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1. Men, women and children speak differently; different linguistic features and forms because of social and cultural factors.

2. Linguistic behaviour also differs among men and women in which women are generally subjected to politeness. Other than that, men and women also emphasize different speech functions.

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1. Gender exclusivity in linguistic features tell that men and women has exclusive language use among them. This is particular in their pronunciation and morphological structure in speech.

2. Although men and women share the same language in a community, the linguistic features might differ.

EXAMPLE:
Pronunciation
- Gros Ventre American Indian tribe (one of the American Indian tribe) basically the blacks, for the word 'bread' both men and women use different pronunciation. If they use different form from their gender, the elders will consider them as bisexual.

Morphologically (Formation of words)
- Men and women may use different affixes in language. For example, the language Yana is an extinct Indian American language which shows how men use longer words in speech as they add affixes.

Vocabulary
- For traditional Japanese, men and women use different vocabulary items. However in modern Japanese, these differences are more a matter of degrees of formality or politeness than gender. Men's vocabs are vulgar while women's forms are polite and used in public contexts.
- Some pronoun reflects gender for example in traditional and modern Japanese. Women are restricted to use more formal variants

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1. Gender exclusivity reflects the linguistic features and forms used by one gender. However, gender preferential reflects what a gender prefers to use in speech.

2. Women prefers the usage of standard language while men prefer vernacular language use.

Other examples of gender preferential:
- In English, women prefer -ing rather than -in
- In Sydney, men use [f] to pronounce words such as 'thing'

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Example:
- In Norwich, men prefer to use [in'] form. For example: leapin'
- In a social dialect survey, it is presented that men in all social classes, prefer to use vernacular language.
- It is less likely for women to use vernacular language in the highest social class. Though the language preference may be classified according to social class, women is less likely to possess same language preference as men in the same group. Instead, they identify better with the women in other social groups that are nearly similar to them. This concludes that women and men have different language preference.

What do men use in vernacular language?
- -in' rather than -ing
- multiple negation
- consonant cluster simplification

This pattern is also significant with children. Young boys particularly. They also prefer using vernacular language forms in speech.

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How do women behave based on their speech? They often speak with politeness and often use standard languages or the correct forms.

Why? Let's look at the explanation based on these four categories.

1) The social status
- Women are more conscious of their statuses rather then men
- Women believe that their speech reflects their social class background
- Some believe that women who are not employed use standard language to claim high social status. However, some disagree as they claim that working women tend to use standard language due to setting influences.

2) Women's role as guardian of society's value
- Society expects women to behave better than men
- Women models correct behaviour in a community. Hence, women are expected to use standard and correct language forms as models for children's speech.
- However, in informal settings though, women also use relaxed language or vernacular language too. So, this claim has a few disagreement to it.

3) Subordinate group must be polite
- Women must avoid offending men. Women need to use careful and polite language.
- Standard language are used to preserve value among society.

4) Vernacular forms express machismo/ masculinity
- Standard forms = femininity
- Vernacular forms = masculinity

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There is significant speech difference between men and women. It is in terms of their pitch.

Pitch is different among men and women because of 2 factors.
1) Physical factors
- Due to puberty, men's voice break and it causes them to have low pitch in voice
2) Sociocultural factors
- In politics, women use lower pitch to. It reflects public preference for voice with masculine quality.

Age difference: in terms of Vocab, Pronunciation and Grammar
Age graded pattern: Children use different language forms when they turn to adult.

Pattern change:
- In Glaswegian, children learn substituing [t] in words by the encouragement of teachers.
- Adult avoid swear words when they are around children.
- Men use swear words in all-male setting while women generally reduce swearing.

Due to age difference, young people use current slang which are odd in the mouth of older people
- There are out of date slang
- Current slang are not used by older generations.

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- People use language which reflects their belonging of a race or ethnicity. People often use distinctive language associated with their ethnic identity. People often signal their ethnicity with their choice of language.

