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Standards-Based Instruction for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

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Foundational Activities Checklist for PILOT 9.2022

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Initial Readiness Check for Administrators 2022

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Student Support Operationalization Checklist for PILOT 9.2022

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Membership and Participation Fidelity Tool

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Hot Spots Routine-Claims-Myths re Inclusion

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Inclusion Hot Spots Activity for Virtual - Google Jamboard

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Inclusion Hot Spots Activity for Virtual

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Planning Belonging Activity for Virtual - Google Jamboard

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The version of the browser you are using is no longer supported. Please upgrade to a supported browser. Dismiss

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ALL THEMES: Environment Life Cycles Poetry Polar Regions Presidents' Day Pumpkins Rainforest Recycling September 11 Shadows & Light Sink or Float/Buoyancy Space Spiders Spring St. Patrick's Day Summer Teeth Thanksgiving Trees Valentine's Day Veterans Day Volcanoes Winter Women's History Zoo Magnets Martin Luther King, Jr.

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Bringing Support TO the Students Just Let them Eat Cake!

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Introduction

What are high expectations for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities? This question has been raised for decades, with the answers changing over time. Although the conclusion has been that all individuals deserve the chance to show what they know and can do, exactly what that means for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities is just emerging.

Evidence

Students with disabilities in the United States have a history of exclusion in education. Although it has been more than 40 years since the first laws were enacted to ensure that a child with any disability had access to school, the placement of students with the most significant cognitive disabilities in segregated settings continue (Morningstar, Kurth, & Johnson, 2017).

Legislation requires access to and assessment of student performance in grade-level academic content (IDEA 1997; ESEA 2001, 2015). Yet, there continues to be a mindset that students with intellectual disabilities should be taught an "alternate" curriculum, one that meets their functional skill needs rather than academics. Spooner and Brown (2011) noted that inclusive efforts for students with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities have focused on the location of their learning, but continued the separate curriculum. The assumption was that this population of students could not learn academic content. Even though this myth has been debunked (Saunders & Wakeman, 2018/2019), it persists. Advocates and researchers continue to encourage practitioners to consider what is relevant for students in this population and plan for what they could do instead of assuming what they cannot do (e.g., Courtade, Spooner, Browder, & Jimenez, 2012; Quenemoen & Thurlow, 2017).

The least dangerous assumption was first proposed by Donnellan (1984). It is a concept that has guided the approach taken by some, but not all, educators who work with students with the most significant cognitive disabilities. Still, there is evidence that when there is adherence to the least dangerous assumption, students with intellectual disabilities can make progress on the same academic content as their grade-level peers without disabilities (e.g., Heinrich, Collins, Knight, & Spriggs, 2016; Ruppar, Afacan, Yang, & Pickett, 2017).

The least restrictive environment (LRE) requirement in IDEA was designed to ensure that every child be educated with non-disabled peers to the greatest extent possible. Every Individualized Education Program (IEP) team makes decisions about placement based on the student's strengths and needs, so it is best practice that IEP teams remain up-to-date on current research for educating students in inclusive settings. Research findings indicate that:

Inclusive placements in general education classrooms for students with significant cognitive disabilities correlate positively with their achievement (Kleinert et al., 2015).

When students with intellectual disabilities are educated with their non-disabled peers they also make progress on social goals (e.g., Brock, Biggs, Carter, Cattey, & Raley, 2016; Henrick, Collins, Knight, & Spriggs, 2016).

When students without disabilities are educated in inclusive classrooms, they develop skills like empathy and advocacy, and there is no negative effect on their academic performance (Carter et al., 2016).

Definition

The least dangerous assumption is a theory developed in the early 1980s. According to Donnellan (1984), "The criterion of the least dangerous assumption holds that in the absence of conclusive data, educational decisions ought to be based on assumptions that, if incorrect, will have the least dangerous effect on the likelihood that students will be able to function independently as adults" (p. 141). Evidence gathered by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) indicated much earlier that teacher expectations could influence student achievement. In the current policy environment when so many expectations are created by test score data or disability label, it is vital that high expectations are set for all students.

Donnellan wrote about the need to practice the least dangerous assumption for students with disabilities. She suggested that if a student does not make progress, we should first assume it is due to a problem with the instruction or materials rather than a student deficit. Jorgensen (2005) outlined five reasons for presuming competence as the least dangerous assumption: (a) human intelligence is multi-faceted, (b) measuring intelligence is flawed, (c) communication and high-quality instruction are needed before we can determine capability, (d) presuming incompetence could be harmful, and (e) even if we are wrong, the consequence is not as harmful as the alternative.

