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Palette of King Narmer. Predynastic Egypt. c. 3000–2920 BCE. Greywacke.

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Palette of King Narmer. Predynastic Egypt. c. 3000–2920 BCE. Greywacke.

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This palette was not made for functional use like other palettes of the time; it served a greater purpose. Usually, palettes were used in Egypt for grinding cosmetics, but the Palette of King Narmer was not used for this purpose. This work was created to glorify King Narmer and for ceremonial use. The Narmer Palette has two sides with many registers; one side represents Narmer as the king of Upper Egypt and the other side represents Narmer as the king of Lower Egypt. On the Lower Egypt side, Narmer is shown with the Red Crown of Lower Egypt in the top register. He is seen walking with a sandal bearer and processing with a group of priests, along with decapitated and castrated enemies depicted on the right side of this top register. The middle register shows serpopards, mythical creatures, which create a recess for the mixing of cosmetics (although this palette wasn’t used for this). The bottom register shows a bull which may represent the king ramming into the walls of an enemy city. The Upper Egypt side shows Narmer in a large central register with the White Crown of Upper Egypt. He is depicted with hierarchical scale, towering over an enemy which he is attacking, as he is depicted in a smiting pose. A sandal bearer is shown processing behind Narmer, who is barefoot as a reference to the sacred ground that he is stepping on, and Horus is depicted as a falcon with human arms above the fallen enemy. Lastly, on the bottom register, one can see dead foes that have been defeated under Narmer’s rule. This work was meant for ceremonial and ritual purposes, and its purpose was to show Narmer as facilitating the union between Lower and Upper Egypt. This palette demonstrates his power and legitimacy, as he defeated enemies in battle and had favor with the Egyptian pantheon.

Connections:

King Menkaure and Queen: This sculpture from Ancient Egypt was also made from the material greywacke. This material is extremely difficult to make and therefore demonstrates the importance placed on these works in their respective cultures.

Standard of Ur: This Sumerian work was two-sided: one side represented peace and the other side represented war. Both of these works showed the importance of a king with hierarchical scale. The palette shows king Narmer with hierarchical scale, and the standard shows the Sumerian king as larger than any other figure in the composition.

Sources:

https://smarthistory.org/palette-of-king-narmer/

https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/images-of-power-art-as-an-historiographic-tool/palette-of-king-narmer

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The Code of Hammurabi. Babylon (modern Iran). Susian. c. 1792–1750 BCE. Basalt.

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The Code of Hammurabi. Babylon (modern Iran). Susian. c. 1792–1750 BCE. Basalt.

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Hammurabi was an important ruler of the city-state of Babylon, and he wanted to present himself as the exemplary ruler. In this legal code stele, Hammurabi is depicted as receiving laws from the sun god Shamah. Shamash is depicted with thunderbolts on top of his shoulders, and he is seen giving a rod and ring to Hammurabi, which symbolizes the passing of authority onto Hammurabi. This stele was meant to legitimize Hammurabi’s rule, since the power and authority that he holds was given to him by a divine power, the sun god Shamash. Hammurabi is emphasized as a theocrat, who receives laws from the gods and therefore has legitimate authority to rule on earth. This stele also had laws, which were ordered in groups to make them easier for citizens to read. This is one of the first law codes found, and the Code emphasizes Hammurabi’s desire “to make justice visible in the land, to destroy the wicked person and the evil-doer, that the strong might not injure the weak.” Lastly, the law establishes the idea of “an eye for an eye,” which focuses on adequate punishment and continues to be referenced in contemporary society.

Connections:

Anthropomorphic Stele: Just like the Code of Hammurabi, this is a long, tall stele with representation on the top of the composition. Although the anthropomorphic stele was made as a grave marker, the Code of Hammurabi was made to convey authority.

Nan Madol: This ancient Pacific city used basalt columns in its construction. This is similar to the basalt material that was used to create the Code of Hammurabi; this material is tough and difficult to break, making it extremely durable and long-lasting.