As an example:
- Maori people in New Zealand use language expression such as Kia ora, E ki, ne and Ae which reflects their ethnicity.
- Similar situation happens among Chinese Singaporeans where they use expressive language such as 'la' which reflects their ethnicity. These are used in bargaining. They believe that it can help them to get a better bargain.

People may use language of dominance which will erase their distinct ethnicity or language.
- Italians in New York
- Maori people in New Zealand
- African American in Chicago

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- The black do not need a distinct variety to differentiate themselves in the US.
- The developed AAVE has a number of linguistic features which are totally different from the standard English language.
- Hence, the AAVE symbolize the African Americans' ethnic identity and expression of culture.
- It is mostly used in the northern cities in the US: Seattle, Chicago.

Distinctive features of AAVE
1) The absence of copula verb 'be'
- English people usually use the reduced form of 'be' such as -She's kind.
- However, the AA people, omit the 'be' copula verb in their speech
2) Use of invariant be
- It is used to signal repeated actions/ multiple negation
- She be doing that often. Instead of, She always do that often.

- It is being said that, lower economic groups among the English people use these distinctive speech pattern in their language too.
3) Simplification of consonant clusters
- To sound natural, consonant clusters are usually dropped in speech among English people. However, in AAVE, it is being done extensively.

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- Ethnic minorities often speak English in a equally distinctive manner than standard English.
- Black people who are born in England are regarded as the British Black. They often use British Jamaican Creole or Patois. They also use variety forms of creole depending on context. Patois is commonly used by the British Blacks. London Jamaican is a variety of Patois. It has features that differentiate the language from Jamaican.

- It is not the knowledge of a particular language that differentiate people who use British Black English. But, the use of variety of language repertoire does differentiate or symbolize their distinct ethnicity. Particularly, when people use Patois when speaking with friends, they express solidarity or the belonging to a group which is the Young Black people.

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- There are varities of English which developed in post-colonial socities. The language experience re-conolization so that it can express the identities of local people despite being in different communities.

The features of settle and exploitation colonialism
1. Settler
- English has always been their 1st language

2. Exploitation
- Multi-lingualism is the norm
- English is primarily used in administration
- Not teach by natives
- A medium in edu
- The language is influence by local language spoken
- Added with distinctive local features

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- People in the same social network use the same forms of vernacular language. Social network usually occurs in informal settings.

1. In this subtopic, we will be focusing on the features of social network which are the density and plexity. Plexity can be categorised into two group which are uni and multiplex.

2. A dense network exist when the people in a person's social network, interact with each other with or without the person.

3. Uniplex refers to interaction between people in the same social network in only one social setting. For example, in the office only.

4. Multiplex refers to interaction among people in various social network settings.

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1. Language itself does not change but the speakers change the way they use language. Hence, it is more appropriate to call it as speakers' innovation. However, when a group of people experience speakers' innovation, the community may adopt the changes and if it is diffused throughout the community and used by others, then only it is called as a language change.

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1. Linguistic change occurs when there is a new form developed and begin to be used alongside and existing form.

AREAS OF VARIATION; PRONUNCIATION AND VOCABULARY
2. If a group of people with social status use a new slang, the people in the community may be influenced by the pronunciation. Hence, linguistic change occur especially when the usage is spread through the communities. e.g.: The word 'really good'. This case is similar to sound change, in which new sound may be developed and used by many people in the communities. The word nuclear is an example of pronunciation change.

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1. Standard English has lost the usage of post-vocalir [r], long ago. There are still some areas that are using rothic accent, but there are less likely to exist.

2. However, in the US, post-vocalic [r] is becoming a trend while the English people in UK thought of it as rural and uneducated.

3. This shows complexities of language change and this may be called as a change from above. In which it occurs downward from the upper-middle-class people.

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1. Although vernacular forms are not considered prestigious, it spreads through speech communities too.

