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Time: 9500 BCE

Location: Ancient Levant

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How exactly did bread-an integral part of so many meals and cultures-come to be? The creation of bread was unquestionably one of the key developments in human history. It's no exaggeration to say that without bread, we literally might not be.

In this article, we'll trace the history of one of the world's most important foods, from flatbread to sliced bread, and point out the major milestones along the way.

Fire: 400,000 to 1 Million Years Ago

As with much of early civilization, our knowledge of when people first did what is limited by what we can find evidence for. So for instance, we think that humans first learned to control fire between 400,000 and 1 million years ago. That's a pretty wide range, and it might have been much earlier. But we don't know for sure.

In any case, fire is the first prerequisite for cooking, and bread couldn't exist without it.

Grinding Cereal Grains: 30,000 Years Ago

We have evidence of humans gathering wild grains from at least 100,000 years ago and the earliest evidence of humans grinding these grains dates to around 30,000 years ago in the form of starch residue on stones, probably left over from grinding a combination of grains and roots to form a paste.

What was done with this paste isn't clear. Perhaps it was simply eaten as a gruel, but it may have been cooked on flat rocks heated in a fire to produce a very early flatbread.

The earliest proof we have of humans cooking bread is from 14,000 years ago at a site in Jordan, where scientists uncovered two structures, each containing a large stone fireplace containing the charred remains of breadcrumbs.

This would've been a huge development, since it's much easier to carry around bread than it is to carry gruel. Cooked bread was also easier to digest and the cooking itself unlocked nutrients in the grains. Not to mention, it was much more tasty. So, all around a good thing.

In any case, humans had been grinding cereal grains and cooking them long before the next major milestone, which is...

Agriculture: 9500 B.C.

The discovery that planting a seed made it grow into food must have seemed nothing short of miraculous (and it still is, if you think about it), which no doubt explains why so many ancient deities, like the Egyptian god Neper and the Greek goddess Demeter, were associated with grain and agriculture.

Starting around 9500 B.C., some of the earliest crops grown in the ancient Levant, a region encompassing the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle-East, included wheat, barley, rye, lentils, chickpeas, and flax.

It's also around that time that we begin to find the earliest ovens dedicated to cooking, although these seem to have been more like barbecue pits than actual ovens-pigs had been domesticated by that time as well.

It's not until around 1700 B.C., however, in Greece, that we find a proliferation of small, clay ovens that indicate not just widespread bread baking in individual households but also commercial bakeries.

Earliest Yeast Bread: 1350 B.C.

This is another big one! Yeast, as you know, is a microorganism that eats sugar and produces alcohol and CO2 gas. This gas is what causes bread to rise. And we know that the ancient Egyptians were the first people to brew beer and also the first to make yeast breads.

It's not quite clear which came first-the beer or the bread. The very earliest yeast breads probably came about by accident, when airborne yeasts landed in dough, causing it to rise. But the first intentionally made yeast breads almost certainly came from Egypt, and were either a byproduct of beer brewing ( some of the beer foam was skimmed into the bread dough) or vice-versa (the residual fermentation from making bread was combined with water to make beer). Indeed, the English word "bread" may be related to the word "brew."

Either way, we can be fairly certain that the earliest yeast breads were sourdough and they would've been made by saving a piece of each day's dough and adding it to the next day's, and so on, much like the way bakers today keep their sourdough starter.

Bread Becomes a Commodity: The Roman Empire

Roman bakers took the concept and applied it on a wide scale. A typical Roman bakery could produce enough bread for 2,000 people daily. The ovens were massive: 20 feet in diameter, wood-fired, lined with brick and tile, and fitted with a rotating metal grate on which the loaves were baked.

The Romans also introduced tremendous specialization, using varieties of flours to produce a wide range of products: light breads for the upper classes, darker breads for the lower classes, specific breads for soldiers, sailors, and so on.

Later, in medieval Europe, bread continued to be the basis of the diet, and as in Rome, lighter breads were what the upper classes consumed, while darker breads were what regular people ate. Medieval people also used thick bread rounds as plates, called trenchers, with meat and sauce heaped on top.

Other Bread Milestones

Focaccia: Originated by the Etruscans (Northern Italy) in the 6th to 5th centuries B.C.

Pretzels: Invented by European monks in the 6th century A.D.

Bagels: Created in Poland by Ashkenazi Jews in the 1400s

Sandwiches: Purportedly invented in the 18th century by John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich

Baguettes: First developed in 18th-century Paris, later refined and first named "baguette" in 1920

Sliced Bread: Mechanized bread slicer invented in 1917, in widespread use by 1930

Texas Toast: 1940s USA

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How exactly did bread-an integral part of so many meals and cultures-come to be? The creation of bread was unquestionably one of the key developments in human history. It's no exaggeration to say that without bread, we literally might not be.

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Time: 1500 BCE

Location: Ancient Egypt

Description: A colony of wild yeast and lactic acid bacteria used to leaven bread

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Sourdough. It's the crunchy artisanal bread we associate with hipster cafes and home bakers. Millennials eat it by the truckload beneath smashed avo and home bakers are never without a freshly-baked sourdough loaf in their kitchen pantry.

But, have you ever stopped to wonder where sourdough came from and how long it has been gracing the palates of the human race?

You might be surprised to know that sourdough is the oldest form of leavened bread and has a history spanning centuries, dating as far back as ancient Egypt. It's travelled to all corners of the world - from Egypt to Mexico to Europe and beyond - and its methods have been passed down generations from baker to baker to the present day.

Bake your own sourdough with our complete sourdough starter kit!

Where and when did sourdough originate?

The origins of bread-making are so ancient that we are unable to say for certain, but the first recorded civilization we know of that made sourdough bread was the Egyptians around 1500 BC.

There are many theories as to how they first discovered it, but we can assume that it was by accident. It's thought that the Egyptian people left some out and some of the wild yeast spores in the air mixed with the dough, which caused it to rise and create sourdough bread as we know it.

It's widely known that the Egyptians also made a lot of beer and the brewery and the bakery were often in the same place, as proved by wall paintings and analyses of desiccated bread loaves and beer remains. It's thought that a batch of flour may have been mixed with beer and produced a light loaf of bread, or the wild yeast spores were thick from the brewing and were mixed into the bread doughs, which caused them to rise considerably more than the usual wild sourdoughs.

Through trial and error they found out that some of these sourdough cultures worked and tasted better than others. They could keep this culture alive by saving some raw dough from their baking and adding more flour to it. This is how sourdough starter was born.

Where did it travel next?

From Egypt, sourdough bread-making spread north to ancient Greece, where it was first baked at home by women and later, in bakeries. The Romans learned the art of bread baking from the Greeks, making improvements in kneading and baking. There are also sourdough recipes that date back to 17th Century France, which use a starter that is fed and risen three times before adding to the dough.

Master bakers from France then took their sourdough techniques to Northern California during the California Gold Rush in 1848, and it still remains a part of the culture of San Francisco today. These bakers discovered that the sourdough culture there was unique and they became famous among the miners, who flocked to their bakery each morning in search of their special bread.

Since 1849, these San Fran bakers have been using the same sourdough culture, which they call a "Mother dough," as well as the same recipe, flour, water, a pinch of salt and some of this "Mother Dough". In fact, their "Mother Dough" was so important that it was heroically saved by Louise Boudin during the Great San Francisco Earthquake of 1906.

Klondike miners nicknamed 'Sourdough'

The sourdough tradition was then carried into Alaska and the Yukon territories of Canada during the Klondike Gold Rush of 1898. Conventional leavenings, such as yeast and baking soda were much less reliable in the harsh conditions faced by the miners, so experienced miners and other settlers would carry a pouch of starter either around their neck or on a belt at all times. They would even sleep with their starter to keep it from freezing in extreme temperatures, which led to the miners earning the nickname "Sourdough" at the turn of the century.

To this day, some people claim their starters originated in the Klondike era, which is their claim to fame. In fact, people will still pay hundreds of dollars for sourdough bread made from Alaskan sourdough starters from the gold rush days.

Sourdough breads gave way to bread with commercial years in the 19th Century, as it was quicker to make. However, in the 1980s the world began to see a resurgence in the ancient fermented bread and it's now enjoyed by millions every day across the world.

With growing popularity and an increasing number of home bakers looking to try their hands at baking sourdough, one thing's for certain: sourdough is here to stay. Fancy trying your hand at making your own sourdough? Check out our Complete Sourdough Starter Kit for yourself to start cooking up a storm today. Don't forget to tag us on Instagram @youkneadsourdough and hashtag it #youkneadsourdough so we can see your culinary masterpiece.

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The History of Sourdough | You Knead Sourdough

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Join us as we embark on a journey through the rich history of sourdough bread, starting in Ancient Egypt in 1500 BC to the present day. Learn more at our blog.

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Time: 1300~1500 BCE

Location: Ancient Egypt

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Time: 1350 BCE

Location: Ancient Egypt

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Time: 800 BCE

Location: Mesopotamia

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Bread Machine. Enriching White Bread. Baking Powder. White Flour. Pop-Up Toaster. Ancient Greeks learn from Egypt. Fermentation. Animal Milling. United State...

