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Stephen Krashen’s Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Theory

1. Comprehensible Input (CI) via listening and reading leads to development of language competence.

2. It is through the path of free voluntary reading (FVR) and listening (free from rule-based, pre-planned, formal instructions) best helps learners to acquire language skills.

3. Under low-anxiety contexts (Low Affective Filter) and through subconscious/intuitive and uninterrupted sustained (time-allowing) listening to or reading meaningful (understandable, relevant, experience-related) stories or knowledge (CI), learners develop language proficiency.

4. Four hypotheses of Krashen’s SLA theory:

Hyp1: Natural Order - subconscious, free from pre-planned, time-limited, formal instructions

Hyp2: Comprehensible/meaningful input (CI) - through listening or reading (instead of speaking and writing)

Hyp3: Self-monitoring ability in adjustment for language fluency

Hyp4: Affective filter  - also a key factor impacting the acquisition outcome Comprehensive

Sources

Citizens TESOL Module 1 Chapter 8 Second Language Acquisition;

YouTube - Stephen Krashen on Language Acquisition, by Mark Rounds, OCt 15, 2010

YouTube - Stephen Krashen Webinar, June 30, 2022

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I found Stephen Krashen's work to be intriguing as I pondered his ideas in light of my own language learning journey.

My L1 is English and my first word was banana. I was under a year old and could not say banana correctly, it came out more like "Nana! Nana!" That did not matter. My mom knew exactly what I was asking for and my burgeoning language skills of one word got me what I wanted. Krashen believes that language is best learned in a low anxiety atmosphere, such as in the kitchen with my mom, and that it should contain messages students really want to hear and know. If you're hungry, then knowing food words becomes something of high importance!

My L2 learning experiences have been different and sometimes problematic. In high school I took French. I had an excellent instructor in Mr. Benedict, he made learning fun and his class was relaxed, but it was straight from a grammar textbook and there was a lot of rote memorization of vocabulary and verb forms. There was input, but not a lot of output. Krashen believes that input must be comprehensible and that adequate time must be given for L2 students to acquire language naturally, almost unconsciously. No one sat me down and formally taught me "banana", I just seemed to know from hearing it spoken in the home that banana was the name for that delectable fruit. I said "Nana," and my mom probably replied, "Oh, you would like a banana?" Not correcting me, but responding in the positive and using the correct form of the word, one that I eventually acquired. This little resembled those excruciating French exams I had to take periodically, ones that I crammed for and then immediately forgot the information in the following weeks.

The things that did stick years later were hilarious dialogues we memorized and role-played in class and songs that we learned, like the French national anthem "La Marseillaise" (that I can still sing 50 years later). These activities piqued my interest and were done in a relaxed atmosphere of collegiality with my classmates, activities that Krashen would champion.

My second L2 experience was with Spanish. I had one quarter of college level Spanish when I moved to Mexico to live for 6 months. My former mother-in-law owned a little corner store, a tiendita, and would leave me there for a few hours on my own. People were so friendly though! Krashen's "Affective Filter Hypothesis" that states that language is best learned when anxiety levels are low, came into play. Nothing was marked and no prices were listed, and customers came and asked for odd things of which I had no vocabulary, like agujas (needles). In this friendly manner I soon had a whole lot of new words added to my knowledge base. Customers would actually come behind the counter to show me what they wanted and so I learned. As Krashen believes that language acquisition should flow from a natural pace, be centered on key words and high frequency words, then my time in the little store was the perfect place to learn. There was a lot of laughter and teasing, it is a time I still treasure.

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Main points:

5 main hypotheses

The major differences between acquisition and learning

The Acquisition-learning Hypothesis:

Specific to adults

Broad hypothesis differentiating the acquisition from learning

Learning: the conscious process that results in "knowing about" the rules of the language

Acquisition: the Subconscious process identical in all important ways to the process children utilize in acquiring their first language

The application to the classroom:

Teachers should have acquisition based learning rather than learning activities for second language development

In acquisition there is less active learning and more emphasis on being immersed in the language

This helps learners in fluency and flow of speech

Learning activities center around learning rules of language with more focus on grammar and understanding how to break the rules

Overall, students are learning faster when they are given more comprehensible input rather than broken up in grammar lessons

Many children are able to be exposed to their first language and do not need grammar lessons but rather acquire the language subconsciously

Natural Order Hypothesis:

Learners are able to understand language in grammatical structures that are in a fixed and universal way.

There is predictability to the grammar rules and they are natural

Grammar forms should be acquired naturally

Learners will learn in a predictable sequence that be built in a way similar to first language acquisition

Input Hypothesis:

This hypothesis is specific to acquisition instead of learning.

Also called the Comprehensible Input theory

Students best acquire a language when they are exposed to input that is able to be known by the student and input that students may not known

Input specifically refers to reading or hearing the second language

Vygotsky's zone of proximal development gives more support to this theory

The student should do just beyond what they know in order to push themselves a new level of understanding.

