# data[].attributes.body
Development: pattern of biological, cognitive, socioemotional changes that begins at conception and continues through life span.

Cognitive processes = changes in child's thinking, intelligence, language.

Socioemotional processes = changes in child's relationships with people, emotions, personality.

Biological processes = changes in child's body and brain development, height, weight, motor skills, hormones in puberty.

Periods of developement:
Infancy: 18-24 months
Early Childhood: infancy to 5 years
Middle to late childhood: 6-11 years
Adolescence: 12- late teens

# data[].attributes.body
Neuroconstructivist view:
1. biological processes & environmental experiences influence brain's development.
2. Brain has plasticity (ability to change).
3. development of brain is linked closely w/ cognitive development.
What children do can change the development of their brains

Myelination: process of encasing cells in brain with myelin sheath.  This increases speed information travels through nervous system.

Prefrontal cortex: high level thinking and self-regulation.

Limbic system: emotions and reward system.  Matures earlier than prefrontal cortex and finishes developing in early adolescence.

Amygdala: emotion, part of limbic system.

Lateralization: 2 halves of brain.  Left = speech and grammar.  Right = creative? Not always true and perfect.

Plasticity: Brains ability to change and adapt.

# data[].attributes.body
Cognitive Processes: Processes children use when they construct their knowledge of the world.

Ones Piaget thought were important:
Schemas: way to organize knowledge.  Ex: organize by shape, color, size.  As adult: how to drive a car.

Assimilation and Accommodation:
Assimilation = when a child brings new info into schema
Accommodation = child adjusts schema to fit new info/experiences

Organization: the grouping of isolated behavior and thoughts into a higher-order system.  Ex: a boy w/ idea how to use a hammer might have an idea of how to use other tools.

Equillibration: how children shift from one stage of thought to next.

# data[].attributes.body
A child's cognitive development is shaped by the cultural context they live in.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the range of tasks that are too difficult for child to master alone but can be learned with guidance from adult or more skilled children.

This reflects concept of developmentally appropriate teaching.

Linked to ZPD = Scaffolding: changing the level of support.

Vygotsky's theory is a Social Constructivist approach (Emphasizes the social contexts of learning and construction of knowledge through social interaction)

# data[].attributes.body
Language is majorly important in child's development.  Not just for social communication, but for task solving.

Language: form of communication (written, spoken, signed)

Phonology: sound system of language

Morphology: units of meaning in word formation (the "er" in "helper")

Syntax: way words are combined to be acceptable phrases and sentences

Semantics: meaning of words and sentences

Pragmatics: appropriate use of language in different contexts

Early Childhood: See six key stages, page 61

Middle/Late Childhood:
- gain new skills to learn to read/write
- learn the alphabetic principle (letters of alphabet represent sounds of language)
- vocab increases from 14,000 to 40,000 by age 11
- metalinguistic awareness: knowledge about language (ex. knowing what a preposition is)

Adolescence:
- can analyze function of word
- develop subtle abilities with words
- understand more complex lit. works

# data[].attributes.body
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)

Ecological Theory: Development is influenced by the 5 environmental systems:

Microsystem: setting child spends lots of time (family, peers, neighborhood, school)
Mesosystem: links between Microsystems (connections between family experiences and school experiences)
Exosystem: another setting that influences students and teachers immediate context (school supervisory board)
Macrosystem: broader culture of a setting.
Culture: ethnicity and socioeconomic factors
Chronosystem: sociohistorical setting (Childs lives now are different than their grandparents)

# data[].attributes.body
Complements Bronfenbrenner's theory.
Erikson (1968)

Theory: 8 stages of development unfold as people go through the human life span.