2. An obvious example is the language change that occurs among the Vineyarders who reside the Martha Vineyard island in the US. They experience language change in a way that they pronounce centralized vowel in words. People resort to this pronunciation to show belonging and loyalty to the island.

3. Although decentralization of the pronunciation occurs, it may happen because people realize the importance of tourist and wanted to reduce antagonism. However, the usage of CV still occurs maybe to distinguish themselves as the Vineyarders.

4. This language change may be called as language from below where it occurs among the lower social groups and grows among higher social groups people.

THERE ARE 2 POSSIBLE ANSWERS TO WHY PEOPLE SPREAD VERNACULAR FORMS:
1) Social: A particular word may be found prestigious in a social group. It shows identity and it values people as the gang or membership of the community.

2) Linguistic process: Easier pronunciation

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1. Koines are quite similar to creoles. Koineisation occurs when a dialect emerges in a monolingual community where two groups of people interact using different social dialects.

2. The koines may have features that exist in both social dialects which the most may come from the dialect with larger range of speakers.

3. However, a linguistic process known as levelling occurs when people adopt the language used by the other group of social dialect users. Social factor also take into accounts when people use the dialect in which the more prestigious group is using in the koines. It may survive as a symbol of identity marker.

4. Other than levelling, simplification also occurs when the simple forms of koines are adopted and survive.

5. Social factors also take into accounts when people use the language or imitate the language by the people they admire or like. If the dialect is considered uneducated, it will disappear.

5. Sociolinguists also discover multi-ethnolects where people use a dialect that emerge in the city which are resided by multi ethnicities.

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-Typically, language spread in three ways:
1. From group to group
2. From style to style
3. From word to word

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- Many linguists use the metaphor of wave to describe linguistic change that is spread among communities. The linguistic change may happen in all directions and at different rate. Social factors such as age, gender and status affect the rate of change. Linguistic change may occur based on these dimensions.

- Linguistic change infiltrate people in the middle group who connects with more than one group

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- Linguistic change may occur and spread from one style to another. For example, a formal speech may turn into a more casual one. It may spread from one person to another within a social group and subsequently from one social group to another.

- As example, the spread of rothic accent typically occurs in formal style of young people in most statusful group and then it spreads among less formal style for that group and most formal style of other groups.

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- Sound changes also occur from one word to another. Sound change will occur from one word and then later in another. Not all words with vowel will change, it will gradually happens. This is called as lexical diffusion.

1) May spread from one word to another.
2) Some words may remain taking the original forms.

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There are 3 reasons for language change:
1) social status and language change
- groups with more social status introduce changes from neighbouring communities which are more prestigious
- leaders of change may be the middle-class speakers and especially women who adopt the correct forms and exposed to more linguistic forms
- lower social group people spread forms to express solidarity
2) gender and language change
- women introduce both prestige and vernacular change and men introduce vernacular change
- in spanish, women are spreading more prestige language
- vineyarders use vernacular language which are spread by the men community
- men in england introduce the sound away from standard RP in England; working man solidarity
3) interaction and language change
- tightly knit communities will barely experience language change as they merely maintain interaction with each other

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1) The addressees or context affect our choice of code or variety whether language, dialect or style
2) The way people speak is both influenced by and constructs by in which language is used (Context)
3) Features of speech styles that vary in formality
4) Style or registers demand by particular occupation

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- In less formal context, it is where solidarity is important. The degree of social distance of solidarity among people; relationship, age and social background.
- In relationship, people use more vernacular forms with people they do not know but people use slang and more casual language with those they are closed to.
- Adult use baby talk word or simpler words when they talk to children. In this case, we can see that people use different style of speech to different age; young or old.
- Social background also effects the way you speak with others. Radio station cater to lists of contrasting social background.

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1) Speech convergence
- It is when you speak the same way with others. Speech convergence happen when you convergence to the speech of another to ease each other and make the other party feel comfortable.