Sources:

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/hammurabis-code/#:~:text=The%20Code%20of%20Hammurabi%20is,men%2C%20and%20property%20owners).

https://smarthistory.org/hammurabi-2/

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Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad, Iraq). Neo-Assyrian. c. 720–705 BCE. Alabaster.

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Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad, Iraq). Neo-Assyrian. c. 720–705 BCE. Alabaster.

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The Lamassu are interesting mythical creatures: bulls with wings and human heads that were meant to guard the palace and city. These lamas from the citadel of Sargon II, specifically, were placed as sculptural decorations for Neo-Assyrian palaces and were meant to serve as protective or apotropaic figures to ward off enemies and evil spirits. These figures stood next to the doorways of the citadel and were meant to amaze and intimidate at the same time. They stood up to twenty feet in height and weighed up to fifty tons; each was carved, using a subtractive sculpting method, from one slab of alabaster or limestone. These large figures were shown with the body of a bull, wings, and a bearded and crowned human head looking out over the viewer. The sculpture is also meant to be seen from different perspectives, this being the reason for the sculpture containing five legs rather than four. This allows the viewer from the front or the side to see the Lamassu as having four legs, using perspective to its advantage. These beautiful sculptures were not only meant to scare away foes, but they were also meant to legitimize the rule of the king and inspire awe in the king’s subjects. These figures were important in warding off enemies, but also in keeping the Neo-Assyrian people in check to prevent any attempted rebellion.

Connections:

Todai-ji Neo Guardian Figures: These figures that guard Todai-ji are meant to ward away evil spirits. These apotropaic figures were created to protect the temple, just like the Lamassu were meant to protect the palace of Sargon II.

Transformation mask: The transformation mask from Kwakwaka’wakw culture combined human and animal forms into one composition this is similar to the Lamassu, which were guardian figures that combined a human head with the body of a winged bull.

Sources:

https://smarthistory.org/lamassu-from-the-citadel-of-sargon-ii/

https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/collex/exhibits/discovery-collection-memory-oriental-institute-100/human-headed-winged-bull/

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Augustus of Prima Porta. Imperial Roman. Early first century CE. Marble.

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Augustus of Prima Porta. Imperial Roman. Early first century CE. Marble.

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Augustus was a powerful Imperial Roman ruler, the first emperor of Rome. During his rule, Augustus initiated the Pax Romana, a period of peace and prosperity during the Roman Empire. This sculpture harkens back to Ancient Greek tradition. It is a freestanding sculpture made of marble, and it depicts Augustus standing in contrapposto, a typical Ancient Greek pose in which one leg holds the weight of the body. Augustus is idealized and shown as the perfect individual, much like Polykleitos’ Doryphoros, a sculpture from Classical Greece. In this sculpture, he aims to align himself with the Golden Age of Ancient Greece in all its splendor and glory. Augustus is shown wearing military gear, emphasizing his authority as a diplomatic and military leader. He also stands in an orant pose, which involves Augustus pointing with his outstretched right arm, as if he is addressing the army, also demonstrating his power as a military conqueror. Next to the emperor, seemingly holding up his leg, one can see a Cupid figure riding a dolphin. The dolphin is meant as a symbol of naval victory, specifically the victory that Augustus won in the Battle of Actium (31 BCE), which solidified Augustus’ role as ruler of the Roman Empire. The Cupid figure is meant to represent Augustus’ descendants from the gods, since Cupid is a figure from Roman mythology. Lastly, the emperor’s cuirass (breastplate) is meant to convey his legitimacy as a ruler, and it is a form of propaganda meant to portray Augustus as the initiator of the Pax Romana, a period of growth and prosperity for the Roman Empire. It also shows scenes of diplomatic victory achieved by Augustus. Overall, this sculpture from Imperial Rome is meant as a form of propaganda to show the power of Augustus as a ruler that brought property to the empire through diplomacy and victory in battle.