Further information on expectations is provided in the following video clips of a parent and a general education teacher talking about the importance of high expectations from each of their perspectives:

Implementation

The ways in which expectations can play out for an individual student are shown in this case study of Leo. Leo has an intellectual disability and has been in a separate classroom for the past four years. His IEP includes goals for using Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) to make simple requests (e.g., more, drink, bathroom, eat), using behavioral self-management strategies, identifying simple sight words, and sorting objects by color or size. The IEP team is discussing the best placement for Leo. His parents have been pushing to have him included in general education classes. This is the conversation:

Parents: We have been attending trainings on building communication systems and using the least dangerous assumption. It seems that Leo's behavior outbursts are linked to the fact that he doesn't have a solid communication system yet. We also are worried because he has been coming home from school with the same types of work for years, and we think he would benefit from joining the regular class where the kids from our neighborhood are.

Principal: What has Leo been working on this past year?

Speech-language pathologist: He's been working with a new AAC system, but he still hasn't mastered the basic needs (asking for a drink, identifying his name, etc.). His IEP goals have been pretty similar since Kindergarten.

Teacher: Well, he has been working on many of the same IEP goals for awhile, but that is because he really struggles to remember anything from one day to the next. We do flashcards for sight words and he knows them one day, but then the next week he has forgotten them all. There is no way Leo can do grade-level work. His academics are not even close, and his behaviors would be detrimental to the rest of the students.

After quite a few meetings and discussions and some reading (e.g., Carter, 2018/2019; Jorgensen, 2018/2019), the IEP team realized that Leo seems more interested in his surroundings when he is with same-aged peers, including those without disabilities. His parents share that he finds ways to communicate with his brother's friends when they come over. Ultimately, on a trial basis, Leo is placed in a general education setting from the time of his arrival at school through lunch. Leo's parents asked that the educators who work with Leo be given some professional development to support planning for Leo's transition to the general education classroom. The principal and teachers agreed. During and after the training, everyone worked together to identify potential barriers to Leo's inclusion and access to the curriculum, and together they problem-solved ways to overcome them. For instance, rather than focusing on Leo having few sight words and a bad memory, the team thought about how to help him access information and show what he knows. Perhaps Leo may not master multiple sight words, but through a free technology, such as Bookshare, he could listen to the same text as his peers, and he could show his understanding using a response board with some choices rather than coming up with each answer on his own.

Leo's case provides examples of how the least dangerous assumption can be implemented. For each implementation example presented below, there is also the likely negative effect if the least dangerous assumption is ignored.

Teaching Life, Social, and Academic Skills

In Leo's inclusive math class, students are working on multi-step mathematical problems. Leo is using his task-analyzed support to complete problems similar to his peers. Leo uses his stamp to write his name, or his AAC to electronically sign, at the top of his math assignment. Like all the students in class, if Leo has a question he is supposed to ask two peers before he asks a teacher. Further, his AAC device is programmed to ask for help and has core words that can be combined to reflect a large number of concepts and ideas. Leo also has some fringe vocabulary for specific units. The math problems are connected to the science lesson being taught later that day.

What might have occurred if the least dangerous assumption had been ignored? Leo works alone at his desk. He circles numbers in isolation on a worksheet. He stamps his name five times in a row on a second worksheet. He staples the worksheets together before he turns them in to his teacher.

Instruction in Natural Contexts and Routines

Leo enters the inclusive classroom and says "hello" to his classroom teacher and friends. What might have occurred if the least dangerous assumption had been ignored? Leo is practicing activating his AAC device to say "hello" in a therapy session in four out of five trials.

More Challenging Content

In his inclusive classroom, Leo uses familiar playing cards to sequence numbers on a number line as part of multi-step math problems that the rest of the class is doing. He sorts information from two different stories to create a Venn Diagram. He uses his name and course subject to identify letter sounds.

What might have occurred if the least dangerous assumption had been ignored? Leo completes three tasks each morning when he arrives at school. These three tasks are his IEP goals related to matching colors and pictures of playing cards, sorting blocks, and circling his name. These tasks are not changed until he demonstrates mastery for five out of five days.

Addressing Barriers to Learning

Leo's inclusive classroom teacher plans a lesson related to comparing and contrasting states of matter. She plans using tangible objects so that Leo can touch, see, and hear the differences. She provides picture and object response options for concepts for Leo to use on his AAC device. She uses videos for Leo to see the melting and freezing process in a short period of time.