There should be a good foundation that the student can build upon to understand more words

Students should be able to listen to meaningful messages from their teachers at the current ability and that just above it

This is also typically refereed to as the i+1 levels, as students learn just above what they currently know

Students should hear messages that are adjusted to the current ability instead of speaking at a extremely high level

Learners will also need moments to soak in the new language by just listening or watching words (subtitles, etc.)

The Monitor Hypothesis:

This theory discusses the relationship between acquisition and learning

In learning, there should be monitoring of language output in order to correct their own language

However, overly conscious monitoring from the student or teacher will also prevent developing fluency

The student is able to acquire grammar structures in a natural order but rules are not understood until later.

The student has then has conscious knowledge of grammar structures and is able to edit and self-monitor the oral or written language

Monitoring is the practical result of learned grammar

The role of monitoring should be a minor role to give normal speech a polished appearance

There is research suggesting there is difference in monitoring skills based on introverts and extroverts

Affective Filter Hypothesis

Affective variables play a facilitative but non-casual role in second-language acquisition.

Variables:

Motivation

Self-confidence

Anxiety

High motivation, self-confidence, and a good self-image with low-levels of anxiety are able to learn second languages easier

Argues for a mental filter that goes up when the student is experiencing anyone of these variables

The mental block impedes language acquisition

In the classroom, there must be an environment that allows students to make mistakes, therefore it is a low pressure environment to learn

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I also really enjoyed this video! I had a few takeaways that I wanted to share:

1. Students can actively be learning languages (even for years) but not be able to communicate very effectively. The two talked about Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis and how students need to be interested and engaged in the subjects being taught in the target language. For example, the two enjoy reading books in other languages. They had to begin with content like chapter readers and magazine articles to help gain the vocabulary needed to enjoy a full length novel.

2. Steve and Stephen also agree that students should not speak in their target language until they feel comfortable. Often students are anxious for language classes because they are being pushed to speak at a higher level than they are comfortable with. This causes frustration with both teacher and student. Instead, students should be able to listen and respond in their own time.

3. Accents when speaking another language are fine as long as all parties are still able to understand what is being said. Accents can be frustrating to try to “get rid of” because it is very difficult to fully remove them. The pair explained that accents are a form of belonging to a group-this way it is easy to tell who is a part of the group and who is not.

4. Fluency was another topic they touched on. Steve Kaufmann explained that to him, fluency meant that you could communicate comfortably with a native speaker by both speaking and listening. The two agreed that trying out languages and making mistakes is an essential part of the learning process. You can’t learn a language word become fluent if you wait until you speak perfectly and eloquently. That time will never come.

5. Stephen Krashen also noted that language learning is not all that different than it was in 1945. That is due to research papers being unwieldy for non-academics to understand and put into practice. These resources are also expensive. He encouraged authors and researchers to have open access so everyone can share the knowledge they have gained. Until this point, Stephen believes, nothing too drastic will change in language education. However, Steve talked about the many apps and online language tools available to people today.

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I prefer reading quotes to hearing them, so here's a website with a bunch of SLA quotes, many of which are from Krashen. They're titled differently, but the topics still roughly relate to Krashen's 5 main theories

1. acquisition-learning= acquisition

2. natural order= grammar

3. input= compelling input

4. monitor= output and correction

5. affective filter= attitude

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Krashen's theory of SLA constantly recalls a child naturally absorbing a language from those around them. But if we innately can acquire a language (like kids do), then that means we innately can instruct in a language (like the people around kids) and meet students where they are in their journey.

Just a little encouragement for those who not only are learning, but also teaching!

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Skinner: Behaviourism

Stimulus, Response, Reinforcement (S.R.R.) which leads to an Audiolingual teaching approach (drilling by asking a question [S], receiving an answer [R], and whether or not the student is praised [R]).

L₁ habits = L₂ errors

Learning over acquisition. Natural order and CI non-existant or highly manufactured. Focus on self-monitoring. Students with a retentive memory who can “parrot” better, may have higher motivation/lower stress from positive reinforcement, but otherwise not conducive to a low affective filter.

Conditioning responses like this always makes me think of Pavlov’s dogs. It can work sometimes, but it’s not always the most effective or ethical solution.

Chomsky: Cognitivism

Language acquisition is not only unconscious it’s so innately ingrained as to be automatic. All that’s required is input. Less structure, and more trial and error, because the exact “automatic” processes are unclear.

L₁ is a resource for learning L₂, and students create a kind of inter-language relating the two in their mind.

Acquisition based. The focus on innate understanding has similarities to natural order. Very input focused, but less concern with comprehension and more with any exposure. No need to self-monitor since errors will be corrected by continued input. Difficulties from less CI could lead to frustration and a higher affective filter.