How do speakers accomodate:
1. Converging the topic
2. Converging downward when talking with simplifies language
3. Converging upward when talking to someone higher in power.

Accomodation problem:
1. If being done extensively, overdo accomodation may happen and it may offend others. Hiding identity is also one of the problem. Addressee don't know how to react to wrong pronunciation. (Hiding from true-self)

2) Speech divergence
- It is when you avoid using the same language as others. People diverge in speech for different reasons: (1) do not want to accomodate and look polite, (2) hate the person they are talking to or (3) to make a political point.
e.g.: Arab nations issued oil comunique in Arab rather than English. They do not want to look accommodating to English powers.

Positive use of speech divergence:
1) Increase level of appeal
2) Elicit help
3) Special effect (Referee design)
4) Boost sales

3) Stylisation
- People speak different than usual sounds with reasons

Reasons for stylisation:
- to amuse (comedian or singers; drag queen use feminine speech)
- create different identity
- to challenge (london speakers use asian language)
- to give hints

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- Speech accommodation or stylisation rarely occurs in more formal settings.
- People use endearment and reduced forms to refer to someone who they are close to. - However, some choice of appropriate forms is not influenced by personal relationships, but the formality of context instead. For example, in a law court, social roles override personal relationship in determining more appropriate linguistic forms.
- In classroom where a teacher is the student's parents, the children call the parents Mrs or Mr rather than mum or dad. In church, priest will also called Father by the priest's father.

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- When speaking at home with family and friends, speaker tends to use language which is informal. Some rural areas have the tradition of telling personal experience as regular pastime.
- There are many features that distinguish colloquial than former styles of English. The use of 'me' and 'them' is used as determiner. Vernacular 'me' is used by children to show disapproval in stylized performances. The use of animation for objects are also common. It is the same feature in rural colloquial conversation in New Zealand.

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The Interaction of Social Class and Style

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The Interaction of Social Class and Style

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- According to the sociolinguists study, the graph of vernacular percentage shows how much different social class use the vernacular language in different styles. The lower social class/ groups use more vernacular language in all of the settings either formal nor non-formal though they tend to reduce vernacular forms in more formal styles. The higher social group on the other hand, barely use the vernacular forms especially during formal styles.

- There are different types of variation among speakers in form of styles.
1) Inter-speaker variation distinguishes between different speaker which use the same linguistic feature
e.g.: the casual salesman and the careful pipefitter. It is hard to distinguish between a casual salesman or careful pipefitter in any particular linguistic feature

2) Intra-speaker variation distinguishes different styles used by a speaker.

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- 'Grammar Nazis'
- Over application of a perceived rule of grammar that results in non-standard usage
- People such as writers sometimes do hypercorrection when they want to appear formal or educated but it is unconsciously not appropriate.
- HYPERCORRECTION; pronunciation, word form, or grammatical construction produced by mistaken analogy with standard usage out of a desire to be correct.
- It also involves extending the form beyond the standard. The use of 'I' rather than 'me' in sentences. (Structural hypercorrection)

- It is common used by lower middle class in which they want to use the language that appears close to the higher class. (Prestige norms of higher class)
- It is because of their insecurity about their own speech.

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1) Register is a form of jargon with an occupational style that describes the language of groups of people with common interest.
e.g.: Registers tend to be associated with specific group of people, situation or view.

2) For sport announcers, they use clear vocabularies in their speech. Positions and deliveries in sports uses distinguished linguistic vocabulary (Play-by-play commentary). = it focuses on action, it use syntatic reduction and it aims communicate the drama of the moment.

-syntatic reduction
- use of simple forms of grammar to focus on the action

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Are women more polite than men. How is language used to refer to women and men? Are there any different in the way women and men interact? Is 'women's language' a distinct style or register of a language?

Subtopic
1) Women's language
2) Gossip
3) Sexist language

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1) Women are status conscious because they use standard forms of language. However, Lakoff claims that women's language reinforces subordinate status (The language used express uncertainty and lack of confidence).