What might have occurred if the least dangerous assumption had been ignored? Leo's teacher sees Leo as the barrier to learning, and thus uses hand-over-hand support with Leo to sort pictures of hot and cold items because there is only 15 minutes of class time for science.

Focus of Instruction

Leo works on a subset of prioritized vocabulary for each chapter of the text the class is reading. He uses his AAC device for both word recognition and definition. Leo has picture supports that match each vocabulary word and has several opportunities each day to respond to questions using the vocabulary on his communication device. He repeats having the chapter read aloud to him and using his vocabulary as homework.

What might have occurred if the least dangerous assumption had been ignored? Leo's teacher regularly focuses on a narrow set of skills or topics. Thus, Leo's vocabulary instruction focuses on flashcard instruction. He works on five words in isolation each benchmark period.

Summary

The least dangerous assumption pushes us to consider all students as capable (Jorgensen, 2005). Our challenge is to not think in a deficit mindset but consider what can we do to support students in how they access, engage in, and respond not only to life skills content, but academic content, as well. By including students with the most significant cognitive disabilities in the instruction of all content, students and families are included in a community of learning that sets achievable high expectations.

Learning Activities

Least Dangerous Assumption Learning Activities for Educators: Activity 1

Watch the following video. Be prepared to note where you see evidence of considerations of least dangerous assumption and where there are potential ways to increase considerations of least dangerous assumption.

After watching the video, click here to see places to potentially improve considerations for LDA​.

Least Dangerous Assumption Learning Activities for Educators: Activity 2

The least dangerous assumption basically states that if we aren't 100% sure, we should make decisions that, if wrong, have the fewest negative repercussions against the person. At different times of a person's life, these decisions may include what someone should or shouldn't learn, where someone should learn, where someone should live, with whom someone should live, etc.

The least dangerous assumption is important because we know:

Having high expectations makes a difference

IQ is not destiny

Not talking is not the same as not having something to say

So, how do you create least dangerous assumption opportunities in your IEP meetings, your schools, and your life? Let's look at some possible scenarios.

"Shaquan has Down syndrome so I think this classroom may be best. He will learn the functional skills he'll need to get a job."

The assumptions being made:

All people with Down syndrome have the same needs.

Functional skills are often defined as "daily living skills" and typically include hygiene skills, making change, and following basic directions. "Academic" skills such as reading, writing, science, and math are not considered as a priority or achievable for some students.

What is a response that reflects a least dangerous assumption? Write one before moving on to see some possible responses.

See possible responses that reflect a least dangerous assumption in Shaquan's scenario.

"Down syndrome is only one part of who Shaquan is."

"Functional skills for Shaquan are reading, making friends, and learning how to advocate for himself."

"How can we support Shaquan learning all the skills he needs to help him get access to general education classroom and content?"

Kaitlyn needs to learn to better use her AAC system before she will benefit from a general education classroom.

What assumptions are being made?

Communication is taught in isolation.

Not talking is the same as not having anything to say.

What is a response that reflects the least dangerous assumption? Write one response before moving on to see some possible responses.

See possible responses that reflect a least dangerous assumption in Kaitlyn's scenario.

"Let's give Kaitlyn more opportunities to practice communication and more people to communicate with."

"Rather than waiting for Kaitlyn to 'prove herself' by communicating, let's begin by giving her things to communicate about."

"Since Kaitlyn doesn't yet have a strong communication system, we can't be sure what she does and doesn't understand. We must then give her access to as much as we can, in case her receptive language is stronger than her expressive currently is."

Daniel's behavior is not appropriate for a general education classroom. Once he learns better ways to handle his frustration then we can talk about moving him.

What assumptions are being made?

Behavior is a prerequisite for being allowed in a classroom.

Behavior is not communication.

What is a response that reflects the least dangerous assumption? Write one response before moving on to see some possible responses.

See possible responses that reflect a least dangerous assumption in Daniel's scenario.

"What is Daniel's behavior telling us? Is he engaged in the classroom environment?"

"How can we support Daniel to learn better ways to handle his frustration?"

"What strategies and supports can we put in place in a general education classroom to help Daniel?"

What assumptions are being made?

Shandra's IQ is 60. She won't be safe in a general education setting.

IQ is destiny.

Shandra will only be safe if adults take care of her and adults will always be around to take care of her.

Shandra's peers will be mean to her.

What is a response that reflects the least dangerous assumption? Write one response before moving on to see some possible responses.

See possible responses that reflect a least dangerous assumption in Shandra's scenario.

"What are supports that Shandra needs to access reading, writing, math, science, etc.?"

"How can we set up peer networks or a circle of friends for Shandra?"

