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To what extent are the methods used in the human sciences limited by the ethical considerations involved in studying human beings?

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To what extent are the methods used in the human sciences limited by the ethical considerations involved in studying human beings?

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Do researchers have different ethical responsibilities when they are working with human subjects compared to when they are working with animals?

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Do researchers have different ethical responsibilities when they are working with human subjects compared to when they are working with animals?

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Researchers should hold more ethical responsibilities towards human subjects due to their consciousness and rights, while animal research is governed by rules that still allow more invasive procedures.

Case study: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972) involved unethical treatment of African American men who were not properly informed or treated, showing the ethical importance of treating human subjects with more care.

Citation:https://www.tuskegee.edu/about-us/centers-of-excellence/bioethics-center/about-the-usphs-syphilis-study

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What are the moral implications of possessing knowledge about human behaviour?

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What are the moral implications of possessing knowledge about human behaviour?

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Knowledge of human behavior gives knowers the power to influence, manipulate, or change social practices, raising the concerns about misuse for control or exploitation.

Case study: Facebook’s emotional manipulation study in 2014 altered users' newsfeeds to study emotional contagion, raising questions about the morality of using such data for corporate purposes.

Citation: https://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2014/06/28/facebook-manipulated-689003-users-emotions-for-science/

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Should key events in the historical development of the human sciences always be judged by the standards of their time?

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Should key events in the historical development of the human sciences always be judged by the standards of their time?

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Judging past research by ethical standards of their time can overlook the context in which researchers operated, though it helps in understanding the evolution of ethical norms.

Case study: Phrenology in the 19th century was considered a legitimate field of study, but today it is criticized as fake science and linked to racist/discriminant ideologies.

Citation: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology

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What values determine what counts as legitimate inquiry in the human sciences? Can knowledge be divorced from the values embedded in the process of creating it?

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What values determine what counts as legitimate inquiry in the human sciences? Can knowledge be divorced from the values embedded in the process of creating it?

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Inquiry is often shaped by societal values, funding, and cultural priorities, making it hard to separate the knowledge produced from the biases of its creators.

Case study: The Milgram Obedience Experiment (1961) pushed ethical limits to study obedience, which many argue was a legitimate inquiry but deeply entwined with moral concerns.

Citation: https://www.simplypsychology.org/milgram.html

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Is the role of the human scientist only to describe what is the case, or also to make judgments about what should be the case?

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Is the role of the human scientist only to describe what is the case, or also to make judgments about what should be the case?

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While some argue human scientists should remain objective, others believe they have a responsibility to address social equality and ethical issues that arise from their research.

Case study: In anthropology, Margaret Mead’s work in Samoa was not only descriptive but also raised broader questions about gender roles and societal expectations.

Citation: https://study.com/academy/lesson/margaret-mead-anthropologist-theories-lesson-quiz.html#:~:text=understanding%20of%20gender%3F-,Margaret%20Mead's%20most%20important%20contribution%20to%20our%20understanding%20of%20gender,role%20expectations%20in%20other%20civilizations.

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Ethical considerations, like informed consent, limit the scope of studies to avoid negative impact on the participants. This can restrict certain types of experimental research that could of brought us valuable information.

Case Study: The Stanford Prison Experiment (1971), a study built like a mock prison scenario which spiraled into guard brutality and negative psychological affects to those involved. It highlighted how ethical boundaries were crossed by psychologically harming participants, leading to stricter ethical guidelines in human research

Citation: https://study.com/academy/lesson/stanford-prison-experiment-summary-ethics-quiz.html

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The methods used in the human sciences are significantly limited by ethical considerations, which prioritize the well being, rights, and dignity of participants. Researchers must obtain informed consent and ensure confidentiality, which can restrict the types of studies conducted. https://guide.fariaedu.com/ib-diploma-subject-centre/core/theory-of-knowledge/syllabus/area-of-knowledge-the-human-sciences

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Yes they do. With human subjects, researchers must prioritize informed consent, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw from studies. In contrast, while ethical considerations for animal research include minimizing pain and distress and ensuring humane treatment. https://rebeccawalker.web.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/7964/2014/09/Walker-Human-and-Animal-Subjects-of-Research.pdf

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Having knowledge about human behavior carries moral implications, because it can influence how individuals and societies are treated. governments or corporations could use behavioral knowledge for both positive and negative purposes. Insights into behavior could improve education and health but might also lead to manipulative marketing tactics or invasion of privacy. http://www.tok2022.net/human-sciences.html

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Yes, they should always consider the time they were discovered. early psychological experiments like those by Freud were groundbreaking but might not meet today’s ethical standards. While it’s important to understand the context of that era, we should also critically evaluate practices, particularly if they caused harm to humans. https://www.quora.com/Should-key-events-in-the-historical-development-of-areas-of-knowledge-always-be-judged-by-the-standards-of-their-time

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Values like objectivity, respect for human dignity, and the search for truth determine what counts as inquiry in the human sciences. For example, psychological research is guided by the value of improving mental health, but cultural or political biases might influence the interpretation of findings. https://guide.fariaedu.com/ib-diploma-subject-centre/core/theory-of-knowledge/syllabus/area-of-knowledge-the-human-sciences

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The role of the human scientist is not only to describe what is the case but also to make judgments about what should be the case. For example, a sociologist studying income inequality may not only describe disparities but also advocate for policies to reduce them. This dual role involves both objective analysis and normative judgments, as human sciences often address ethical and social issues that require action. https://inters.org/Rudner-Scientist-Value-Judgments

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The methods used in the human sciences are significantly limited by ethical considerations, as researchers must prioritize the well-being and rights of participants, which can restrict certain types of studies. For example, psychological experiments involving deception, such as the Stanford prison experiment, have raised ethical concerns, leading to stricter guidelines that prevent similar methodologies in future research (Zimbardo, 1971).