Sources:

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Dpwz1AwcbJ_H4s18imMIUrBkwItMJocFS6DQf4NZ03o/edit

https://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/braccio-nuovo/Augusto-di-Prima-Porta.html

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City of Machu Picchu. Central highlands, Peru. Inka. c. 1450-1540 CE. Granite (architectural complex).

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City of Machu Picchu. Central highlands, Peru. Inka. c. 1450-1540 CE. Granite (architectural complex).

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Machu Picchu was built as a home for Pachacuti Inka Yupanqui, the first first Inka emperor. The city is located 2,340 meters away from the Inka capital city, Cusco. Machu Picchu was meant to be a residence for the emperor and his family. There, they would host religious ceremonies and feasts, and the emperors could work on taking care of his empire. The city also has houses for the elites of Inka society, who would work with the emperor to help ensure the prosperity of the empire, and retainers/staff, who would protect the emperor and stay at Machu Picchu to help maintain the city. It is important to note that this site was chosen because of its location in the Andes. This site contains beautiful scenes and views of the apus, other mountain peaks around the area of Machu Picchu. These apus were also observed as deities by the Inka people of the Andes. In terms of architecture, Machu Picchu is famous for its many terraces, which allowed for more arable land and less erosion. This ancient city is also famous for its complex system of channels to carry water throughout the site, including sixteen stone fountains to provide water throughout the city. In terms of the main buildings in the city, they are made of stones shaped to fit tightly together, typical of Inka elite architecture. Machu Picchu is also famous for its connection to the Inka pantheon. This can be seen in the city’s observatory, also known as the Temple of the Sun, which was meant to aid in astronomical observation as a means to communicate with Inkan deities. This temple is especially devoted to the sun god Inti, who was usually connected to the Inka emperor. Additionally, the city contains the Intihuatana, a carved boulder which reflects the belief of the Inkas in the connection between the earth and the gods. Overall, Machu Picchu was a site for the ruler and his family, along with other elites from the empire, to stay and live in. Its importance to the empire can be seen in its emphasis on the worship of the sun god Inti and his connection to the emperor.

Sources:

https://smarthistory.org/machu-picchu/

https://www.mountainlodgesofperu.com/machu-picchu-the-lost-city-of-the-incas/

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Great Mosque. Córdoba, Spain. Umayyad. c. 785–786 CE. Stone masonry.

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Great Mosque. Córdoba, Spain. Umayyad. c. 785–786 CE. Stone masonry.

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The Great Mosque is an important hypostyle mosque that was established by the Abbasids, and the building is now an important cathedral. This mosque was built on a site that originally contained a temple to Janus, a Roman god. In 572, the temple was made into a church by Visigoths. Later in the 600’s and 700’s, descendants of the Umayyads converted the site into a mosque and rebuilt it. After Prince Abd Al-Rahman I of the Umayyads escaped to Spain, he gained control over most of the Iberian peninsula and established Córdoba as the capital of the Umayyad dynasty. This mosque was established as the most important religious building within their empire, and became known as the Great Mosque. The mosque contains a large hypostyle hall meant for prayer, which is adorned with endless rows of columns and red and white double horseshoe arches, which were adopted from Visigoth tradition. The mosque also contains a large courtyard known as the sahn, which contained a central fountain and was meant for the congregation of Muslim followers within the mosque. This site also contains a large orange grove and a walkway around the courtyard, which was covered with a roof. The Great Mosque also contains a minaret, which is a tower that was used to call Islamic followers at the time of prayer. Lastly, this site contains a mihrab, which is the focal point of the prayer hall, with a dome above it. The mihrab is a prayer niche that identifies the qibla wall, which faces toward the ancient site of Mecca to facilitate prayer, and it is decorated by a large arch. The dome above the mihrab is also notable for its intricate rib vaulting and gold mosaic decoration. The Great Mosque is an important example of a building made to facilitate worship and religious practice, while also following regional traditions.

Sources:

https://smarthistory.org/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba/

https://www.turismodecordoba.org/the-mosque-cathedral-of-cordoba-spain#