1. Trust vs Mistrust
Development of trust requires warm, nurturing caregiving.  Outcome is feeling of comfort and min. fear.  Mistrust happens when infants are ignored or neglected.
2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt
Discover behavior is their own.  Begin to assert independence and will.  If infants are restrained too much or punished, develop sense of shame and doubt.
3. Initiative vs guilt
Challenged more than previous level. Develop guilt feelings if irresponsible or made to feel anxious.
4. Industry vs inferiority
Child directs energy towards learning and intellectual skills.  Danger of developing sense of inferiority, unproductively, incompetence.
5. Identity vs identity confusion
Adolescents try to figure out who they are, where they are going in life.  Must be allowed to explore different roles and paths.  Can remain confused if not.
6. Intimacy vs isolation
form positive and close relationships with others.  If failed, can become isolated.
7. Generativity vs stagnation
transmitting something positive to next generation (parenting, teaching).  If not, can have regret about not contributing to next gen. later.
8. Integrity vs despair
reflect on lives and what they have done. if positive, get sense of integrity. If not, despair.

# data[].attributes.body
3 contexts in which children spend much of their time - important to development: Families, Peers, Schools.

Parenting Styles:
- Authoritarian
- Authoritative
- Neglectful
- Indulgent

Parents being involved with school is very important to achievement.

# data[].attributes.body
Peer = child of about same age or maturity.

Friendship influences children's attitudes towards school and success in classroom

# data[].attributes.body
Play very important role in development.

Developmentally appropriate education (DAP): based on knowledge of typical development within age span (age appropriateness) and uniqueness of child.

DAP in education emphasizes importance of creating settings that encourage children to be active learners and reflect child's interests and capabilities.

Montessori Approach: children are given much freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities.  Can move between activities as desired.  Entice learning.

Project head start was created by government for low income families.  If done right, can be very successful.

Important info about school dropout rates:
50% of dropouts cited school related reasons for leaving school, like being suspended or expelled or not liking school.
20% economic reasons
1/3rd female students for pregnancy or marriage.

High quality extra curricular activities promote positive development and supportive adult mentors.

# data[].attributes.body
Self esteem: (self worth, self image) individuals overall view of themself.

Teachers should know how to promote good self esteem in classroom - try praise, steer towards correct answer instead of saying "wrong", stickers.

Identity Development -
James Marcia
Identity Statuses  -
Exploration is examining meaningful alternative identities.
Commitment means showing personal investment in an identity and staying with whatever the identity implies.

Identity Diffusion: individuals have not yet experienced a 'crisis' (have not explored meaningful alternatives) or made any commitments.
Identity Foreclosure: Have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis.  (happens sometimes when parents had off commitments their children, not giving them chance to explore different approaches, ideologies, vocations)
Identity moratorium: individual in midst of crisis, but commitments absent of undefined.
Identity achievement: individual has undergone crisis and have made commitment.

Ethnic Identity = enduring aspect of self with membership to ethnic group, along with attitudes and feelings related to this membership.

# data[].attributes.body
Moral development: development w/ respect to rules, conventions of just interactions between people.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Kohlberg's Theory: Stressed that moral development primarily involves moral reasoning and occurs in stages.

Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning
Lowest level of reasoning - 2 stages:

Stage 1: Punishment and obedience
Moral thinking = tied to punishment.  Children only obey because adults tell them to.
Stage 2: Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange
Individuals pursue own interests, but let others do same.  Equal exchange, if nice to others, they will be nice to you.

Level 2: Conventional Reasoning
Individuals abide by certain standards (internal), but they are the standards of others.

Stage 3: Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity
Person values trust, caring, loyalty as basis of moral judgments.  Seek to be "good boy or good girl"
Stage 4: Social systems morality
moral judgments based of understanding law, social order, justice, duty.

Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning
Morality is internal.

Stage 5: Social contract or utility and individual rights
Individual reasons that values, rights, principles transcend law. Examines validity of laws.
Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
Person has developed moral standard of universal human rights.  Always follows conscious.

# data[].attributes.body
Domain theory of moral development:
there are different domains of social knowledge and reasoning.  Distinction between moral and social conventions.  Moral conventions emerge from Childs attempt to deal with/ understand different social experiences.

Social Conventional Reasoning: conventional rules that are established by social conscious and in social system.

Application - Cheating

Hidden curriculum is Dewey's concept that every school has an ingrained moral atmosphere.