Very focused on a kind of growth mindset, with some similarities to Krashen. Could be effective, but the more general nature makes it harder to apply

Hymes & Halliday: Social views of language

Everything is all about context and the big picture, not just words and grammar. Communicative competence does contain all the elements of language, but it’s more about grouping ideas and the context influencing the meaning.

Language is a useful resource for interacting with a society whether it’s L₁ or L₂.

Appreciates both learning and acquisition in the context of classroom or everyday life. Interactions (CI) may lead to some natural order and grammar patterns. Sets up for an average classroom with some self-monitoring and variable affective filter levels.

There’s so much going on it’s easy to lose sight of the words and grammar, which is what eventually you are here to learn.

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Everyone’s covered these 5 points excellently, so I’ll give a summary, and focus on contrasting the multiple SLA theories. Basically, Krashen is trying to replicate the environment children learn L₁ in and apply it to teaching L₂ to adults.

Acquisition-learning hypothesis:

Learning: conscious effort to retain/memorize grammar and vocabulary.

Acquisition: subconscious “absorption” of language flow by constant exposure.

Natural order hypothesis: No matter how it’s taught, we only build grammar in a set sequence. It shouldn’t be forced. The same natural order as children build grammar in L₁.

Input hypothesis: What you read and listen to in L₂ should be challenging, but still comprehensible. In other words, CI should be meaningful, but it can be simplified. Like parents speaking to their kids.

Monitor hypothesis: Learning mindsets can lead to self-monitoring that hinders free practice. Again, little kids communicate without proper grammar or tenses, but as they continue to listen and speak, then fluency and correct usage can develop naturally. (There is a limited time and a place for self-monitoring)

Affective filter hypothesis: People learn best when they are comfortable. High emotions and stress can lead to low motivation. The goal is a low affective filter, where there is self-confidence and low stress. You usually can’t make a kid talk when they’re experiencing a lot of any emotion, and you certainly can’t get them to listen.

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This was a very interesting assignment. I have shared my notes through a google drive. My notes were taken both from the text and Wikipedia.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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I really like the way Steve Kaufmann and Dr. Stephen Krashen discuss the process of Language Acquisition in this youtube video. Among other things, they explain that the intrinsic motivation to learning a language is such an important contributor to language acquisition and that the fear of making mistakes or the frustration someone experiences when the input is not comprehensible/relevant are inhibitors to language acquisition.

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Dr. Stephen Krashen, a Conversation About Language Acquisition

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Stephen Krashen agrees with Noam Chomsky on language acquisition being an unconscious process that happens naturally. Both agree that language is much more acquired than it is learned through behavioral modification (conditioning) as B.F. Skinner believes.

Chomsky states that students will learn a language as long as they are provided with input. But Krashen says that it’s not that easy. According to Krashen language acquisition depends on what kind of input is provided (Comprehensible Input Hypothesis) as well as the emotional state of the student (Affective Filter Hypothesis).
The input provided should be at the learners present level (or a little bit above) and relevant to the student. The learner should have as much time available as they need to try and understand the input. Not only time matters – the context in which the input is received is crucial to the students ability to retain and absorb the input. If the students are in a high-anxiety state their affective filter is high – they can’t receive the input effectively and they get insecure in interactions.

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The following are some of the takeaways and quotes from viewing additional videos and reading some lecture materials of Krashen.
"We acquire language in one way and only one way-  when we get comprehensible input in a low anxiety environment".
"We all acquire language in exactly the same way.  We acquire  language when we understand messages.  It is subconscious, automatic and inevitable."

In order for this 'input' to be effective/optimal,  it should have the following characteristics:
1) It is comprehensible (not every word has to be understood, just most)
2) It is very interesting or compelling (we temporarily forget it is in another language)
3) It is high quality  (rich in language, including new language students are ready for)
4) Quantity  (an abundance of opportunity for acquisition of language)

Krashen holds that this input must be provided in low anxiety contexts. Ideally, anxiety levels should be '0'.
"If the student isn't motivated, if self-esteem is low, if anxiety is high, if the student thinks the language class is a place where his weakness will be revealed then a block (affective filter)   goes up and  stops the comprehensible input and acquisition.

Krashen emphasizes acquisition- based activities  as opposed to learning activities such as rules/grammar.  He holds that grammatical sequencing is not necessary and may be harmful.
"If we give people messages that are interesting and comprehensible, grammar to a large extent takes care of itself."

In summary, the language class should provide a low stress environment with large quantities of compelling , comprehensible input . Krashen would particularly recommend quality comprehensible reading materials (such as graded readers) and story -telling , especially with visuals.

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The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Acquisition occurs when we are exposed to language naturally, without any explicit instruction. This process is similar to the way children learn their first language. On the other hand, learning occurs when we are taught rules and formal language structures through direct instruction. According to Krashen, the acquisition is a more effective way of learning a language, as it allows us to internalize the language subconsciously and use it naturally in everyday situations.