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Time: around 171 BC

Location: Ancient Rome

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Time: 168 BC

Location: Ancient Rome

Description: An ancient Roman association known as Pistorum that gathered bread bakers and deemed as craftsmen. They were respected and contributed to an annual festival that celebrates Fornax, the oven goddess.

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From bread and pie to pastries and cakes, baking has a long history that has satisfied the hunger of countless people from worldwide civilizations for thousands of years. The next time you bake a culinary masterpiece-or simply pop a frozen pizza in the oven-think of this history of baking.

Ancient Baking

The oldest known ovens were unearthed in Croatia in 2014. They are estimated to be 6,500 years old. The Egyptians were also pioneers in baking as the first recorded civilization to use yeast in their bread as long ago as 2600 BC.

Then, there was the Roman Empire's Baker's Guild established around 168 BC. This organization, called the Pistorum, recognized bread bakers as skilled artisans. In fact, baking was held in such high regard that a festival was held once a year to celebrate Fornax, the oven goddess.

Baking in the Middle Ages

During the Medieval period, ovens weren't a standard fixture in any home. Those who could afford wood-burning stoves (and the fuel to heat them) baked bread. The ability to produce high-quality bread helped people climb higher up the social ladder.

In the Middle Ages, wheat bread was reserved for wealthy people. Dense, rich cakes in exotic colors were only available to the highest echelons of society. Poor people stuck with rye and black bread and, if they could afford it, meat pies.

15th - 17th Century Baking

The introduction of saffron and other expensive spices helped baking take off in Britain in the 15th century. Sweetened dough buns, mincemeat pies, and gingerbread all entered the scene at this point in the history of baking.

Economic growth and globalization in the 16th and 17th centuries led to more decadent treats with butter, cream, and raisins. Baking became more accessible to the average person at this time, so families started to bake cakes and biscuits together. Late in the 17th century, the price of sugar went down, and refined flour became available, bringing desserts to the forefront, including pastries, pies, and iced cakes.

18th - 19th Century Baking

The Industrial Revolution marked a turning point for the accessibility of cake-making in the average home-not only because of changes in taste and the availability of ingredients, but because of evolution in technology. The development of the semi-closed oven and the publishing of The Art of Cookery in 1747 provided budding chefs with the tools and ideas they needed to try an array of cake recipes.

As more women became employed in the 19th century, they had less time to devote to elaborate food preparation. As a result, convenience food grew in popularity, which cut down on the time women had to spend in the kitchen. Also introduced in this century, baking powder transformed the dense, yeast-based cakes of centuries past into the light, fluffy baked goods we know today.

Modern Baking

Today, baking plays an integral role in modern life. Whether you enjoy baking from scratch or you like the convenience of purchasing premade food you can throw in the oven, there's no arguing that flour is one of the most important features of our diet. It takes on countless forms, from traditional sugar cookies to easy frozen pizza to homemade wheat rolls.

Whatever you choose to bake, you need a reliable oven to get the job done. As a reminder, Mr. Appliance® can repair your broken oven-whether gas or electric-and restore modern convenience to your home. Once your oven is up and running again, try making these tasty mason jar recipes courtesy of Glass Doctor!

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The History of Baking: From Ancient Egyptians to Today

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From breads and pies to pastries and cakes, learn the long history of baking that has satisfied the hunger of countless civilizations.

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Time: 13 - 14 century

Location: Italy and France

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Communal ovens in Italy and France where the communal oven dates back to the 14th and 15th centuries. Even though they were called communal ovens, but they did not belong to the community. The oven was the property of the local Lord (in some cases it was the Church), who owned both the oven and the fire and would charge the serfs for baking their bread.

In France, following the French revolution, the ovens became the property of the village; no fees were charged. Once a week the oven was fired up and the locals would carry the dough they had prepared at home to the oven. Each family marked the top of the dough with a distinctive cut to distinguish their bread from another family.

The bread oven was where the village gathered: family news was shared, political matters debated, and community was built. For a variety of reasons there are few community brick ovens in America. Today they can be found in Canada and Australia, and smaller versions in countless villages throughout the world.

Here are some links that will provide additional background information on community oven history.

Modern day wood fired community ovens exist in a number of communities throughout the United States and Canada. With this said they are not very prevalent and we are not sure how active they are. If you have a community oven we would like to suggest that you send us a link to your website if you have one or details about your oven and we will link it into this site.

The recent growth of ovens in the Minnesota area can be linked back to the large community oven built at White Bear Lake United Methodist church. Pastor Bryce Johnson lead this initiative after visiting some of the ovens and baking bread in Italy and France. His vision was to create a comfortable venue for people in the community to come and bake their bread as was done in the olden days. Here is a link to a Ted Talk that Pastor Bryce gave that will provide additional background and inspiration for you to consider building a Community Oven.

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History of Communal Ovens - Community Brick Oven

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Communal ovens in Italy and France where the communal oven dates back to the 14th and 15th centuries.

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Time: Around 14 - 17 century

Location: Europe

Description: A trencher is a piece of bread (typically flat, stale and round) that is used as a plate to serve food above it. After the mid 16 centuries they were being replaced by wooden trenchers due to it being more practical.

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Wooden trencher from Västergötland, Sweden, mid-17th century

A modern cheeseboard

A trencher (from Old French trancher 'to cut') is a type of tableware, commonly used in medieval cuisine. A trencher was originally a flat round of (usually stale) bread used as a plate, upon which the food could be placed to eat. At the end of the meal, the trencher could be eaten with sauce, but could also be given as alms to the poor. Later the trencher evolved into a small plate of metal or wood, typically circular and completely flat, without the lip or raised edge of a plate. Trenchers of this type are still used, typically for serving food that does not involve liquid; for example, the cheeseboard.[citation needed ]

Trencher table setting

An individual salt dish or squat open salt cellar placed near a trencher was called a "trencher salt".

A "trencherman" is a person devoted to eating and drinking, often to excess; one with a hearty appetite, a gourmand. A secondary use, generally archaic, is one who frequents another's table, in essence a pilferer of another's food.

A "trencher-fed pack" is a pack of foxhounds or harriers in which the hounds are kept individually by hunt members and only assembled as a pack to hunt. Usually, a pack of hounds are maintained together as a pack in kennels.

Wooden trencher

In Virgil's , trenchers are the object of a prophecy. In bk.3, Aeneas recounts to Dido how after a battle between the Trojans and the Harpies, Calaeno, chief of the Furies, prophesied to him (claiming to have the knowledge from Apollo) that he would finally arrive in Italy, but

Never shall you build your promised city
Until the injury you did us by this slaughter
Has brought you to a hunger so cruel
That you gnaw your very tables.

The prophecy is fulfilled in bk.7, when the Trojans eat the trenchers after a frugal feast. Aeneas' son Ascanius jokes that they are so hungry they would have eaten the tables, at which point Aeneas realises that the prophecy has been fulfilled. However, he reattributes the prophecy to his deceased father, Anchises:

I now can tell you, my father Anchises
Revealed these secrets to me for he said:
"When you have sailed, son, to an unknown shore
And, short of food, are driven to eat your tables,
Then, weary though you are, hope you are home

This episode is alluded to in Allen Tate's poem "The Mediterranean", although Tate calls them "plates".

The Middle Ages, Everyday Life in Medieval Europe by Jeffrey L. Singman (Sterling publishers) offers the following observation: "The place setting also included a trencher, a round slice of bread from the bottom or the top of an old loaf, having a hard crust and serving as a plate. After the meal, the sauce-soaked trenchers were probably distributed to servants or the poor. Food was served on platters, commonly one platter to two diners, from which they transferred it to their trenchers."

Shakespeare used the term in at least eleven of his plays.

The term appears frequently throughout George R.R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire series, such as this excerpt from A Dance with Dragons: "The beer was brown, the bread black, the stew a creamy white. She served it in a trencher hollowed out of a stale loaf."

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A trencher (from Old French trancher 'to cut') is a type of tableware, commonly used in medieval cuisine. A trencher was originally a flat round of (usually stale) bread used as a plate, upon which the food could be placed to eat.

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Time: late 16 century

Location: England

Description: A baking terminology used to describe 13 baked goods

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A box of a dozen doughnuts

A dozen (commonly abbreviated doz or dz) is a grouping of twelve.

The dozen may be one of the earliest primitive integer groupings, perhaps because there are approximately a dozen cycles of the Moon, or months, in a cycle of the Sun, or year. Twelve is convenient because it has a maximal number of divisors among the numbers up to its double, a property only true of 1, 2, 6, 12, 60, 360, and 2520.

The use of twelve as a base number, known as the duodecimal system (also as dozenal), originated in Mesopotamia (see also sexagesimal). Twelve dozen (12 ² = 144) are known as a gross; and twelve gross (12 ³ = 1,728, the duodecimal 1,000) are called a great gross, a term most often used when shipping or buying items in bulk. A great hundred, also known as a small gross, is 120 or ten dozen. Dozen may also be used to express a moderately large quantity as in "several dozen" (e.g., dozens of people came to the party).

Varying by country, some products are packaged or sold by the dozen, often foodstuff (a dozen eggs).