Education types:
charachter education
values clarification
cognitive moral education
service learning

Emotion: feelings or affect that occur when an individual is engaged in an interaction that is important to them, especially their wellbeing.

Coping with stress:
Getting students to help each other is helpful

Strategies teachers can use to help students cope:
- reassure children of their safety/security
- allow child to retell events and patiently listen
- encourage to talk about feelings
- protect from re-exposure to situations (also limit discussion of events in front of child)
- help make sense of what happened

# data[].attributes.body
William James:
- wrote "principles of psychology"
- talked about applications of psych to educating children
- importance of observing teaching and learning

John Dewey:
- All children deserve equal education
- children learn best by doing

E. L. Thorndike:
- assessment and measurement
- schools must teach reasoning skills

Mamie and Kenneth Clark:
- researched African American children's self conceptions and identity

# data[].attributes.body
Constructivist approach: learner centered. individuals actively constructing their knowledge with guidance from teacher.  Children should be encouraged to think/explore, not just lectured info.

Direct instruction approach:
Teacher centered w/ direction and control.

# data[].attributes.headline
Supporting Dependent Learners to Become Independent Learners

# data[].attributes.subject
Supporting Dependent Learners to Become Independent Learners

# data[].attributes.body
Productive Struggle: helps to grow brainpower

Dependent does not mean deficit.

Third Grade = going from learning to read to reading to learn

School to Prison Pipeline: set of seemingly unconnected school policies and teacher instructional decisions that over time result in students of color not receiving adequate literacy and content instruction + being disproportionately disciplined for subjective offenses like "defiance".
Students then spend important time in office instead of classroom.

# data[].attributes.body
Educators ability to recognize student's cultural displays of learning and meaning making + respond positively and constructively with teaching moves that use cultural knowledge to connect what student knows to new concepts and content.

This promotes effective Information processing

# data[].attributes.body
Teachers NEED background knowledge to know how to apply culturally responsive teaching tools and strategies.

Must know about the larger social, political, economic systems that make education inequitable for some students.

# data[].attributes.body
Everyone has culture

Culture: how the brain makes sense of the world.

Levels of Culture:
1. Surface culture - music, food, holidays.
2. Shallow culture - unspoken rules around social interactions. Nonverbal communication.
3. Deep culture - tactic knowledge and unconscious assumptions that govern worldview.

Mental models and schemas: how we organize information and understand things

When teaching about culture,Teach the roots, not the fruits

Cultural Archtypes: pattern, model. Many patterns unite in multiple cultures.

- Collectivism vs Individualism
(US = very individual, Guatemala = very collective)

# data[].attributes.body
- the series of mutually reinforcing policies and practices across social, economic, political domains that contribute to disparites and unequal opportunities for people of color in housing, transportation, education, healthcare, etc.

Implicit bias: unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that shape out response to certain groups.

Structural radicalization: factors perpetuate social, Econ, political structures that harm people color and our society.

Poverty is Not a Culture

# data[].attributes.body
Two main tests used today:

Binet Tests:
Alfred Binet
- developed mental age (MA)
William Stern
- Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Wechsler Scales: Provide overal IQ score and scores on other tests and create composite index scores (working memory index, processing speed index, etc)

Group intelligence tests:
OLSAT

# data[].attributes.body
Robert J. Steinberg -
Triarchic theory of intelligence:
intelligence comes in 3 main forms - analytical, creative, practical.

Gardner's 8 frames of mind:
- verbal skills
- mathematical skills
- spatial skills
- bodily-kinesthetic skills
- musical skills
- intrapersonal skills
- naturalist skills

# data[].attributes.body
Deep/Surface styles:
Extent to which students approach learning materials in a way tat helps them understand the meaning of materials (deep style) or simply what needs to be learned (surface).

Optimistic/Pessimistic styles:
Self explanitory

# data[].attributes.body
- distinctive thoughts, emotions, behaviors that characterize the way individual adapts to world.