2) Features of women's language

- Lexical hedges or fillers
- You know, sort of, well, you see
Women often use hedges and fillers (ummm, ahh,...) in speech. Some hedging is used to reduced form or force form of utterance.

MODIFIERS are often used by unconfident speakers according to Lakoff
- Hedging is always used by someone who is lack of confidence.
- Boosting devices (Intensifying devices) is used as extra reassurance.

Actually these forms, do not always reflects uncertainty. Men also use hedges and fillers when they are speaking (Being cautious for one's claim in court). Hence, these features are claimed to be the language of the powerless instead of the women's language (Relabelling)

- Tag questions
- She's very nice, isn't she

Tag signals doubt. The use of tags are significant for both genders.

Tag also facilitates as positive politeness device. Affectively, it works as an easy entry in conversation.

A tag also may soften directive or critism.

Used as facilitative way among people with leadership roles

To force feedback. Strengthen negative force of sentence. Not all tags are used in uncertainties.

Women use tags as positive politeness device. Men use tags for uncertainties.

Hedges also holds different meaning in terms of context, setting, addressee and etc.

- Rising intonation on declaratives
- How's the pasta? It's really good.
- Empty adjectives: divine, charming and cute
- Precise colour terms: magenta, violet
- Intensifiers such as 'so'

- Hypercorrect grammar: standard verb forms
- Superpolite forms: indirect requests and euphemisms; indirect expression for something unpleasant
- Avoidance of swear words: My goodness
- Emphatic stress: BRILLIANT performance

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The way men and women speak in interactions reflect their gender.

1) Interruption; are mostly from males.
2) Feedback; Men are always competitive and unsupportive to others. Women are on the other hand, regarded as cooperative conversationalist.

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- GOSSIP is known as a characteristic of female interaction.
- Gossip is relaxed in-group talk that goes on between people in informal contexts.
- Western called it 'idle talk' between women. It is used to (affirm solidarity, maintain membership)
- Personal experience, relationship, problem and feelings. Criticism of the behaviour of others but they avoid saying that to people indirectly cause its discomforting.
- Gossip is always done to focus on the affective message rather than the referential content.
- Though men called it two-face, it is actually used to relieve feelings and reinforce shared values.

MEN IN GOSSIP

Men always gossip to talk about activities and they always use utterance to put the other men down

Not suprisingly, women's gossip is characterized by features of women's language
- use facilitative tags
- encourage others
- complete each other's utterance
- agree frequently
- provide feedback

Men on the other hand (Mock, insult abuse; maintain relationship)
- provide conflicting accounts
- argue about range of topics
- criticise each other
- change topic
- out-do previous speaker

Men and women can be concluded to reside in different cultural group. That is why they often experience miscommunication.

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- society conveys value from one group to another and one generation to the next.
- Sexist language stereotypes a person based on gender.
- Both men and women experience gender stereotype in language either positively or negatively

English can be seen as a sexist language.

WAYS IN WHICH HAVE BEEN SUGGESTED to proof that English is sexist is based on the methapors, morphology and 'generic' structures.
1. Metaphors
Chick = women
Animal imagery = Women imagery often portrays negative value. Animal imagery which refers to men have at least positive value

Food imagery = It can be seem insulting when people use food imagery to refer to women. Neutral expression becomes insulting when it is always being used among women to refer to sexual contents.

2. Morphology

Women is always being referred as subordinate based on formation of words.

Word structure always use male form as base form. Women on the other hand are used as the subordinate forms. European languages also has female and male forms. Additional suffix are used for women; abnormal.