The English word dozen comes from the old form douzaine, a French word meaning ' a group of twelve ' ("Assemblage de choses de même nature au nombre de douze" (translation: A group of twelve things of the same nature), as defined in the eighth edition of the cardinal number douze (Dictionnaire de l'Académie française). This French word is a derivation from the ' twelve ', from Latin collective suffix -aine (from Latin -ēna), a suffix also used to form other words with similar meanings such as quinzaine (a group of fifteen), duodĕcim) and the vingtaine (a group of twenty), centaine (a group of one hundred), etc. These French words have synonymous cognates in Spanish: docena, quincena, veintena, centena, etc. English dozen, French dotzena, Portuguese "dúzia", Persian dowjin "دوجین", Arabic ( douzaine, Catalan tuzin, are also used as indefinite quantifiers to mean durzen), Turkish "düzine", Hindi darjan "दर्जन", German ' Dutzend, Dutch about twelve dozijn, Italian ' or dozzina and Polish ' many ' (as in "a dozen times", "dozens of people").

A confusion may arise with the Anglo-Norman dizeyne (French dixaine or dizaine) a tithing, or group of ten households - dating from the earlier English system of grouping households into tens and hundreds for the purposes of law, order and mutual surety (see Tithing). In some texts this 'dizeyne' may be rendered as 'dozen'.

Half a dozen chargrilled oysters

The phrase " half a dozen" means six (6) of something, as 6 is half of 12. The idiom "six of one, half a dozen of the other" means two options are of equal worth so choosing one is the same as choosing the other.

Baker's dozen

A baker's dozen, devil's dozen, or long dozen is 13, one more than a standard dozen. The broadest use of baker's dozen today is simply a group of thirteen objects (often baked goods). The term has meant different things over the last few centuries.

In England, when selling certain goods, bakers were obliged to sell goods by the dozen at a specific weight or quality (or a specific average weight). During this time, bakers who sold a dozen units that failed to meet this requirement could be penalized with a fine. Therefore, to avoid risking this penalty, some bakers included an extra unit to be sure the minimum weight was met, bringing the total to 13 units or what is now commonly known as a baker's dozen. The thirteenth piece of bread is called the vantage loaf.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term "baker's dozen" originated in the late 16th century and is "apparently so called after the former practice among bakers of including a thirteenth loaf when selling a dozen to a retailer, the extra loaf representing the retailer's profit."

According to the 1811 Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, by Francis Grose, "a Baker's Dozen is Thirteen; that number of rolls being allowed to the purchaser of a dozen". However, contrary to most sources, according to the anonymous 1785 version of that dictionary, which was probably also by Grose, "a Baker's Dozen is Fourteen, that number of rolls being allowed to the purchaser of a dozen".

The term has also been defined in a jocular way, as "twelve of today's and one of yesterday's."[citation needed ]

The term has also jokingly been described as "A dozen and the baker made one extra for himself."

A lesser-used regionalism is the Texas dozen, which generally consists of 15. This is typically used only in Texas and surrounding areas for such goods as flowers or baked goods, although can be applied to anything that is counted, such as photographs.

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A dozen (commonly abbreviated doz or dz) is a grouping of twelve. The dozen may be one of the earliest primitive integer groupings, perhaps because there are approximately a dozen cycles of the Moon, or months, in a cycle of the Sun, or year.

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Time: early 18 century

Location: Europe

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5 Interesting Facts about Pullman Loaves

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Although we're known for our pizza pans and tools, LloydPans also sells quite a bit of bakeware. One of our most popular item is our Pullman Pans. These straight-sided loaf pans with lids offer the perfect confined space to bake a Pullman loaf with a text

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Time: 18 century

Location: France

Description: A french bread that appears long and stick-like that's made off of lean dough

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A baguette (; French: ) is a long, thin type of bread of French origin that is commonly made from basic lean dough (the dough, though not the shape, is defined by French law). It is distinguishable by its length and crisp crust.

A baguette has a diameter of about 5 to 6 centimetres (2- inches) and a usual length of about 65 cm (26 in), although a baguette can be up to 1 m (39 in) long.

Classic Baguette

In November 2018, documentation surrounding the "craftsmanship and culture" of making this bread was added to the French Ministry of Culture's National Inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage. In 2022, the artisanal know-how and culture of baguette bread was inscribed to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.

Much of the history of the baguette is speculation; however, some facts can be established. Long, stick-like breads in France became more popular during the 18th century, French bakers started using "gruau," a highly refined Hungarian high-milled flour in the early 19th century, Viennese steam oven baking was introduced to Paris in 1839 by August Zang, and the Austrian Adolf Ignaz Mautner von Markhof's compact yeast in 1867 at the Universal Exposition. Finally, the word "baguette" appears to define a particular type of bread in a regulation of the department of the Seine in August 1920: "The baguette, having a minimum weight of 80 g [ oz] and a maximum length of 40 cm [16 in], may not be sold for a price higher than 0.35 francs apiece". No one of these events constitutes "the invention of the baguette," but together they define the modern "baguette."

In summary, "the bread which became known as the baguette first appeared in its most primitive form in the eighteenth century, then experienced several refinements and variations before being (officially) given that name in 1920."

The word baguette means "wand," "baton," or "stick," as in baguette magique (magic wand), baguettes chinoises (chopsticks), or baguette de direction (conductor's baton). It was first recorded as a kind of bread in 1920.

Outside France, the baguette is often considered a symbol of French culture, but the association of France with long loaves long predates it. Long, wide loaves had been made since the time of King Louis XIV, long thin ones since the mid-18th century, and by the 19th century, some were far longer than today's baguette: "... loaves of bread six feet [1.8 m] long that look like crowbars!" " Housemaids were hurrying homewards with their purchases for various Gallic breakfasts, and the long sticks of bread, a yard or two [0.9 m to 1.8 m] in length, carried under their arms, made an odd impression upon me."

A less direct link can be made with deck or steam ovens. These combine a traditional gas-fired oven and a brick oven, a thick "deck" of stone or firebrick heated by natural gas instead of wood. The first steam oven was brought to Paris in the early 19th century by August Zang, who also introduced Vienna bread ( pain viennois) and the croissant, and whom some French sources thus credit with originating the baguette.

Deck ovens heated to over 200 °C (390 °F) use steam injection to allow the crust to expand before setting, thus creating a lighter, airier loaf, and to melt the dextrose on the bread's surface, giving a slightly glazed effect.

In April 1944, a competition called Le Grand Prix de la Baguette began in France to determine who made the best baguettes. Nearly 200 bakers compete each year in front of a 14-judge panel following strict guidelines. They are judged based on baking, appearance, smell, taste, and crumb. The winner receives €4000 and supplies France's president with their daily bread for that year until a new winner is chosen.

Following the World Wars, French bakers began baking a whiter, softer baguette that contrasted with the darker loaves produced because of rationing during the wars. These doughs took less time to ferment and used more additives but had significantly less taste. They also began using pre-made dough and molds. The average consumption of bread fell from 600 grams/day in the early 1900s to 170 grams/day in 1986.

In 1993, the French Parliament passed Le Décret Pain (The Bread Decree). Le Décret Pain states that breads under the name of pain maison (homemade bread) must be "fully kneaded, shaped, and baked at their place of sale." This decree also placed strict guidelines on what pain traditionnel français (traditional French bread) is allowed to be made of, banning pre-made dough from being used for traditional French baguettes.

Origin myths

Because the history of the French baguette is not completely known, several myths have spread about the origins of this type of bread.

Some say Napoleon Bonaparte, in essence, created the French baguette to allow soldiers to more easily carry bread with them. Since the round shape of other breads took up a lot of space, Bonaparte requested they be made into the skinny stick shape with specific measurements to slide into the soldiers' uniform.

Other stories credit baguettes as being an invention to stop French metro workers from having to carry knives that they used to cut their bread. The workers often fought, so the management did not want them to carry knives and requested that bread be easily ripped apart, ending the need for knives. The skinny, easily rippable shape of a baguette would have been the response to this.

Some believe baguettes were the "Bread of Equality" following a decree post-French Revolution requiring a type of bread to be made accessible to the rich and poor.

Another account states that in October 1920, a law prevented bakers from working before 4 am, making it impossible to make traditional round loaves in time for customers' breakfasts. Switching from the round loaf to the previously less-common, slender shape of the baguette solved the problem because it could be prepared and baked much more quickly. The law in question appears to be one from March 1919, though some say it took effect in October 1920:

It is forbidden to employ workers at bread and pastry making between ten in the evening and four in the morning.

A "baguette de tradition française"

The "baguette de tradition française" is made from wheat flour, water, yeast, and common salt. It may contain up to 2% broad bean flour, up to 0.5% soya flour, and up to 0.3% wheat malt flour.

Standard baguettes, baguettes ordinaires, are made with baker's yeast, and artisan-style loaves are usually made with a pre-ferment ( poolish) to increase flavor complexity and other characteristics. They may include whole-wheat flour or other grains such as rye.

Baguettes are closely connected to France, though they are made worldwide. In France, not all long loaves are baguettes; for example, a short, almost rugby ball-shaped loaf is a bâtard (literally, bastard) or a "torpedo loaf" in English; its origin is variously explained but undocumented. Another tubular-shaped loaf is known as a flûte, also known in the United States as a parisienne. Flûtes closely resemble baguettes but are about twice the size.