The Big Five personality factors:
- Openness
- Conscientiousness
- Extraversion
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism (emotional stability)

# data[].attributes.body
- person's behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding

Alexander Chess & Stella Thomas proposed 3 basic temp. styles:
1. Easy child: generally positive mood, easily adapts to new situations.
2. Difficult child: react negatively, cries often, slow to adapt.
3. slow-to-warm-up child: low activity level, somewhat negative, low intensity of mood.

Mary Rothbart and John Bates said 3 temperment dimensions:
1. Extraversion/surgency
2. Negative affectivity
3. Effortful control (self regulation)

Goodness of Fit:
match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands a child must deal with.

# data[].attributes.body
Lizard Brain, very old

- only reacts, doesn't think
- is always on
- houses the Reticular Activating System (RAS) (responsible for alertness and attention)

# data[].attributes.body
Emotional Brain

- manages emotions
- records memories of experiences and behaviors, plus positive or negative results
- so a person knows what threats or rewards to pursue

3 Structures in limbic system -
Thalamus: communication dispatch hub. All incoming sensory info goes through here and is directed to other parts of brain

Hippocampus: stores memory
Memory Types:
Short Term: 5-20 seconds
Working memory: up to 20 min
Long term memory: background knowledge is stored

Amygdala: brain's guard dog. Emotion processing
- can bypass thalamus and send distress signals in form of Cortisol (stress hormone) to lizard brain
- this is known as amygdala hijack
- Fight, flight, freeze, or appease

# data[].attributes.body
home of Executive Function - planning, abstract thinking, self-regulation, organization, intellective capacity

# data[].attributes.body
Neurons: tiny building blocks - grey matter
Neuroplasticity: brain can grow unlimited grey matter in response to continuous learning
Dendrites: finger-like things with receptors to pick up messages from neurons

Myelination: wraps body of neuron with layer of fatty substance called myelin. Brain can then do more complex work faster

# data[].attributes.headline
Safety-Threat detection and Automatic Nervous system

# data[].attributes.subject
Safety-Threat detection and Automatic Nervous system

# data[].attributes.body
neuroception: unconscious safety threat detection system in social settings

3 parts of automatic nervous system

parasympathetic nervous system: keeping relaxed and helps well-being by satisfying needs for food, shelter, social relationships, and sex.

sympathetic nervous system: keeping alert and ready to react to avoid danger by fight, flight, or freeze.

polyvagal nervous system: social engagement system.
- oxytocin = social bonding hormone released in presence of others

In classroom, some students experience stress because they belong to marginalized group.  Safety- threat detection system is already cued to be on alert for social and psychological threats based on past experiences.

Amygdala stays on alert to detect micro aggressions: subtle, everyday verbal and nonverbal slights or insults which communication hostile, negative, derogatory messages to people only because they are in marginalized group. Invalidates and demeans them.

# data[].attributes.body
Learning: a relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, thinking skills, which comes about through experience.

There are multiple approaches to learning: Behavioral and Cognitive

# data[].attributes.body
Behaviorism: view that behavior should be explained by observable experiences, not by mental processes.

Mental Processes: thoughts, feelings, and motives that cannot be observed by others.

-both of these views emphasize associative learning-

Associative Learning: learning that two events are connected/associated.
Example: teacher smiles when a student asks a good question.

# data[].attributes.body
4 cognitive approaches:
Behavioral
Social Cognitive
Information-processing
Cognitive Constructivist
Social Constructivist

# data[].attributes.body
Classical Conditioning: type of learning (associative) in which organism learns to connect or associate stimuli.
Pavlov's Dogs

Generalization: involves tendency of are stimulus similar to original conditioned stimulus to produce similar result.
Discrimination: organism respond to some stimuli but not others
Extinction: weakening of conditioned response (CR)

Sometimes the anxiety and stress associated with negative events can be eliminated by classical conditioning.

Systematic Desensitization: method based on classical conditioning that reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualization of increasingly anxiety-provoking situations.

# data[].attributes.body
Operant conditioning: form of learning when the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur.