"What strategies can we use to help Shandra build her advocacy skills?"

TIPS Series: Tip #6, July 2019

All rights reserved. Any or all portions of this document may be reproduced without prior permission, provided the source is cited as:

Taub, D., Wakeman, S., Saunders, A., Thurlow, M. L., & Lazarus, S. S. (2019). Using the least dangerous assumption in educational decisions (TIPS Series: Tip #6). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, TIES Center.

TIES Center is supported through a Cooperative Agreement (#H326Y170004) with the Research to Practice Division, Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. The Center is affiliated with the National Center on Educational Outcomes (NCEO) at the Institute on Community Integration (ICI), College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota. The contents of this report were developed under the Cooperative Agreement from the U.S. Department of Education, but do not necessarily represent the policy or opinions of the U.S. Department of Education or Offices within it. Readers should not assume endorsement by the federal government. Project Officer: Susan Weigert

The National Center on Educational Outcomes leads the TIES Center partnership. There are six additional collaborating partners: Arizona Department of Education, CAST, University of Cincinnati, University of Kentucky, University of North Carolina - Charlotte, and University of North Carolina - Greensboro.

TIES Center

University of Minnesota

Institute on Community Integration

2025 East River Parkway

Minneapolis, MN 55414

Phone: 612-626-1530
www.tiescenter.org
This document is available in alternate formats upon request.

The University of Minnesota is an equal opportunity employer and educator.

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TIES TIPS | Foundations of Inclusion | TIP #6: Using the Least Dangerous Assumption in Educational Decisions

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What are high expectations for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities? This question has been raised for decades, with the answers changing over time. Although the conclusion has been that all individuals deserve the chance to show what they know and can do, exactly what that means for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities is just emerging.

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Membership and Belonging in the Classroom

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Membership and Belonging in the Classroom

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These five strategies can help ensure that students feel they belong in your classroom.

©Ikon Images/Trina Dalziel

About a year ago, I received a text in the middle of the teaching day from the mother of a student I had taught eight years earlier as a second grader. She thanked me for always being there for her son, who had come out as gay to their family the night before. She shared that her son-now a senior in high school-mentioned me in their conversation and said I had taught him that all people have equal value in the world, a lesson that helped him face the truth of who he was.

Early elementary teachers rarely see the seeds we try to plant in our young students come to fruition, but we always hope they will grow into the people we imagine they can be. For the last 16 years, I've taught in an inclusion classroom where many students have learning differences that can pose a challenge to connecting with others. I've learned that if students feel anxious socially, they will not be open to taking academic risks, so building a culture of belonging has become my greatest priority. It is important to clarify that when I say "belonging," I am not talking about "fitting in"-students' individuality and uniqueness should always be valued. Belonging in the classroom means ensuring that all students feel welcomed, comfortable, and part of the school family.

Here are five simple ways I've found with which I can convince every student that he or she was meant to be in my classroom:

1. Shine a light on each student. Students often look to their teacher for a cue on how to handle social situations. In learning, we simply call this modeling. When working with students who have learning differences, I've learned it's important to model that every child has something special about him or her that we can celebrate. I had a student who ate alone every day the year before she joined my class. Her behaviors set her apart, and other students naturally started avoiding her. When she became my student, my co-teacher, my aide, and I made an intentional effort to laugh with her and praise her around her classmates. Soon, my students began to see her in a different light, and she never ate alone again. Help your students see each other through your eyes, so they can see each other's greatness.

2. Foster student identity building. Five times per year, I allow my students to do genius hour or passion projects of their choosing. I require only a two-paragraph written or typed piece to ground the work in English language arts. For students, these projects become very personal and a way to share more about who they are with their classmates, while boosting their public speaking skills. I've had students present about their rare medical conditions that they were previously afraid to talk about. Other students have explored their family heritage or activities they participate in, like karate or dance. In every case, students are empowered by their interests and passions, and they regularly say they enjoyed the learning that took place-about themselves and each other.

3. Always leave one desk empty. Every year, I have had at least one new student join us halfway through the school year. Chances are, for any 8-year-old going through a midyear move, it is one of the most difficult times they will ever endure. Seeing an empty desk when they arrive signals that our class has been waiting for them all year-and reminds other students throughout the year that our class could grow and change at any time. I also have my students make and hand out cards for the new student to welcome him or her upon arrival. Teachers have the power to send the message that they've been inconvenienced or the message that they're excited and happy for a new student to join the class.