3. Generic structure
- He / man reflects the non-existence of females. These forms are extensively being used as third-person singular subject pronoun in general.
- Using 'they' may be more neutral (Generic pronoun)

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1) Language and perception
2) Whorf
3) Linguistic categories and culture
4) Discourse patterns and culture

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- The way a person speaks reflect his or her background/ social group, age, ethnicity and gender
- Language may also determine WHAT PEOPLE NOTICE, WHAT CATEGORIES THEY ESTABLISH AND WHAT CHOICES THEY BELIEVE ARE AVAILABLE & THE WAY THEY BEHAVE.

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- Agentless passive constructions (no agent/subject in which the action is more important) and impersonal nouns (It indicates that something is being referred to something not specific)
1. Author want to emphasize action rather than doer.
2. Needly avoid drawing attention to reasons of failure. To avoid issued whose choice. But he also refers to women as erroneous, ignorant and gullible

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Political correctness include language to avoid using sexist or racist language to people who already experience discrimination.

Verbal hygiene is used as the urge to meddle in matters of language. It means the effort to improve or correct speech and writing to stop change in language. Writing letters to editor to talk about abuse of language to talk about what appears to be correct to using language as a political weapon.

Constituting proper, correct and acceptable usage in a range of context is the use of the word 'cripple' in New Zealand (used to describe a person with disability).

Handicapped and disabled are used to replace cripple as it sounds tasteless.

However, handicapped and disabled is a general word. People who work in the area use the term 'person with disability or with an impairment' to refer to disabled people.

This is seen as a form of euphemism by others.

People use language as a political weapon is when people in China is well aware of power of language. The leaders use language as a weapon to educate others by distributing books to spread their power. He establish a group called 'Mao Zedong Propaganda Teams'. It is called as a brainwash movement. The approach assumes a very close relationship between language and thoughts.

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Benjamin Lee Whorf notice that particular word that is used to talk about/label object often influence people's behaviour

Whorf has a theory called linguistic determinism; people from different culture think differently because of their language. e.g.: A native speaker of Hopi view world differently than people who use English because they use different language based on the culture.

- Language effects the thought pattern. Thought pattern is hard to be investigated, we can only use language to distinguish thought patterns.

Linguistic relativity on the other hand views that language influences thought, perception and behaviour.

Whorf said that it's hard to distinguish colours if you don't know the name. But, linguistic relativity proves that people can still distinguish colour and object even without the correct vocabulary.

Grammar and cognition
- Areas of experience -> Get grammaticalized expecially when it can be elements in grammatical system such as an affix.
- Grammatical categories encode aspects of reality differently in different languages. Hopi views time differently than English language speakers.

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- Native American and Australian Aboriginal languages fight the misconception about primitive languages in which they do not have complex grammars.
- Dyirbal for example, is a primitive language that possess complex grammar classification according to association, myths and beliefs.
- Based on culture, language provides a means of encoding a community's knowledge, beliefs and values. For example, different language has different usage and meaning behind/ of the word sick.

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- Cultural difference between the discourse patterns of the majority and minority may have serious consequences.
- Aboriginal Australian place great importance on indirectness. It is important to avoid being intrusive. (Giving privacy) Question directly is inappropriate in Aboriginal Australian.
- For example, a person may not want to share information to lawyers because it involves personal matter.
ABORIGINAL SOCIETY IS A CLASSIC NEGATIVE POLITENESS CULTURE WHERE

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In speech, there are different functions.
1) DIRECTIVE
2) EXPRESSIVE
3) PHATIC
4) POETIC
5) METALINGUISTIC
6) REFERENTIAL

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Politeness takes into account the dimension of social relationship or solidarity and context of formality either you are speaking with someone from higher social group/superior or subordinate.

What to consider before speaking with others?
-social distance (relationship)
-relative status
-formality and context

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF POLITENESS
-positive and negative politeness.
The positive politeness culture is solidarity-oriented while the negative politeness culture is formality-oriented.

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In different culture, there different meaning behind the act of politeness. It is normal being distinguished by the norms. What seems normal in the community is considered as a culture and polite.

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Verbal hygiene is when we make the effort to improve or correct speech & writing or in other words, to arrest change in language.