Baguettes de pain

A thinner loaf is called a (string). A short baguette is sometimes known as a baton (stick), or in the UK, referred to using the English translation French stick. None of these are officially defined, either legally or, for instance, in major dictionaries, any more than the baguette. French breads are also made in forms such as a , which is a large pan loaf, and a , literally ball in French, a large round loaf. Sandwich-sized loaves are sometimes known as demi-baguettes or tiers. Italian baguettes, or baguette italienne, involve more spices and a denser texture, giving the baguette a slightly different, more Italian taste. Un pain viennois is much sweeter and softer than the standard baguette.

A baker prepares baguettes for baking

In France, a baguette typically weighs around 250 g ( oz), a bâtard 500 g ( oz) and a ficelle 100 g ( oz); no legal text establishes any of these weights, which can vary throughout the country. Baguettes, either relatively short single-serving size or cut from a longer loaf, are very often used for sandwiches, usually of the submarine sandwich type, but also a panini. They are often sliced and served with pâté or cheese. As part of the traditional continental breakfast in France, slices of baguette, known as tartines, are spread with butter and jam and sometimes dunked in bowls of coffee or hot chocolate.[citation needed ]

Baguettes are generally made as partially free-form loaves, with the loaf formed with a series of folding and rolling motions, raised in cloth-lined baskets or in rows on a flour-impregnated towel, called a couche, and baked either directly on the hearth of a deck oven or in special perforated pans designed to hold the shape of the baguette while allowing heat through the perforations. American-style "French bread" is generally much fatter and is not baked in deck ovens but in convection ovens.[citation needed ]

As of the 2000s, there is increasing customer demand in France for only partially baked baguettes. In 2004, the bakery chain Marie Blachère introduced the option to select three varieties of baguettes distinguished by baking time: bien cuite (well done), dorée (golden) and blanche (white).

Outside France, baguettes are also made with other doughs. For example, the Vietnamese uses a high proportion of rice flour, while many North American bakeries make whole wheat, multigrain, and sourdough baguettes alongside French-style loaves. In Cambodia, it is found in the form of a hot sandwich filled called num pang. In addition, even classic French-style recipes vary from place to place, with some recipes adding small amounts of milk, butter, sugar, or malt extract, depending on the desired flavor and properties in the final loaf.

Algeria consumes about 49 million baguettes per day, and France consumes about 30 million.

Child, Julia. From Julia Child's Kitchen. New York: Knopf, 1970.

Child, Julia and Simone Beck. Mastering the Art of French Cooking, vol. 2. New York: Knopf, 1970.

Rambali, Paul. Boulangerie. New York: Macmillan, 1994, ISBN 0-02-600865-3.

Reinhard, Peter. Crust and Crumb. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 1998, ISBN 1-58008-802-3.

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A baguette (; French: ) is a long, thin type of bread of French origin that is commonly made from basic lean dough (the dough, though not the shape, is defined by French law). It is distinguishable by its length and crisp crust.

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Time: 1762

Location: England

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When you're hungry, sometimes a sandwich can be exactly what you need. From the heartiness of the bread, to the protein and delicious toppings in-between, it's no wonder why sandwiches are one of the most popular lunch choices today.

It's hard to imagine a life without sandwiches, but their popularity wasn't always so present. According to history, the sandwich we know and love today was created in 1762 in England. Most food historians agree that the sandwich is the product of John Montagu, "the 4 th Earl of sandwich." Montagu was known for being a problematic gambler, spending hours upon hours at the card table. During one of his long days of playing, he worked up an appetite and requested something from the kitchen that he could eat with his hands, without needing to get out of his seat. He was brought a sandwich-two pieces of bread filled with meat in the middle.

From that day forward, the sandwich began making its way throughout England. By the Revolutionary War, it was a well-established dish.

It took a substantial amount of time for the sandwich to make it to America. It could be because Americans were slow to give into trends happening across the pond. The first sandwich was finally featured in an American cookbook in 1815. It wasn't the type of sandwich we typically eat today, but was actually a tongue sandwich.

Americans really started to step up their sandwich game during the Great Depression, when sandwiches like the iconic Po'Boy were created in New Orleans. Two streetcar workers came up with the idea during a streetcar strike. They promised to feed other streetcar workers who were on strike and out of money, for free. Other early sandwiches that began to appear across the country around this time included: the Sloppy Joe (named after a line cook named Joe), and the Reuben.

In Pennsylvania, our own beloved sandwich also came about during the Great Depression era-the hoagie. The story out of South Philadelphia is that they were a lunch staple for Italian-American workers in an old shipyard located in Hog Island. Originally, the sandwiches were referred to as "hoggies," but the pronunciation eventually shifted. Antoninette Iannelli claims to have popularized the sandwich around 50 years ago, when she started her fruit stand in South Philly featuring a meat case. A Police Officer came in claiming that his wife didn't pack his lunch one day. So Iannelli cut a loaf of Italian bread in half and filled it with meats, olives, onions, lettuce, tomatoes and sauce. Before she knew it, he was back and requesting more sandwiches for his colleagues. Within a week, police cars lined the street to get their own hoagies.

Today, the hoagie is popular across the entire keystone state. Hoagies have also become a staple in any local pizza shop. At Cellone's, we produce up to 60,000 to 70,000 hoagie buns per day. We deliver them to many pizza shops including Fox's Pizza, Pizza Palmero, and Jet's Pizza, just to name a few. About 10,000 to 13,000 cases of hoagie buns are delivered locally each day, while the rest are shipped all over the country. We'd love to know-what's on your hoagie?

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The History of the Sandwich - Cellone's Italian Bread Co.

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When you're hungry, sometimes a sandwich can be exactly what you need. From the heartiness of the bread, to the protein and delicious toppings in-between, it's no wonder why sandwiches are one of the most popular lunch choices today. It's hard to imagine a life without sandwiches, but their popularity wasn't always so present.

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Time: 1785

Location: Delaware, United States

Description: A machine that automatically grinds grain into flour

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Oliver Evans Builds the First Automated Flour Mill: Origins of the Integrated and Automated Factory : History of Information

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Oliver Evans Builds the First Automated Flour Mill: Origins of the Integrated and Automated Factory

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Time: 1840s

Location: England

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Today, if you need to make a last-minute birthday cake, you can grab a box of Betty Crocker cake mix, whisk it with some oil and eggs, and pop it in the oven. In early America, making a cake was an ordeal. "The flour should be dried before the fire, sifted and weighed; currants washed and dried; raisins stoned; sugar pounded, and rolled fine and sifted; and all spices, after being well dried at the fire, pounded and sifted," reads a common cake recipe in the 1841 cookbook Early American Cookery.

Besides this grueling work, you had to plan ahead. If you wanted your cake to be fluffy and airy, rather than dense and flat, you would need to do some serious work make it rise. For most of human history, the main rising agent has been yeast. As these finicky little fungi grow and divide, they breathe in oxygen and release carbon dioxide like we do. Mix them into dough and they'll eventually fill it with the familiar bubbles of carbon dioxide that make baked goods rise-a process known as leavening.

In the 18th century and earlier, most baking was dictated by the delicate whims of respiring yeast. And we aren't talking about dry or refrigerated yeast; this was way before fridges and commercial packaging. First you had to make the yeast, by letting fruit or vegetables or grains ferment. Once you'd done that, your hard-earned rising agent could still be killed or weakened by temperatures that were too hot or too cold, or contamination from bacteria. (Many early recipes recommend obtaining the help of a manservant.)

Even when it did work, leavening was a tedious process. "You're talking upwards of 12 hours of rising, usually more like 24 hours," says Jessica Carbone, a scholar in the National Museum of American History's Food History Project. Basically, forget about the joy of waking up and deciding to make pancakes.

So what changed? In a phrase, baking powder. Without this miraculous white substance, "We literally would not have cake as we know it now," says Linda Civitello, a food historian and author of the new book Baking Powder Wars. Today, baking powder "is like air, water," Civitello says. "It's the one ingredient everyone has on their shelf." This cheap chemical factors into countless baked goods we buy and make every day, from donuts to hamburger buns. But how did this revolution-in-a-can come about?

In the 18th century, American bakers were already experimenting with less labor-intensive ways to make things rise. In addition to beating air into their eggs, they often used a kitchen staple called pearlash, or potash, which shows up in the first American cookbook, American Cookery, in 1796. Made from lye and wood ashes, or baker's ammonia, pearlash consisted mainly of potassium carbonate, which also produces carbon dioxide quickly and reliably. But this agent was difficult to make, caustic and often smelly.

In 1846, the introduction of baking soda, a salt that can react with an acid to create carbon dioxide, made things easier. But baking soda still needed to be mixed with an acid. Since it was cheap and widely available, bakers often used sour milk. This process was unpredictable, since it was hard to control how acidic the sour milk actually was, meaning it was difficult to know how much baking soda to use or how long to bake for.

The first product resembling baking powder was created by English chemist Alfred Bird in the late 1840s. Bird combined cream of tartar (an acidic powder composed of potassium bitartrate) and baking soda, keeping the two apart until they were to be used so they wouldn't react too early. Unfortunately, cream of tartar was an expensive byproduct of winemaking that had to be imported from Europe, meaning that it was out of reach for many poorer Americans.