Reference: Zimbardo, P. G. (1971). The Psychological Power and Dynamics of the Social Situation. American Psychologist, 26(3), 188-199.

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Yes, researchers have different ethical responsibilities when working with human subjects compared to animals, as human subjects require informed consent and respect for autonomy. For example, in medical trials, participants must be fully informed about the risks and benefits of the study and provide voluntary consent, whereas animal research often focuses more on minimizing harm and ensuring humane treatment, as animals cannot provide consent (National Institutes of Health, 2011).

Reference: National Institutes of Health. (2011). Guidelines for the Care and Use of Mammals in Neuroscience and Behavioral Research. National Academies Press.

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Possessing knowledge about human behavior carries moral implications, as it can influence how individuals are treated and understood within society. For example, understanding psychological triggers for aggression might lead to more empathetic approaches in conflict resolution, but it could also result in manipulation or exploitation if misused, such as in marketing strategies that exploit consumers' vulnerabilities.

Resource: Hastings, D. (2019). The Moral Implications of Understanding Human Behavior. Journal of Ethics, 15(2), 123-138.

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Values like objectivity, respect for participants, and cultural sensitivity help determine what is considered valid research in the human sciences. For example, when studying marginalized communities, researchers must be ethical and respectful to avoid exploiting them, showing how values shape research.

Knowledge is connected to the values involved in its creation, as these values affect the questions asked and how results are interpreted. For instance, a study on mental health stigma might reflect societal biases, which can influence how the findings are shared and understood.

Resource: Hammersley, M. (2000). Educational Research, Policymaking and Practice. In The Ethics of Educational Research (pp. 91-107).

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Point: Ethical considerations significantly limit methods in human sciences. They restrict certain types of experiments, affect participant selection, and influence data collection and storage practices. While these limitations protect subjects, they can also constrain research scope and potentially impact the validity of findings.

Real World Example: The Stanford Prison Experiment, now considered unethical, led to stricter guidelines for psychological research. Modern studies on social behavior often use less invasive methods, potentially limiting the depth of insights gained (Zimbardo, 2007).

Reference: Zimbardo, P. (2007). The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil. Random House. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/54829/the-lucifer-effect-by-philip-zimbardo/

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Point: Researchers have distinct ethical responsibilities when working with human subjects versus animals. Human research requires informed consent, protection of privacy, and consideration of psychological well-being. Animal research, while still regulated, allows for more invasive procedures but demands humane treatment and justification for potential suffering.

Real World Example: While animal studies like Harlow's monkey experiments provided insights into attachment, they're now considered ethically questionable. Similar studies with humans would be unthinkable, illustrating the stricter ethical standards for human research (Blum, 2002).

Reference: Blum, D. (2002). Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection. Perseus Publishing. https://www.basicbooks.com/titles/deborah-blum/love-at-goon-park/9780465026012/

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Point: Possessing knowledge about human behavior carries significant moral implications. It can be used to manipulate or control others, raise privacy concerns, and potentially reinforce or challenge societal biases. However, it also offers the potential to improve lives, inform policy, and enhance understanding between individuals and cultures.

Real World Example: Knowledge of cognitive biases, like those explored by Kahneman and Tversky, can be used to design 'nudges' that influence behavior. While this can promote public good, it also raises questions about autonomy and manipulation (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008).

Reference: Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Yale University Press. https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300122237/nudge/

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Point: Key events in human sciences should be understood within their historical context, but not exclusively judged by the standards of their time. While historical context provides valuable insight into why certain studies or theories emerged, applying current ethical and scientific standards can highlight progress and identify persistent issues in the field.

Real World Example: Freud's psychoanalytic theories, revolutionary in their time, are now critiqued for their lack of empirical basis. Evaluating them by both historical and current standards provides a more comprehensive understanding of their impact and limitations (Gay, 1988).

Reference: Gay, P. (1988). Freud: A Life for Our Time. W. W. Norton & Company. https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393328615

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Point: Legitimate inquiry in human sciences is often determined by values such as objectivity, reproducibility, ethical conduct, and societal relevance. However, knowledge is inherently tied to the values embedded in its creation process. The choice of research questions, methodologies, and interpretations all reflect certain values, making it challenging to completely divorce knowledge from these underlying values.

Real World Example: The shift towards studying positive aspects of human psychology, as seen in the positive psychology movement, reflects changing values in the field. This has led to new areas of legitimate inquiry, demonstrating how values shape what's considered important to study (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

Reference: Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5

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Point:The role of human scientists extends beyond merely describing what is to also considering what should be, though this is debated. While objectivity is crucial, human sciences often aim to improve human conditions, necessitating value judgments. However, scientists must be transparent about when they're describing findings versus making prescriptive statements.

Real World Example: Social psychologist Kurt Lewin argued for 'action research', where researchers not only study social issues but actively work to address them. This approach, seen in his work on group dynamics, blends description with prescription (Lewin, 1946).

Reference: Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2(4), 34-46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1946.tb02295.x