look at the relationship between listening and speaking skills instruction to English learners in Spain.  Acquiring a second language of any kind is a challenge that necessitates a range of strategies (including songs, interpersonal activities, and exposure to a variety of native speakers using the target language for different purposes) to increase engagement of students in instruction that is often regarded as very uncomfortable, even if necessary.

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Willis, S. (1996). Foreign languages:  Learning to communicate in the real world. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/curriculum-update/winter1996/Foreign-Languages.aspx
"Over the past 15 years, researchers have been examining how students build competence in a second language, [Christine] Brown says. Researchers have found that the study of grammar alone, through rote dialogues and drills, is not the best way to develop proficiency. When students are given opportunities to use the language in meaningful contexts, they develop proficiency faster—and are more eager learners."
Further, "the standards emphasize that communication should be the organizing principle for foreign language study."

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Technological Support for Second Language Acquisition

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Technological Support for Second Language Acquisition

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Lord, G. (2015). "I don't know how to use words in spanish": Rosetta stone" and learner proficiency outcomes. The Modern Language Journal, 99(2), 401-405. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/43650036

The article compared the proficiency results of three different groups of students who, respectively, 1) experienced exclusive learning via Rosetta Stone, a very popular (yet expensive) second language software program, 2) used texts and accompanying listening and speaking software with lessons, and 3) and blended learning instruction with Rosetta Stone combined.  The oral proficiency test results were strikingly similar among the three groups, with one major difference:  the groups who had "live" interactions used more Spanish in their interview assessments than the isolated Rosetta Stone students, even to ask for help or repetition.

Lord deduces that "the classroom learning experience ends up being a great deal more than the sum of its parts and it is an experience that simply cannot be replicated in isolation."

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Technology and Second Language Acquisition

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Technology and Second Language Acquisition

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Allen, R. (2004). Technologies broaden students' language horizons. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/curriculum-update/fall2004/Versatile-Technologies-Broaden-Students'-Language-Horizons.aspx

"Technology offers hope that all students will learn foreign languages in an era of tight school budgets and a dearth of language teachers. But technology also offers a wide range of applications and opportunities for authentic experiences of communicating in other languages or appreciating other cultures."

One well-reviewed site for interactive communication support (with a free trial) is https://www.rocketlanguages.com/spanish/premium.  Students hear native speakers walk them through scaffolded lessons, beginning at the novice level, where they can listen, record their own voices to refine and assess their pronunciations, and to respond to questions on audio dialogues.  Akin to language labs of old, the lessons "grow" with the novice speakers as they advance in more complex vocabulary and dialogue.

Another interactive Spanish site, https://www.123teachme.com/learn_spanish/novice_dialogues_low_index also offers free, novice-level Spanish lessons, where students can self-assess and track their own progress in listening, speaking, and recording written responses to audio prompts. With careful planning, these lessons can be incorporated into the "brick and mortar" classrooms to engage 21st century learners with technological support.

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Vesselinov, R. (2012).  Duolingo effectiveness study. Retrieved from http://static.duolingo.com/s3/DuolingoReport_Final.pdf

This extensive study looked at overall effectiveness of Duolingo software for students of Spanish, in preparation for college-level language skills.  The results included the strongest impact on the Spanish WebCAPE (Computer-Adaptive Placement Exam) for those who were novice learners, having little to no prior knowledge of Spanish, and those wanted to use Spanish for travel purposes.

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REMINDER:  "THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE [CAN BE] USED TO DESCRIBE THE WRITTEN COMPONENT OF A RESEARCH PLAN OR REPORT THAT DISCUSSES THE REVIEWED DOCUMENTS [INCLUDING] ARTICLES, ABSTRACTS, REVIEWS, MONOGRAPHS, DISSERTATIONS, BOOKS, OTHER RESEARCH REPORTS, AND ELECTRONIC MEDIA EFFORTS" (MILLS, 2018, P. 71)

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REMINDER:  "THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE [CAN BE] USED TO DESCRIBE THE WRITTEN COMPONENT OF A RESEARCH PLAN OR REPORT THAT DISCUSSES THE REVIEWED DOCUMENTS [INCLUDING] ARTICLES, ABSTRACTS, REVIEWS, MONOGRAPHS, DISSERTATIONS, BOOKS, OTHER RESEARCH REPORTS, AND ELECTRONIC MEDIA EFFORTS" (MILLS, 2018, P. 71)

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Mills, G. (2018). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher (6th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.

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REMINDER:  "THE MAJOR PURPOSE OF REVIEWING THE LITERATURE IS TO DETERMINE WHAT HAS ALREADY BEEN DONE THAT RELATES TO YOUR TOPIC" (MILLS, 2018, P. 71)

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REMINDER:  "THE MAJOR PURPOSE OF REVIEWING THE LITERATURE IS TO DETERMINE WHAT HAS ALREADY BEEN DONE THAT RELATES TO YOUR TOPIC" (MILLS, 2018, P. 71)

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REMINDER:  "DO NOT BE DISHEARTENED IF YOUR REVIEW OF LITERATURE FAILS TO PROVIDE YOU WITH HELPFUL INSIGHTS (MILLS, 2018, P. 71)

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REMINDER:  "DO NOT BE DISHEARTENED IF YOUR REVIEW OF LITERATURE FAILS TO PROVIDE YOU WITH HELPFUL INSIGHTS (MILLS, 2018, P. 71)