In 1856, this need for a viable alternative drove a young chemist Eben Norton Horsford to create and patent the first modern baking powder. Horsford worked at a time when chemistry was only just beginning to be considered a respected field, and ended up creating the first modern chemistry lab in the United States at Harvard University. By boiling down animal bones to extract monocalcium phosphate, Horsford developed an acid compound that could react with baking soda to create those desirable CO2 bubbles.

"It's really the first chemical that opens the floodgates for chemicals in food," Civitello says.

Horsford later had the idea to put the two together in one container. Water activates them, so he mixed them with cornstarch to soak up any excess moisture and prevent them from reacting prematurely. Now, instead of purchasing two separate ingredients at the pharmacy (where chemicals were sold at the time), and having to precisely measure out each one, would-be bakers could grab one container off the grocery store shelf and be ready to go.

In the 1880s, Horsford's company switched to mining the monocalcium phosphate as opposed to extracting it from boiled down bones, because it was cheaper. Marketed under the name "Rumford" (named for Count Rumford, who was Horsford's benefactor while he was a professor at Harvard), the baking powder is still sold today in much the same formulation.

Rumford wasn't alone for long in the baking powder industry. The company Royal Baking Powder quickly capitalized on the traditional cream of tartar that had been used ad hoc by housewives, while Calumet and Clabber Girl aimed to be more modern by using the acid sodium aluminum phosphate (alum), which was cheaper and much stronger than other baking powder acids. Hundreds of smaller manufacturers sprang up across the country, and by the end of the 19th century, the baking powder industry was worth millions of dollars.

Baking didn't immediately adapt to this new revolution, however, Carbone notes, since most recipes that women and existing cookbooks had were built around the old way of combining an acid with a salt. Baking powder companies worked to change this by releasing their own cookbooks, which served as both marketing and instruction manuals for their products. Some of these cookbooks are held today in the collections of the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History.

In that same collection are remnants of the ugly wars fought within the growing baking powder industry around the turn of the 20th century. As alum baking powder companies like Calumet's and Clabber Girl's captured more and more of the baking powder market, Royal Baking Powder in particular fought to discredit them. In advertisements, Royal touted the "purity" of its more expensive product, while claiming that other baking powders were "injurious" to one's health.

The fight culminated in 1899, when Royal managed to bribe the Missouri legislature to pass a law banning the sale of all alum baking powders in the state, according to Baking Powder Wars. Over six years of fighting, millions of dollars in bribes were paid, dozens were sent to jail for simply selling baking powder, and the muckraking press forced the resignation of the state's lieutenant governor. Even after the ban's repeal, baking powder manufacturers battled for decades into the 20th century through advertising battles and intense price wars, as Civitello chronicles in her book.

Eventually, the alum baking powder companies won out, and Royal and Rumford were acquired by Clabber Girl, leaving it and Calumet as the reigning American companies on the market. You don't have to look far to see baking powder's continued hegemony today: cooks around the world use it in everything from cupcakes to crepes, muffins to madeleines, danishes to doughnuts. "The fact that you can find it in every major supermarket tells you something about how it's been embraced," Carbone says.

So thank chemistry and modern science that you're not one of those early American bakers, pounding and sifting for all eternity.

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The Great Uprising: How a Powder Revolutionized Baking

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Today, if you need to make a last-minute birthday cake, you can grab a box of Betty Crocker cake mix, whisk it with some oil and eggs, and pop it in the oven. In early America, making a cake was an ordeal.

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Time: 1843

Location: Buffalo, NY, USA

Explanation: An elevator that lifts grain and pour them into grain silos.

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A grain elevator is a facility designed to stockpile or store grain. In the grain trade, the term "grain elevator" also describes a tower containing a bucket elevator or a pneumatic conveyor, which scoops up grain from a lower level and deposits it in a silo or other storage facility.

In most cases, the term "grain elevator" also describes the entire elevator complex, including receiving and testing offices, weighbridges, and storage facilities. It may also mean organizations that operate or control several individual elevators, in different locations. In Australia, the term describes only the lifting mechanism.

Before the advent of the grain elevator, grain was usually handled in bags rather than in bulk (large quantities of loose grain). Dart's Elevator was a major innovation. It was invented by Joseph Dart, a merchant, and Robert Dunbar, an engineer, in 1842 and 1843, in Buffalo, New York. Using the steam-powered flour mills of Oliver Evans as their model, they invented the marine leg, which scooped loose grain out of the hulls of ships and elevated it to the top of a marine tower.

Early grain elevators and bins were often built of framed or cribbed wood, and were prone to fire. In 1899 Frank H. Peavey "The Elevator King' along with Charles F. Haglin, invented the modern grain elevator. The first Peavey-Haglin Experimental Concrete Grain Elevator still stands today in St. Louis Park, Minnesota. The Peavey invented elevator was the first cylindrical concrete grain elevator in the world and is now widely used across Canada and the US.

Grain elevator bins, tanks, and silos are now usually made of steel or reinforced concrete. Bucket elevators are used to lift grain to a distributor or consignor, from which it falls through spouts and/or conveyors and into one or more bins, silos, or tanks in a facility. When desired, silos, bins, and tanks are emptied by gravity flow, sweep augers, and conveyors. As grain is emptied from bins, tanks, and silos, it is conveyed, blended, and weighted into trucks, railroad cars, or barges for shipment.

In Australian English, the term "grain elevator" is reserved for elevator towers, while a receival and storage building or complex is distinguished by the formal term "receival point" or as a "wheat bin" or "silo". Large-scale grain receival, storage, and logistics operations are known in Australia as bulk handling.

In Canada, the term "grain elevator" is used to refer to a place where farmers sell grain into the global grain distribution system, and/or a place where the grain is moved into rail cars or ocean-going ships for transport. Specifically, several types of grain elevators are defined under Canadian law, in the Canadian Grain Act, section 2.

Primary elevators (called "country elevators" before 1971) receive grain directly from producers for storage, forwarding, or both.

Process elevators (called "mill elevators" before 1971) receive and store grain for direct manufacture or processing into other products.

Terminal elevators receive grain on or after official inspection and weighing and clean, store, and treat grain before moving it forward.

Transfer elevators (including "Eastern elevators" from the pre-1971 classification) transfer grain that has been officially inspected and weighed at another elevator. In the Eastern Division, transfer elevators also receive, clean, and store eastern or foreign grain.

The Port Perry mill and grain elevator, circa 1930: Built in 1873, it is the oldest grain elevator in Canada and remains a major landmark to this day. The line of the PW&PP Railway can be seen in the foreground.

Both necessity and the prospect of making money gave birth to the steam-powered grain elevator in Buffalo, New York, in 1843. Due to the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825, Buffalo enjoyed a unique position in American geography. It stood at the intersection of two great all-water routes; one extended from New York Harbor, up the Hudson River to Albany, and beyond it, the Port of Buffalo; the other comprised the Great Lakes, which could theoretically take boaters in any direction they wished to go (north to Canada, west to Michigan or Wisconsin, south to Toledo and Cleveland, or east to the Atlantic Ocean). All through the 1830s, Buffalo benefited tremendously from its position. In particular, it was the recipient of most of the increasing quantities of grain (mostly wheat) that was being grown on farms in Ohio and Indiana, and shipped on Lake Erie for trans-shipment to the Erie Canal. If Buffalo had not been there, or when things got backed up there, that grain would have been loaded onto boats at Cincinnati and shipped down the Mississippi River to New Orleans.

By 1842, Buffalo's port facilities clearly had become antiquated. They still relied upon techniques that had been in use since the European Middle Ages; work teams of stevedores use block and tackles and their own backs to unload or load each sack of grain that had been stored ashore or in the boat's hull. Several days, sometimes even a week, were needed to serve a single grain-laden boat. Grain shipments were going down the Mississippi River, not over the Great Lakes/Erie Canal system.

A merchant named Joseph Dart Jr., is generally credited as being the one who adapted Oliver Evans' grain elevator (originally a manufacturing device) for use in a commercial framework (the trans-shipment of grain in bulk from lakers to canal boats), but the actual design and construction of the world's first steam-powered "grain storage and transfer warehouse" was executed by an engineer named Robert Dunbar. Thanks to the historic Dart's Elevator (operational on 1 June 1843), which worked almost seven times faster than its nonmechanized predecessors, Buffalo was able to keep pace with-and thus further stimulate-the rapid growth of American agricultural production in the 1840s and 1850s, but especially after the Civil War, with the coming of the railroads.

A 1928 Burrus Elevator steel-reinforced concrete elevator with 123 silos shown just prior to demolition in 2004

The world's second and third grain elevators were built in Toledo, Ohio, and Brooklyn, New York, in 1847. These fledgling American cities were connected through an emerging international grain trade of unprecedented proportions. Grain shipments from farms in Ohio were loaded onto ships by elevators at Toledo; these ships were unloaded by elevators at Buffalo that shipped their grain to canal boats (and, later, rail cars), which were unloaded by elevators in Brooklyn, where the grain was either distributed to East Coast flour mills or loaded for further shipment to England, the Netherlands, or Germany. This eastern flow of grain, though, was matched by an equally important flow of people and capital in the opposite direction, that is, from east to west. Because of the money to be made in grain production, and of course, because of the existence of an all-water route to get there, increasing numbers of immigrants in Brooklyn came to Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois to become farmers. More farmers meant more prairies turned into farmlands, which in turn meant increased grain production, which of course meant that more grain elevators would have to be built in places such as Toledo, Buffalo, and Brooklyn (and Cleveland, Chicago, and Duluth). Through this loop of productivity set in motion by the invention of the grain elevator, the United States became a major international producer of wheat, corn, and oats.