I have experienced this process and I think it's very accurate for me.

The Natural Order Hypothesis

According to this theory, some language structures are more basic and fundamental, and therefore easier to acquire, while others are more complex and difficult to master. This order is believed to be universal and applies to all language learners, regardless of their native language or the language they are learning. Krashen suggests that language instruction should follow this natural order and introduce structures in a way that is consistent with the way they are acquired in natural language acquisition.

The Input Hypothesis

According to Krashen, language learners need to receive enough comprehensible input to be able to acquire the language. He believes that language instruction should focus on providing learners with meaningful input that is relevant to their interests and needs. Krashen argues that conscious learning cannot be a substitute for unconscious acquisition and that the best way to acquire language is through extensive reading and listening.

The Monitor Hypothesis
According to Krashen, language learners who focus too much on conscious learning and grammar rules may become overly self-conscious and hesitant in their language production. Instead, he believes that language learners should focus on acquiring language naturally through exposure to comprehensible input. The monitor can be useful in language learning, but it should not be relied on as the primary source of language production.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis

He suggests that language acquisition is influenced by affective factors, such as motivation, self-confidence, anxiety, and stress. According to this theory, these affective factors can act as a filter that either facilitates or impedes language acquisition. When learners are highly motivated, confident, and relaxed, their affective filter is low, and they are more receptive to language input. In contrast, learners who are anxious, stressed, or lack self-confidence have a high affective filter, which impedes their language acquisition.

I can totally see the influence of these theories in our current education system because it includes different aspects of the learning process, and the acquisition, and learning process need to work along.

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I loved how you added your own personal experience with this theory. You have experienced the effectiveness regarding low-anxiety atmosphere in learning your L2. We can definitely take this into our own classrooms, emphasizing vocabulary and learning words over grammar and structure. I watched a video that Steve Kaufmann made talking about this very thing.
Good stuff! :)
On another note, I am glad that you have a 'family' where you feel comfortable and they make you feel comfortable making mistakes. That is so important.

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Stephen Krashen Notes

Linguist and educational researcher – had several hypotheses regarding SLA

Acquisition vs. Learning:

Acquisition- subconscious process, same as how children learn first language

Learning – conscious process – results in knowing about the rules of the language

Implications for classroom – teachers should shift from learning to acquisition -based activities

*focus is more on meaning and developing fluency

*communication should be spontaneous, not pre-planned

*learning activities, such as grammar rules only help to memorize

Krashen believed learning activities did not have much value

The Natural Order Hypothesis:

*Acquire grammar in a predictable order (natural order)

*acquisition happens irrespective of order taught

*errors are systematic

Krashen believed most frustration in the classroom come from lessons that force students to acquire grammar forms prematurely

*acquisition is subconscious and does not come from formal instruction

The Input Hypothesis:

*relates to acquisition

*language acquired is based on present level of competence: refined Chomsky’s theory stating that input must be comprehensible (CI)

*Input = language that students read or hear

*The new language introduced should only be slightly higher than already understood language

*Teacher teaches to students’ current level of understanding, also should allow time to absorb new language

The Monitor Hypothesis

*”Learning” involves monitoring language output –  alter/correct own language, Krashen believed too much of this could hinder learners from developing fluency

*Krashen felt this should be a minor role – gave three conditions for self-monitoring 1. Ample time, 2. Focus on form not meaning, and 3. Must know the rule

*implications for teachers – encourage students to only monitor on limited occasions

The Affective Filter Hypothesis:

*emotional state of student effects acquisition ability

*low-anxiety environments will foster the “low affective filter” avoiding blocks that are caused by emotional barriers.

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Stephen Krashen

SLA Hypotheses

Krashen developed multiple hypotheses related to second language acquisition.

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

Acquisition is a subconscious process identical to that of the process children use to acquire their first language

Learning is a conscious process of knowing about the rules of language

The AL Hypothesis has children focus on meaning and fluency in spontaneous rather than pre planned activities. Memorization and specific grammar rules have minimal value in language learning.

The Natural Order Hypothesis

Grammar is learned in a systematic or natural order. Regardless of the order in which these ideas are taught, they are learned in a predictable order. For instance, students will learn irregular past tense verbs prior to learning regular past tense verbs. The focus here is not a certain order but that it should be done in a way that is free from explicit instruction.

The Input Hypothesis

This hypothesis deals with the acquisition of language. The acquisition must be at a level that is understandable by the student but at the same time just above their current understanding. This will allow them to be challenged to acquire more language while being able to understand some of what is communicated. It will include some not previously seen ideas combined with others that the student is familiar with and able to comprehend.