4. Make sure that each child feels chosen. Several times a year, I ask my students to anonymously write down the names of three students they want to sit with or work with-ranked in order of preference. I go over the results to see who is being selected and who is not. With that knowledge, I seek out students who aren't chosen and create opportunities for them to build relationships with their peers. I may call on one of them and say, "Choose anyone you want to walk this to the office," for example, to help improve their social equity in the eyes of their peers. Other times, I will assign these students specific partners who will help them by modeling good social behaviors.

5. Weave social and emotional practices throughout the day. Toward the end of a school year, I start allowing students to choose their partners for activities, but I change up the traditional classroom social dynamics by letting the students who are typically not chosen to be the choosers. Knowing how this could easily backfire, I remind students of the proper and improper ways to react if the person who chooses them wasn't who they had in mind by stating, "When someone chooses you, they are giving you a gift-the gift is saying, out of all the people in the class, I choose you." This simple exercise takes only about three minutes, but it builds an important social and emotional foundation that teaches students to appreciate each other.

We can never take for granted the importance of our students feeling they belong. In a world that does not yet fully welcome everyone, schools can reinforce existing divisions or provide students a safe community that feels like a second home. That former second-grade student of mine went on to attend the prom with his boyfriend in our very conservative town and initiated a town-wide pride campaign. I have never felt more proud of my impact as a teacher. As educators, we really can help change the world, one child at a time.

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Every Student Matters: Cultivating Belonging in the Classroom

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These five strategies can make a big difference in ensuring that students feel they belong in your classroom.

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TIES Belonging Resources | Creating communities of belonging for students with significant cognitive disabilities

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What if you didn't meet benchmarks and were compared to others throughout your life? Yikes! Let's do better.

A helpful exercise that can clarify our thinking and generate great outcomes.

Let's focus on what a person with a disability can do, instead of what he can't.

The word "care" is used a great deal in this field, but we can do a better job when we begin to really care about what's important to people with disabilities.

How can people (parents and/or professionals) be highly educated yet still remain ignorant about children and adults with disabilities?

If your life has been programmed to the nth degree, it's no surprise that people with disabilities say, "Nothing about me without me!"

On the continuum, where do you stand, how did you get there, and does your position need to change?

We may have many goals in mind for a person with a disability, but are we getting the desired outcomes?

Too many goals written for an individual are meaningless and irrelevant. Let's do better!

People with disabilities often have the best ideas-are we listening?

Before giving up on trying something new, let's ask, "How..." This strategy can lead to success!

We don't know it all; when we get curious, we'll learn what's really important to and for people with disabilities.

When it all feels overwhelming, let's focus on just one thing so we can get it done and be successful. ​

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What if you didn't meet benchmarks and were compared to others throughout your life? Yikes! Let's do better. A helpful exercise that can clarify our thinking and generate great outcomes. Let's focus on what a person with a disability can do, instead of what he can't.

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Whatever it Takes_ a SWIFT film on Inclusive Academic Instruction-HD

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"Whatever it Takes" is a SWIFT film by Dan Habib. The film features one of the SWIFT domains, Inclusive Academic Instruction, and features schools in Maryland, Mississippi and Oregon implementing the Schoolwide Integrated Framework for Transformation (SWIFT). SWIFT is a national K through 8 technical assistance center that builds school capacity to provide academic and behavioral support to improve outcomes for all students through equity-based inclusion. To learn more about the 5 SWIFT domains and 10 features, see the SWIFT guide at guide.swiftschools.org

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Process for Planning for Least Intrusive Support

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Facilitating Independence Padlet of Resources

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Accoms and Mods Padlet of Resources

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10 Practical Principles for Peer Supports

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Facilitating Friendship in Incl Classrooms

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telling peers about your child's disability

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Peer Buddies, Supports, Interventions Links

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Jorgensen_Best Practices in Annual Goal Development

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Disabling segregation: Dan Habib at TEDxAmoskeagMillyard

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Evolution of Incl Video, Disc Prompts 2021

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Shelley Moore - Transforming Inclusive Education

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Pres Comp Video w-Group Disc Prompts 2021

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School Coffee Carts Aren't Inclusion   The Weeklyish Video Edition 10.11.21

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5 Peer Support Approaches That Work! - Brookes Blog

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In inclusive classrooms, peer supports are a great way to help meet the needs of all learners. While they can’t take the place of individualized supports delivered by teachers and other members of a student’s school team, they’re an important supplemental strategy to keep in your inclusion toolbox.…

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Phase 3 Materials | Project Impact | UNC Charlotte

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Turn and Talk task analysis_Templates to print

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RubiStar is a tool to help the teacher who wants to use rubrics, but does not have the time to develop them from scratch.