In the early 20th century, concern arose about monopolistic practices in the grain elevator industry, leading to testimony before the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1906. This led to several grain elevators being burned down in Nebraska, allegedly in protest.

Today, grain elevators are a common sight in the grain-growing areas of the world, such as the North American prairies. Larger terminal elevators are found at distribution centers, such as Chicago and Thunder Bay, Ontario, where grain is sent for processing, or loaded aboard trains or ships to go further afield.

Buffalo, New York, the world's largest grain port from the 1850s until the first half of the 20th century, once had the United States' largest capacity for the storage of grain in over 30 concrete grain elevators located along the inner and outer harbors. While several are still in productive use, many of those that remain are presently idle. In a nascent trend, some of the city's inactive capacity has recently come back online, with an ethanol plant started in 2007 using one of the previously mothballed elevators to store corn. In the early 20th century, Buffalo's grain elevators inspired modernist architects such as Le Corbusier, who exclaimed, "The first fruits of the new age!" when he first saw them. Buffalo's grain elevators have been documented for the Historic American Engineering Record and added to the National Register of Historic Places. Currently, Enid, Oklahoma, holds the title of most grain storage capacity in the United States.

In farming communities, each town had one or more small grain elevators that served the local growers. The classic grain elevator was constructed with wooden cribbing and had nine or more larger square or rectangular bins arranged in 3 × 3 or 3 × 4 or 4 × 4 or more patterns. Wooden-cribbed elevators usually had a driveway with truck scale and office on one side, a rail line on the other side, and additional grain-storage annex bins on either side.

In more recent times with improved transportation, centralized and much larger elevators serve many farms. Some of them are quite large. Two elevators in Kansas (one in Hutchinson and one in Wichita) are half a mile long. The loss of the grain elevators from small towns is often considered a great change in their identity, and efforts to preserve them as heritage structures are made. At the same time, many larger grain farms have their own grain-handling facilities for storage and loading onto trucks.

Elevator operators buy grain from farmers, either for cash or at a contracted price, and then sell futures contracts for the same quantity of grain, usually each day. They profit through the narrowing "basis", that is, the difference between the local cash price, and the futures price, that occurs at certain times of the year.

Before economical truck transportation was available, grain elevator operators sometimes used their purchasing power to control prices. This was especially easy, since farmers often had only one elevator within a reasonable distance of their farms. This led some governments to take over the administration of grain elevators. An example of this is the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool. For the same reason, many elevators were purchased by cooperatives.

These houses in Halifax, Nova Scotia were constructed in the 1990s long after the elevator had been constructed and are vulnerable due to their location. In the summer of 2003, an explosion at this elevator sparked a fire that took seven hours to extinguish.[4]

A recent problem with grain elevators is the need to provide separate storage for ordinary and genetically modified grain to reduce the risk of accidental mixing of the two.

In the past, grain elevators sometimes experienced silo explosions. Fine powder from the millions of grains passing through the facility would accumulate and mix with the oxygen in the air. A spark could spread from one floating particle to the other, creating a chain reaction that would destroy the entire structure. (This dispersed-fuel explosion is the mechanism behind fuel-air bombs.) To prevent this, elevators have very rigorous rules against smoking or any other open flame. Many elevators also have various devices installed to maximize ventilation, safeguards against overheating in belt conveyors, legs, bearings, and explosion-proof electrical devices such as electric motors, switches, and lighting.

Grain elevators in small Canadian communities often had the name of the community painted on two sides of the elevator in large block letters, with the name of the elevator operator emblazoned on the other two sides. This made identification of the community easier for rail operators (and incidentally, for lost drivers and pilots). The old community name often remained on an elevator long after the town had either disappeared or been amalgamated into another community; the grain elevator at Ellerslie, Alberta, remained marked with its old community name until it was demolished, which took place more than 20 years after the village had been annexed by Edmonton.

One of the major historical trends in the grain trade has been the closure of many smaller elevators, and the consolidation the grain trade to fewer places and among fewer companies. For example, in 1961, 1,642 "country elevators" (the smallest type) were in Alberta, holding 3,452,240 tonnes (3,805,440 short tons) of grain. By 2010. only 79 "primary elevators" (as they are now known) remained, holding 1,613,960 tonnes (1,779,090 short tons).

In 2017, the United States had 0.88 cubic kilometres (25 billion US bushels) of storage capacity, a growth of 25% in the previous decade.

A view along Buffalo's "Elevator Alley".

The city of Buffalo is not only the birthplace of the modern grain elevator, but also has the world's largest number of extant examples. A number of the city's historic elevators are clustered along "Elevator Alley", a narrow stretch of the Buffalo River immediately adjacent to the harbor. The alley runs under Ohio Street and along Childs Street in the city's First Ward neighborhood.

In Canada, the term "elevator row" refers to a row of four or more wood-crib prairie grain elevators.

In the early pioneer days of Western Canada's prairie towns, when a good farming spot was settled, many people wanted to make money by building their own grain elevators. This brought in droves of private grain companies. Towns boasted dozens of elevator companies, which all stood in a row along the railway tracks. If a town were lucky enough to have two railways, it was to be known as the next Montreal. Many elevator rows had two or more elevators of the same company. Small towns bragged of their large elevator rows in promotional pamphlets to attract settlers. With so much competition in the 1920s, consolidation began almost immediately, and many small companies were merged or absorbed into larger companies.

In the mid-1990s, with the cost of grain so low, many private elevator companies once again had to merge, this time causing thousands of "prairie sentinels" to be torn down. Because so many grain elevators have been torn down, Canada has only two surviving elevator rows; one located in Inglis, Manitoba, and the other in Warner, Alberta. The Inglis Grain Elevators National Historic Site has been protected as a National Historic Sites of Canada. The Warner elevator row is, as of 2019, not designated a historic site, and is still in use as commercial grain elevators.

Lake Shore Elevator seen in Toledo, Ohio in 1895

ABB Grain was founded as a mutual company, the Australian Barley Board, in 1939, by barley growers in South Australia and Victoria; after demutualization, it was acquired by Viterra (see below) in 2009; Australian Bulk Alliance, a joint venture between ABB and Sumitomo, operates facilities in some areas.

CBH Group, a co-operative company, was established by grain growers in Western Australia, in 1933.

GrainCorp was established by the government of New South Wales in 1917, as Government Grain Elevator, and was privatized in 1992.

All companies operating elevators in Canada are licensed by the Canadian Grain Commission.

In Sweden, the vast majority of grain elevators belong to the Lantmännen co-operative movement, owned by grain-growing farmers.

During the Battle of Stalingrad, one particularly well-defended Soviet strongpoint was known simply as "the Grain Elevator" and was strategically important to both sides.

This is a list of grain elevators that are either in the process of becoming heritage sites or museums, or have been preserved for future generations.

Acadia Valley - Prairie Elevator Museum, former Alberta Wheat Pool converted into a tea house and museum

Andrew - former Alberta Wheat Pool, restored into a museum

Edmonton - Ritchie Mill, former flour mill converted into restaurants, law offices, and condominiums

Ellis Bird Farm, built in 1937, oldest standing seed elevator in Alberta

Esther - former Alberta Wheat Pool, restored into a museum

Haselwood Mill - Alberta's oldest seed-cleaning mill, second on the site, privately owned, not protected, operated from the 1930s to 1960s near Bittern Lake, Alberta

Kinuso - United Grain Growers with original UGG logo

Lougheed - former Pioneer Elevator,now part of the Iron Creek Museum

Raley - oldest standing grain elevator on its original site in Alberta, built in 1909, maintaining many of its original features

Rowley - United Grain Growers and Alberta Wheat Pool elevators saved from demolition by locals and now fully restored

Scandia - Scandia Eastern Irrigation District Museum, 1920s Alberta Wheat Pool and stockyard now a museum

Spruce Grove - Spruce Grove Grain Elevator Museum, former Alberta Wheat Pool, now a museum

St. Albert - St. Albert Grain Elevator Park, a 1906 Alberta Grain Co. and 1929 Alberta Wheat Pool Elevators now restored as a historic park

Scugog - Canada's oldest grain elevator and the second oldest in all of the Americas

Stiver Mills - one of a few surviving grain elevators in Ontario, built 1916 and used until 1968 and now a farmers' market

Edam - former Saskatchewan Wheat Pool now a museum

Gravelbourg - Former Saskatchewan Wheat Pool saved from demolition and now a museum

Indian Head - experimental farm grain elevator refurbished as a Café, coffee house

Val Marie - former Federal and 1967 Centennial Saskatchewan Wheat Pool now museums

Weyburn Inland Terminal - first large farmer owned inland terminal in Canada, constructed in 1975 located near Weyburn

Wood Mountain - former Saskatchewan Wheat Pool No. 706, demolished April 22, 2014

The Manchester Ship Canal grain elevator was completed in 1898. It had a capacity of 40,000 tons and its automatic conveying and spouting system could distribute grain into 226 bins.