The Monitor Hypothesis

This hypothesis carries with it the idea of self-monitoring. Self-monitoring is a time when the student is able to self correct language skills. He is careful to not allow too much time that it hinders the subconscious acquiring of the new language. He provides three conditions for this hypothesis which include sufficient time, a focus on form and knowledge of the rules.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis

This hypothesis focuses on the feelings and emotions that could become a barrier to language acquisition. Students have a filter of sorts based on these feelings that will either help or hinder their language learning

Overall, some of his hypotheses are more well received than others while some of them are quite radical.

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Monitor Hypothesis

*Limited conscious monitoring and should meet these three conditions: There must be enough time
The focus must be on form and not on meaning
Learners must know the rule
*Most of our ability to produce accurate speech in L2 comes through the process of subconscious acquisition, including a lot of reading

Affective Filter Hypothesis

*Emotional state can hinder learning-you want to create a "Low affective filter"
* Preconceptions about language can affect the filter, as well as anxiety, self-confidence, and motivation
*Students receive more input and interact with confidence in a "Low affective filter" state

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Natural Order Hypothesis

*We acquire language in a predictable order regardless of how we are taught
*Most of the frustration between teacher and learner is the result of attempts to force students to acquire grammar forms prematurely

Input Hypothesis

*Input must be comprehensible- CI comprehensible input
*Teachers should send meaningful messages which are pitched at the learner's current ability
*Students often need a "silent period" where emphasis is on listening and reading instead of speaking and writing.

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Acquisition Hypothesis

Acquisition: is a subconscious process identical in all important ways to the process children utilize in acquiring their first language

Learning: is a conscious process that results in "knowing about" the rules of language.

*teachers should shift from learning activities to acquisition based activities
*Krashen believes learning activities have minimal value
*Speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding.

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Acquisition vs. Learning

Acquisition:
-Implicit, subconscious
-Informal situations
-Uses grammatical "feel"
-Depends on the attitude
-Stable order of acquisition

Learning:
-Explicit, conscious
-Formal situations
-Uses grammatical rules
-Depends on aptitude
-Simple to complex order of learning

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I found this model very helpful when trying to understand Stephen Krashens Hypothosis

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Krashen came up with Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis. This explains that adults have two separate ways of refining their skills and knowledge in a second language. Krashen believes that using acquisition activities is the best way to go because it ends with the learners acquiring communication skills and linguistic mastery. The other side is learning activities. This is where learners focus on grammatical rules and helping to memorize rules and point out where the rules are broken.

Krashen believes that communication should be spontaneous and not pre-planned.

He believes people learn languages best by understanding “input” that is or just above their current level of understanding. He took Chomsky’s importance for input for babies learning languages and geared it towards SLA saying that the input must be comprehendible.

According to the natural order hypothesis we get grammatical items in a predictable order. Krashen believed that in grammar lessons the reason for the frustration teachers and students would experience is because the students are made to acquire grammar forms too soon. The conclusion we draw from this hypothesis is that acquisition is subconscious and shouldn’t be taught with set instruction.

Monitor hypothesis is where learners use their ability to monitor their new language through altering or correcting. Krashen believed that there could be too much conscious monitoring and that would affect the learner’s ability to develop fluency. He says monitoring should have a very small role in the process of acquiring communication skills.

He created the Affective Filter Hypothesis. This is when the learner’s emotions are considered to be an adjustable filter. Which means the learner’s emotions and attitudes affect the success that the learner can have in SLA. Negative feelings like lack of motivation, anxiety, and lack of self-confidence are like filters that can take away from language learning. Krashen is saying that it is important to have input that is able to be understood but to create an atmosphere that takes care of a low affective filter.

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Acquisition vs. Learning: Stephen Krashen

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Acquisition vs. Learning: Stephen Krashen

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Krashen believed that when learning a new language, acquisition was superior to learning.
Krashen's idea was supported with four hypothesis: Natural order, Input, Monitor, and Affective filter.
1. Natural order - Language is acquired through a natural order and difficulties arise when students are forced to acquire grammar prematurely. Acquisition is absent of formal instruction, but the order of language will naturally be acquired through acquisition.
2. Input - Input is the language the students see and hear. Comprehensible Input (CI) is language that the students already understand. The idea of the input hypothesis is to use the CI language combined with language that is at a level higher than the students learning level. This idea will allow the students to learn new language by acquisition.
3. Monitor - Learning involves monitoring our language output. Krashen believed that too much language monitoring hindered learners from developing fluency. Monitoring should be a minor practice, and teachers should encourage their students to limit their language monitoring to writing assignments. Language is best learned through the practice of acquisition.
4. Affective filter - The atmosphere of the classroom as a direct effect on the students learning. Krashen believed that students with high emotions had a lower comprehensible input received, and students with low emotions had a higher comprehensible input received.
The students emotional response to the teacher, materials, environment, and other factors have an impact on their process of learning.

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He believed that there were two ways in which a person learns a second language proficiently. He suggests that acquisition in which the learner is subconsciously gaining knowledge about the L2 is the best way to learn because it is more natural. This is the same way we became proficient in our mother language or L1. Learning is conscious and is the study of grammar and of the rules of how the language functions. Krashen strongly encourages that activities be based more on what he calls comprehensible input which is stimuli that is partly understood but contains new information. It is important that it has some words and structures or forms the student already knows in order that they can make connections to the words they do not know within their context. He believes there is a natural order for learning grammar rules and it doesn’t matter the order for which the student is taught, the student will learn in the order that is predictable according to scientific research. The Monitor Hypothesis describes the way a new language learner reviews his output and makes corrections to errors. However, he believes that too much conscious monitoring can impede language acquisition and developing fluency. He outlines three rules for proper self monitoring: enough time, focus on form and not on meaning, learners must know the rule. He recommends we limit this conscious monitoring to specific tasks such as writing. The learner’s emotional state during learning is very important, they will learn best in low anxiety settings and natural learning settings than in a very formal activity that is graded. He says a wall will block their learning if they feel anxious in that time.

I like to apply these to my own learning here in Bolivia. I am on edge around my team when I speak Spanish and I sometimes refrain from speaking because they constantly correct every word, grammar rule or accent mistake I make. It can be overwhelming sometimes and so I find myself more quiet around my “family” team. However, when I am at the doctor’s office, immigration, talking to a stranger etc. I do really well because my wall is down and I fearlessly make the mistakes without interruptions. I am increasing in fluency but I firmly felt that it was not from corrections (granted some are very helpful) but that it was when I could flow and in listening to others. I know the rules and I make mistakes with the rules which was super frustrating but now I understand as I get more fluent that it is simply the practice of using it and being constantly reminded of the rule stresses me out since I already know it.

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“Comprehensible Input” - key phrase

Overview:
- acquisition is a subconscious, intuitive process like that when acquiring L1
- learning is a conscious process knowing about the rules, seeing grammatical errors, etc
- shift to spontaneous communication rather than pre-planned
- belief that learning activities had less value in second language learning (SLL)
- natural order developed

Examples:
- acquisition is free from explicit formal instruction
- silent period to focus on listening/reading rather than speaking/writing
- occasional monitor of process to alter but over-monitoring leads to less fluency development (enough time, form not meaning, must know rule)
- teaching proficiency through reading and storytelling (TPRS)
- low affective filter (understanding emotions, feelings & attitudes in learning environment)

Possible Weaknesses:
- frustration believed to develop from attempts to acquire grammar forms prematurely

Possible Strengths:
- neuroplasticity development

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According to Krashen, there are certain things we all do in the same way. For example digesting food and the way we see things. He says that THE way of learning a new language is the same for everyone and that in order to acquire a new language, we need comprehensible input. This means that the information we receive in the target language meets our level, and a bit more. This is different to Chomsky's theory where it doesn't matter what the input is, as long as there is input. When the input is comprehensible we can subconsciously get familiar with the new language and learn.

There are different factors we need in a classroom to be able to have our students acquire the target language:
- Knowing the students proficiency level to have the correct comprehensible input for their level.
- Most errors are systematic and reflect their inner language.
- The emotional state of the person is like a wall between them and the teacher. If they feel uncomfortable or anxious, they are less likely to learn. If we as teachers make them feel safe, they might lower their wall and will be able to learn more.
- Spontaneity is better than just plain repetition and formal instructions.
- Start basis, just how children learn their native language and increase difficulty and complexity as students comprehension grows.

A tip for teaching using comprehensive input. Try to have visual aid like pictures or objects as you explain.

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Stephen Krashen understood that language learning has subconscious and conscious sides to it. Acquisition is the subconscious side where learning is subconsciously acquired through techniques presented by the teacher. Learning is the conscious process of practicing, knowing and applying the rules of the language.

His hypotheses included four parts: Natural order, input, monitor and effective filter. He gathered that in the natural way ideas are learned free from explicit, formal instruction. The input for students is relevant for their level and ability in the particular language. The teacher should propose ways to help the input be on a slightly higher level so learning occurs. It also includes a "silent period" to focus on listening and reading rather than speaking and writing. He also hypothesized that a student and teacher can monitor the growth by progressively altering or correcting, which comes with being aware of the students ability as well. Lastly, the atmosphere set by the teacher in the classroom makes a difference according to the effective filter. The right atmosphere can help with self-confidence, motivation and anxiety. It can lower the walls that emotionally prohibit learning for the student.

Stephen Krashen's approach is for adults but has many similarities to a child learning a language as their first language. The learning through grammar rules and structure is important and is needed for fluency, but it has minimal value compared to that gained through acquisition techniques exhibited by the teacher.

Comparatively theorists such as Skinner and Chomsky could be compatible with Krashen as a way for input to add to the atmosphere of the class, but Krashen gives more depth to the task and view of learning. Hymes and Halliday seem to be heavy on the Learning side and structured techniques which would contradict the process of what Krashen was hypothesizing for effective learning.