Wheeler Elevator, Buffalo

American Grain Complex, built between 1905 and 1931

Cargill Pool Elevator, previously named the Saskatchewan Cooperative Elevator was built in 1925 offered a total holding capacity of 74,000 cubic metres (2.1 million US bushels) in 135 bins

Cargill Superior elevator, marked as Cargill "S", built between 1914 and 1925

Concrete-Central Elevator, Buffalo, New York - The largest transfer elevator in the world at the time of its completion in 1917

Connecting Terminal, Clearly visible from across canalside and the Commercial Slip the structure is now used for boat storage

General Mills Plant, or "The Frontier Elevator" General Mills Buffalo factory is a large scale grain mill and cereal production facility, most notably producing Gold Medal brand flour, Wheaties, Cheerios, and other General Mills brand cereals

Great Northern Elevator, built in 1897 by the Great Northern Railroad; demolished September 2022-May 2023.

Lake & Rail Grain Elevator, part of the "elevator alley" - The Lake and Rail produces over 2,700,00 pounds of flour a day

Marine A grain elevator, also part of the "elevator alley" and across from the Lake & Rail Grain Elevator

The Standard Elevator - named after the Standard Milling Company and built in 1926

Wheeler Elevator - also known as the Agway/GLF East Work House, built in 1908

Wollenberg Grain and Seed Elevator - wooden "country style" elevator formerly located in Buffalo, New York; destroyed by fire in October 2006

Maxon Mills - built in 1954 and remained in active use as a feed elevator until the 1980s. The mill was placed on the New York State Register of Historic Places and restored in the early 2000s. It is currently used as a contemporary art exhibition space by The Wassaic Project

Bouton, Iowa's grain elevator - owned by Susan (formerly Flanery) & Michael Chris Brelsford, photo shoot location for the 40th Anniversary Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue (2004)

Historic Ely Elevator - Also known as the Woitishek/King/Krob elevator and feed mill. Constructed in 1900 in Ely, Iowa, and was in continuous use for 121 years.

Zip Feed Tower, tallest occupiable structure in South Dakota from its construction in 1956-1957 until its demolition in December 2005

Groh's Grain Elevator, elevator located near the York River in Clay Bank, Virginia. The concrete elevator with 14 silos was built in 1950 at a cost of $150,000 (equal to over $1.6 million in 2021) by Louis Groh and Son, Inc.[34] The waterfront property containing the long abandoned elevator is owned by a local physician who has installed a wind turbine atop the towering structure to generate electricity.[35]

Sewell's Point grain elevator, export elevator built by the city of Norfolk in 1922 to help the port of Norfolk better compete with other East Coast ports by providing a publicly owned facility to store and load grain at reasonable rates. It was sold to the Norfolk and Western railroad in 1929, and leased from N&W by Continental grain in 1952. The elevator originally held 26,000 m³ (750,000 US bu) but was later expanded to 120,000 m³ (3,500,000 US bu). The elevator was taken over by Cargill in the late 1980s and abandoned around the turn of the 21st century. The elevator was demolished by Norfolk Southern in 2008.[36]

Southern States silos, a grain elevator in Richmond, Virginia originally built in the 1940s by Cargill, and currently leased by Perdue Farms is the tallest structure south of the James River in the city of Richmond. The elevator was the site of the 3rd RVA Street Art Festival.[37][38]

Given a large enough suspension of combustible flour or grain dust in the air, a significant explosion can occur. The 1878 explosion of the Washburn "A" Mill in Minneapolis, Minnesota, killed 18, leveled two nearby mills, damaged many others, and caused a destructive fire that gutted much of the nearby milling district. (The Washburn "A" mill was later rebuilt and continued to be used until 1965.) Another example occurred in 1998, when the DeBruce grain elevator in Wichita, Kansas, exploded and killed seven people. An explosion on October 29, 2011, at the Bartlett Grain Company in Atchison, Kansas, killed six people. Two more men received severe burns, but the remaining four were not hurt.

Almost any finely divided organic substance becomes an explosive material when dispersed as an air suspension; hence, a very fine flour is dangerously explosive in air suspension. This poses a significant risk when milling grain to produce flour, so mills go to great lengths to remove sources of sparks. These measures include carefully sifting the grain before it is milled or ground to remove stones, which could strike sparks from the millstones, and the use of magnets to remove metallic debris able to strike sparks.

The earliest recorded flour explosion took place in an Italian mill in 1785, but many have occurred since. These two references give numbers of recorded flour and dust explosions in the United States in 1994: and 1997 In the ten-year period up to and including 1997, there were 129 explosions.

Canadian Prairie grain elevators were the subjects of the National Film Board of Canada documentaries Grain Elevator and Death of a Skyline.

During the sixth season of the History Channel series , one of the featured crews takes on the job of dismantling the Globe Elevator in Wisconsin. This structure was the largest grain-storage facility in the world when it was built in the 1880s.

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A grain elevator is a facility designed to stockpile or store grain. In the grain trade, the term "grain elevator" also describes a tower containing a bucket elevator or a pneumatic conveyor, which scoops up grain from a lower level and deposits it in a silo or other storage facility.

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Fermentation Relationship to Bread Making 

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Fermentation Relationship to Bread Making 

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Time: 1857

Location: France

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Louis Pasteur: The Father of Fermentation - Explore Yeast

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Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist celebrated for his research in vaccinations, pasteurization, and fermentation.

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Time: late 1800s

Location: America & UK

Description: A box container that holds bread and other bakeries to keep them freshly preserved

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A typical wooden breadbox.

A breadbox (chiefly American) or a bread bin (chiefly British) is a container for storing bread and other baked goods to keep them fresh. They were a more common household kitchen item until bread started being made commercially with food preservatives and wrapped in plastic. Breadboxes are still used by many people to store commercially purchased bread, but are used more especially by people who bake bread at home. They are usually made of metal, wood or sometimes pottery (pottery breadboxes are also called bread crocks). Old breadboxes can be collectible antiques.

Breadboxes are most commonly big enough to fit one or two average size loaves of bread-up to about 16 inches wide by 8 to 9 inches high and deep (40 cm × 20 cm × 20 cm).

Stale bread is colloquially called "dry", but drying and staling are distinct processes. Stale bread can weigh the same as "fresh" bread, indicating almost no loss of water; conversely, bread can be dried out without going stale. Staling is a process of retrogradation, in which the starch transposes to a crystalline form in the presence of the water contained within the bread itself. The process speeds up at cooler temperatures, such as under refrigeration, and thus bread stored at room temperature remains fresher for longer periods than refrigerated bread. Frozen bread, however, traps the moisture as ice, and prevents the staling process.

Breadboxes are thus designed to:

keep their contents at room temperature, prolonging edible storage time;

have a lid loose enough to allow airflow, reducing condensation, which helps to prevent the formation of mold;

have a lid tight enough to slow the drying process as well as to protect the contents from mice and all other pests, including ants and flies.

The breadbox is commonly used to describe the size of other objects, a sense that has outlasted its routine use in the kitchen. The query "Is it bigger than a breadbox?" was popularized by Steve Allen on the American game show What's My Line?, where it became a running gag after he initially asked the question in 1953. It remains a popular question in the parlor game 20 Questions.

The dictionary definition of breadbox at Wiktionary

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A breadbox (chiefly American) or a bread bin (chiefly British) is a container for storing bread and other baked goods to keep them fresh. They were a more common household kitchen item until bread started being made commercially with food preservatives and wrapped in plastic.

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Time: 1909

Location: United States

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An engaging account of the design story of these kitchen appliances...

The ancient art of toasting bread

Toasting bread is an ancient practice. Early civilizations placed bread over an open fire in order to preserve it, to keep it from growing mold. The bread was toasted on a hot stone in front of the fire. Later on, simple devices were created to toast bread in the fire such as wire frames, to cook the toast more evenly, or sticks like those we use to toast marshmallows over a campfire today. The Romans brought the idea back from Egypt in 500 B.C. The word "toast" actually comes from the Latin "tostum", which means "to burn or scorch."

Early toasters

With the arrival of wood and coal stoves in the 1880's, a new toasting method was needed. This led to a tin and wire pyramid-shaped device. The bread was placed inside and the device was heated on the stove. Fire was the source of heat for toasting bread until 1905 when the engineer Albert Marsh created a nickel and chromium composite, called Nichrome. Marsh's invention was easily shaped into wires or strips and was low in electrical conductivity. Within months, other inventors were using Nichrome to produce electric toasters.

The first successful version was brought out by Frank Shailor of General Electric in 1909. The D-12 model consisted of a cage-like device with a single heating element. It could only toast one side of the bread at once; the bread had to be flipped by hand to toast both sides. Since the majority of homes had limited access to electrical power, the electric toaster was used only in restaurants. To give an idea of how limited electricity was then, it was generally not even available during daylight hours.

The first Pop-up toaster

With the demand for labor-saving, the number of appliances increased in home use so electric companies began to offer a 24-hour service. Better models soon followed, some with sliding drawers, others with mechanical ways to turn the bread, but the real innovation was the automatic Pop-up toaster, conceived in 1919 by the mechanic Charles Strite. The incorporated timer shut off the heating element and released a pop-up spring when the slice of toast was done.