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Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

Acquisition — is a subconscious process. Focuses on meaning and fluency.

Learning — is a conscious process. Focuses on grammar and memorizing rules of language.

Acquisition activities have more value that learning activities when it comes to language learning

Natural Order Hypothesis
Certain grammar is learned before others no matter what the order taught is.

The Input Hypothesis
Input that the students receive either through hearing or reading should include words that the student already knows to help them comprehend. Should match the student's ability.

The Monitor Hypothesis
Learning involves monitoring our language output. Learners use their monitoring ability to alter or correct their emerging language. Krashen also believed that too much conscious monitoring hinders learners from developing fluency. Monitoring should only be encourage in special circumstances.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis
A learner's emotional state acts as a filter  that either helps or hinders their ability to process input for acquisition. As a teacher you want to facilitate a low affective filter which is created through a low anxiety atmosphere to help students acquire language better.

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 B.F. Skinner's theories and Stephen Krashen's theories

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 B.F. Skinner's theories and Stephen Krashen's theories

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Skinner's idea on language learning is that it happens as a result of habits learned while developing a first language that apply to any language introduced to the student. Predictable problems and errors found in first language acquisition are common in later languages and errors should be avoided. Behavioral modification, or conditioning, infer that habits and behavior is learned through positive reinforcement that encourages a particular behavior and negative reinforcement that discourages a particular behavior. By responding quickly with either reward or punishment, habits are made in one's thinking and actions. Knowledge is learned through stimulus (can be a question), response (can be an answer), and reinforcement (desired outcome achieved or not achieved).

AudioLingual teaching was developed from theories of behaviorism and includes constant questions followed by reinforcement.

B.F. Skinner and Stephen Krashen's theories on Second Language Acquisition (SLA) are very different.

B.F. Skinner's belief is that language acquisition is a result of habits learned through behavioral modification, while Stephen Krashen's belief is that language acquisition is intuitive and occurs through a natural, predictable process.
B.F. Skinner concluded that students need to have stimulus, response, and reinforcement to acquire language while Stephen Krashen concluded that students need to have comprehensible input (CI), little monitoring, and a low affective filter to acquire language.

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Stephen Krashen - Application and my thoughts

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Stephen Krashen - Application and my thoughts

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I agree with Krashen's hypotheses and see the benefit in welcoming students at their current comprehensible input (CI) level with the instructor going slightly beyond their current level, then increasing the CI to a higher level when needed, repeatedly raising the level using progressive acquisition until the goal in the target language is reached. This natural order seems very beneficial in the student being able to achieve the target language. I also support the goals of comprehensible input with a low affective filter and beneficial interaction between the student and teacher.

However, depending on the student's needs, it may be necessary for a teacher to not solely focus on the acquisition category and as a result remove all grammar rules and memorization in some situations. For example, when the student requires an in-depth understanding of specific language for specific tasks such as higher education or specialized employment requirements, learning based activities may also be necessary. In those cases, when the vocabulary and grammar needed must be precise and learned, it may be beneficial to use language monitoring and include both acquisition and learning techniques and activities to ensure proper use of correct rules and terminology.

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The Monitor Hypothesis:

Teachers and students need to only monitor language acquisition at limited times, including homework and planned speeches.
Target language instruction should be form focused and not meaning focused. Through comprehensible input with minimal self-monitoring, learners know the rules.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis:

Similar to an adjustable filter that allows some objects to pass freely through while blocking other objects, the emotions (mood, feelings, and attitudes) of the learner can allow input to freely pass from the teacher to the student or emotions can block input. The strength of the filter can be regulated by motivation, anxiety, and self-confidence.

Input necessary for acquisition of the target language can encounter something similar to a wall when high emotions result in a high wall that blocks input from a teacher. In order to remove the wall and have a filter where input flows freely, a low-anxiety context is required. The emotional response of the learner to the teacher, the environment, and the material used all must support the class goal. For acquisition, the goals of a target language class are to achieve comprehensible input with a low affective filter and confident student/teacher interaction.

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The Natural Order Hypothesis:

There is a natural order in acquiring grammar of a second language (L2). It is a natural process and predictable in structure. This order includes learning irregular past verbs, then regular past verbs. This order is not changed by the order things are taught in or presented. Grammar is acquired through this order, errors reflect inter-language and are systematic. Teachers and students encounter many problems in grammar acquisition when it is forced, pushed, and prematurely taught in a learning environment rather than acquired naturally. Target language acquisition should be free from formal instruction so it is not necessary that teaching materials follow a set sequence.

The Input Hypothesis:

Acquiring a target language requires that input be adjusted based on the student's comprehension. There must be comprehensible input (CI) given by a teacher that is able to be understood by the student through known language and also raised to a level slightly higher than the student's comprehension at the time by including language the student has not seen but can understand. The CI is not grammatically sequenced, not time restricted, and includes a listening and reading emphasis (also known as a silent period) rather than speaking and writing, resulting in the student acquiring their target language.