In 1926, the Waters-Genter Company used a redesigned version of the Strite's toaster; it was called the "Toastmaster". With a triple-loop logo inspired by its heating elements, it became part of the modern age of kitchen appliances. By the end of 1926 Charles Strite's Toastmaster was available to the public; it was a huge success.

Advertisements promised that it would deliver "perfect toast every time-without watching, without turning, without burning". This was accurate but only with the first slice of bread; the later bread slices would pop up darker. In 1979 Robert J. Salem from General Electric Company filled in a patent for a temperature sensor in toasters, making everyday toast easier to make.

The arrival of modern toasters

By the 1980's the development of heat-resistant plastics offered more options for toaster design. Models with rounded sides in a variety of colors became popular. Wider slots for bagels and thick slices of bread also appeared, as well as models with up to six slots for multiple toasting.

By the 21st Century, "smart toasters" has become a frequent marketing term. Using a microchip technology, these toasters are programmed to toast a variety of baked goods from bagels to English muffins to frozen pastries. Dual versions were also introduced. Hamilton Beach introduced a combination toaster/oven/broiler that can toast bread and bake coffee cake. Black & Decker's Versa-Toast 4-Slice model allows consumers to toast two separate types of bread, such as an English muffin and a slice of raisin bread, at the same time.

Toaster technology

The toaster continues to be modified according to new technology. Designers create new, ver-satile looks that fit into any kitchen. Size and capabilities range from simplistic to extreme. The Toaster Automatica, designed by George Watson, is the perfect example of the very latest in toaster design. With two glass plates to heat the bread on either side of the motorized bread slot, and buttons to speed up/down the motor we can make sure we get the perfect toast.

Toast as an icon

The toaster itself has become an icon. Toasters can be found on clothing, on CD covers, and as artwork. The German artist Arne Felix Magold from Tricksal, made the artwork Toast Pixel, exhibit in 2012 in Hamburg. Magold used toasted bread as pixels to create different images, from a kitchen table to an Art Gallery.

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An engaging account of the design story of these kitchen appliances... The ancient art of toasting bread Toasting bread is an ancient practice. Early civilizations placed bread over an open fire in order to preserve it, to keep it from growing mold. The bread was toasted on a hot stone in front of the fire.

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Time: 1928

Location: Davenport, Iowa, USA

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This commercial bread-slicing machine was designed and manufactured in 1928 by Otto Frederick Rohwedder (1880-1960). It was used to slice loaves of fresh bakery bread at Korn's Bakery, in Rohwedder's home town of Davenport, Iowa, beginning in late 1928. This is Rohwedder's second automatic bread-slicer, the first having fallen apart after about six months of heavy use at Bench's Bakery, in Chillicothe, Missouri.

The public loved the convenience of sliced bread and, by 1929, Rohwedder's Mac-Roh Company was feverishly meeting the demand for bread-slicing machines. By the following year, the Continental Baking Company was selling sliced bread under the Wonder Bread label. Having achieved success, Mr. Rohwedder reflected on his invention in the June 1930 issue of the Atlanta-based bakery trade journal, New South Baker: "I have seen enough bakers benefit in a big way from Sliced Bread to know that the same results can be obtained by any baker anywhere if he goes about the matter correctly. A good loaf, a proper presentation of Sliced Bread to the grocers and a truthful, clean advertising program based upon successful experiences and the baker can build his business far beyond what he could do without Sliced Bread. . . We are continuing our experimental and developmental work confident in the belief that the real possibilities of Sliced Bread have scarcely been scratched."

This 1928 bread-slicing machine was manufactured by the Micro Machine Company, of Bettendorf, Iowa, for the Davenport-based Mac-Roh Sales and Manufacturing Company. It was donated to the Museum by Mr. Rohwedder's daughter, Mrs. Margaret R. Steinhauer, of Albion, Michigan, in 1974.

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This commercial bread-slicing machine was designed and manufactured in 1928 by Otto Frederick Rohwedder (1880-1960). It was used to slice loaves of fresh bakery bread at Korn's Bakery, in Rohwedder's home town of Davenport, Iowa, beginning in late 1928.

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Time: 1940s

Location: Chicago, USA

Description: Enriching bread are grains that have been refined or fortified with add-in nutrients

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Time: 1961

Location: Chorleywood, England

Description: An industrial process that increased dough making efficiency for yeasted bread. It can turn into a slice of bread in approximately 3 and a half hours.

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The Chorleywood bread process ( CBP) is a method of efficient dough production- making bread quickly, producing a soft, fluffy loaf. It was developed by Bill Collins, George Elton and Norman Chamberlain of the British Baking Industries Research Association at Chorleywood in 1961. As of 2009, 80% of bread made in the United Kingdom used the process. Compared to the older bulk fermentation process, the CBP is able to use lower- protein wheat, and produces bread in a shorter time.

Bread had for millennia been made from wheat flour by manually kneading a dough with a raising agent, typically yeast, leaving it to ferment, then baking. In 1862 a radically new and much cheaper industrial-scale process was developed by John Dauglish, using water with dissolved carbon dioxide instead of yeast, with no need for an eight-hour fermentation. Dauglish's method, used by the Aerated Bread Company that he set up, dominated commercial bread baking for a century until the Chorleywood process was developed.

Some protein is lost during traditional bulk fermentation of bread; this does not occur to the same degree in mechanically developed doughs, allowing CBP to use lower-protein wheat. This feature had an important impact in the United Kingdom where, at the time, few domestic wheat varieties were of sufficient quality to make high-quality bread; the CBP permitted a much greater proportion of lower-protein domestic wheat to be used in the grist.

The Chorleywood bread process allows the use of lower-protein wheats and reduces processing time, the system being able to produce a loaf of bread from flour to sliced and packaged form in about three and a half hours. This is achieved through the addition of Vitamin C, fat, yeast, and intense mechanical working by high-speed mixers, not feasible in a small-scale kitchen.

Flour, water, yeast, salt, fat, and, where used, minor ingredients common to many bread-making techniques such as Vitamin C, emulsifiers and enzymes are mechanically mixed for about three minutes. The high-shear mixing generates high temperatures in the dough, which is cooled in some advanced mixers using a cooling jacket. Chilled water or ice may also be used to counteract the temperature rise during high-speed mixing. Air pressure in the mixer headspace can be controlled to keep gas bubbles at the desired size and number. Typical operating regimes are pressure followed by vacuum, and atmospheric followed by vacuum. The pressure control during mixing affects the fineness of crumb texture in the finished bread.

In typical high-volume bread-production, the dough is cut into individual pieces and allowed to "recover" for 5-8 minutes (intermediate proofing). Each piece of dough is then shaped, placed in a baking tin and moved to the humidity- and temperature-controlled proofing chamber, where it sits for about 45-50 minutes. It is then baked for 17-25 minutes at 450 °F (about 230 °C). After baking, the loaves are removed from the baking tin and then go to the cooler, where, about two hours later, they are made ready for despatch, sliced and packaged if required. In UK-standard bread, the dough piece is "cross-panned" at the moulding stage; this involves cutting the dough piece into four and turning each piece by 90° before placing it in the baking tin. Cross-panned bread appears to have a finer and whiter crumb texture than the elliptical shape of the crumb bubble structure resulting from a different orientation,[clarification needed ] is easier to slice, and tends to be more resistant to tearing when spreading products such as butter on the surface.

As of 2009, 80% of bread made in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and India, used the process. Many smaller bakers use the CBP to mix their dough which they then process by hand.[citation needed ]

Since the introduction of the process, many UK domestic wheat varieties have been improved. Flour suitable for traditional high-quality pan bread (12%-13.5% protein) can now be sourced in the United Kingdom. Before the development of the CBP, UK bread was reliant on imported wheat, particularly from North America.[citation needed ]

In the book Not on the Label: What Really Goes Into the Food on Your Plate, Felicity Lawrence claims that the industrial scale of the Chorleywood Bread Process comes at a nutritional cost, requiring larger amounts of salt and yeast than traditional bread recipes. Andrew Whitley in his book Bread Matters: The State of Modern Bread and a Definitive Guide to Baking Your Own criticises the CBP for the inferior flavour and texture of the bread made in this way.

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The Chorleywood bread process ( CBP) is a method of efficient dough production- making bread quickly, producing a soft, fluffy loaf. It was developed by Bill Collins, George Elton and Norman Chamberlain of the British Baking Industries Research Association at Chorleywood in 1961. As of 2009, 80% of bread made in the United Kingdom used the process.

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Time: 1986

Location: Japan

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Bread Machine. Enriching White Bread. Baking Powder. White Flour. Pop-Up Toaster. Ancient Greeks learn from Egypt. Fermentation. Animal Milling. United State...

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They started their business at 1824 in Milan, Italy, making Panettone. As of today, they opened 2 new branches in Milan and London. It is now one of the most famous pastry shop in Milan.

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73,000 ready-to-wear pieces, 63,000 pairs of shoes, 53,000 bags and accessories, 27,000 fabric samples. The company's archives are not only about preserving invaluable historical heritage, but also creating a source of inspiration and future research.

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The history of Milan's most famous pastry shop - Marchesi 1824

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Italian desserts have always been some of the finest ones in the world. It was the passion for their craft that allowed the confectioners to create their almost