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Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

Means for internalizing (acquiring) a target language:

1) Acquisition
-Subconscious
-Intuitive

-Free from formal instruction
-How children learn a first language (L1)

2) Learning
-Conscious
-Aware of the learning process
-Forms language rules and uses memorization

Teachers using acquisition-based activities focus on spontaneous, unplanned communication, focusing on meaning and fluency for a target language.
In this method, learning activities, memorization, and grammar rules are not important.

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Here is a great video that goes deep into the process of language acquisition.

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How to acquire any language NOT learn it!

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Krashen believes that comprehensible input (CI) is the key driver in language acquisition.

He says that the idea of teaching grammar to children is unnecessary and with adults, while the basics can be helpful grammar should not be the emphasis of the lesson. The process by which we learn is more tied to listening and reading than it is to any deliberate study of the language.

There is an idea that by reading material that is a little bit too difficult for you, you will eventually acquire the language. It is not as simple as this as that would take far too long. However, reading along side a dictionary to understand the meaning of the words can deeper your understanding in the process.

Many teachers have created activities that don’t necessarily ensure you remember the word, but they make the word or phrase more comprehensible. This could include acting or drawing a picture to represent what is to be communicated. After repetition, you will have a more firm understanding of when and how the word is to be used.

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I. Deductive - traditional way of providing rules and instructions directly before student use them
II. Inductive - students figure out and acquire as they produce output on their own
(a) output plus correction - student try, make mistakes, corrected, learnt/acquire the  correct way
(b) comprehensible output - student communicate in L2, fixing it until the native speakers of the L2 comprehend.

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The core of Language acquisition and of the hypotheses.
> have the right amount of new/difficult things to learn
> can be in different ways like repeated exposed to an input through reading or listening.
> content and input can be flexible from fun light readings to a combination of visual(drawing picture)-audio(Spoken)-written familiar words presentation
> totally not ignoring some part of rules/grammar teaching, just not explicitly as traditional way. Pop-up grammar during a TPRS session.

External conditions to consider in providing CI
A) Motivation
B) Self-esteem and
C) Anxiety level of the students
This way, the CI is utilizing the hypotheses:taking account of affective filtering factors and some non-explicit  guides while giving the student the eighth input (not too high- too familiar content) through the subject of their choice with flexibility as they pick up/ acquire in the lost natural or subconscious way.

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Krashen’a Overall idea through 5 Hypotheses 

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Krashen’a Overall idea through 5 Hypotheses 

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1. Acquisition is the natural way to learn a language; subconsciously; unaware of what has happened.
2. Early in his career, Krashen thought acquisition led to fluency and learning led to accuracy.  Now he believes that acquisition leads to both fluency and accuracy.  The exception might be someone with Asperger's who kind of proves the rule by demonstrating that it takes extraordinary  memory to learn (rather than acquire).
3.  Knowing grammar rules isn't helpful (Krashen found it difficult to admit this because he loves grammar).
We can think of the grammar rules that an expert like Chomsky knows (let's say they are inside a 2 inch circle) and by the time we get to the grammar rules that even a good student can remember, we are down to a very small circle, likely not much bigger than the period at the and of my sentence.  Krashen's advice is to not worry about grammar.  Knowledge of structure of the language comes from exposure.  Acquisition happens one way: when we understand what is said or written.  What is said is important, not how it is said. Give people lots of Comprehensible Input and the rule will be in there.
4.  Language is acquired through compelling, rich, comprehensive, interesting input.
5.  Talking is not practicing.  It is the result of Language Acquisition  not the cause. Expect a silent period in the acquisition of a new language.
6.  When the subject of a case study was asked if  he studied grammar to learn Hebrew, his answer was, "Never."  Any correction he received had to do with vocabulary, not grammar.
7.  When you do start to speak, don't worry about perfection.  Don't think that native speakers are judging your grammar and pronunciation.  They don't care; they want to understand you.
8. Keep reading. Keep listening. Trust the process. Krashen says we all have a talent for language. Sometimes our path toward improvement will be uneven.

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Since Kami reviewed the class notes so well, I thought I would try to emphasize some points.
1.  Krashen is totally into
acquisition which is the subconscious intuitive process of constructing the system of language.
2. He doesn't think either Direct Instruction, where you tell the rules or Inductive Methods which rely on output +correction are acquisition but conscious learning.
3.  What works is comprehensible input in the form of listening and reading.  He believes teaching phonemic awareness, and spelling are a waste of time.  The ANSWER: Free voluntary reading.
4.  The same passage or story can be read over and over, then move on, but cycle back.  The reader gains confidence it what he/she has learned.
5. There is nothing wrong with a short (seconds) grammar lesson (pop-up grammar) that makes sense as needed- a teachable moment.