Reinforcement (reward): consequence that increases probability that behavior will occur.

Punishment: consequence that decreases probability behavior will occur.

Positive reinforcement: reinforcement based on idea that the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus

Negative reinforcement: reinforcement based on idea that frequency of a response increases because an unpleasant stimulus is removed.

# data[].attributes.body
Applied behavior analysis: application of the principles of operant conditioning to change human behavior.

Premack Principle: David Premack - says a high probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity.
Example: "if all class gets homework done by Friday, we will take a field trip next week"

Make reinforcers contingent and timely.

Schedules of Reinforcement: partial reinforcement timetables that determine when a response will be reinforced.
- fixed ratio schedule
- variable ratio schedule
- fixed variable
- variable interval

Contracting: putting reinforcement contingencies in writing form.

Prompt: added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response that increases likelihood the response will occur.

Shaping: teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations to a specified target behavior.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Use differential reinforcement - reinforce a behavior that is more appropriate.
2. Terminate reinforcement (extinction) - withdraw positive reinforcement from inappropriate behavior.
3. Remove desirable stimuli
- 2 strategies: timeout and response cost (take away positive reinforcer)
4. Present Aversive Stimuli (punishment)

# data[].attributes.body
Says social and cognitive factors, as well as behavior, play important roles in learning.

Made a reciprocal determinism model with 3 factors: behavior, person/cognitive, environment.

Emphasizes Self Efficacy: belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes.

# data[].attributes.body
Observational Learning: learning involving acquiring skills, strategies, beliefs by observing others.

Processes in observational learning:
- attention
- retention
- production
- motivation

# data[].attributes.body
Cognitive-behavioral approaches: changing behavior by getting individuals to monitor, manage, and regulate their own behavior rather than letting it be controlled by external factors.

Self-instructional methods: Cognitive behavioral techniques aimed at teaching individuals to modify their behavior.

Self-regulatory learning: self-generation and self-monitoring if thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to reach a goal.

Charachteristics of Self-Regulatory Learners:
- set goals for extending knowledge and sustaining motivation
- aware of emotional makeup an have strategies for managing emotions
- periodically monitor progress towards goal
- fine-tune/ revise strategies based on progress they are making
- evaluate obstacles that may arise and make necessary adaptations

# data[].attributes.body
Use to self-manage emotions

S - Stop
O - Observe
D - Detach
A - Awaken

# data[].attributes.body
A cognitive approach in which children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.  Central to approach are cognitive processes like attention, memory, thinking.

# data[].attributes.body
Changes in children's cognitive skills according to Robert Seigler -

Encoding: information gets into memory

Automaticity: ability to process information with little to no effort

Strategic Construction: creation of new procedure for processing info

Metacognition: knowing about knowing

# data[].attributes.body
RAPPORT + ALLIANCE = COGNITIVE INSIGHT

# data[].attributes.body
About building trust, not self esteem.

- Fear activates the amygdala and realize of cortisol
- Cortisol can stop learning for 20 min and stays in body for 3 hours
- Trust deactivates amygdala and blocks release of cortisol
- Trust frees up brain for creativity, learning, thinking
- Mistrust occurs when student or parent doesn't feel acknowledged, affirmed, cared for

# data[].attributes.body
Affirmation: acknowledging there personhood of each student, appreciating all aspects of them, especially culturally specific traits that have been negated by dominant culture

Validation: explicit acknowledgement to students that you are aware of inequities that impact their lives

# data[].attributes.body
Start with -
Pedagogy of Listening: ACTIVE listening communicates sense of respect and interest in student's contributions

Listening with Grace:
- give full attention to speaker & what's being said
- understand the feeling behind words and be sensitive to emotions
- suspend judgement, listen with compassion
- honor speaker's cultural way of communicating

# data[].attributes.body
Selective vulnerability: be human and vulnerable, apologize
Familiarity: when you see someone often
Similarity of Interests
Concern: show concern over important events (illnesses, births, life transitions
Competence: demonstrate you have the knowledge and skill, know what you're talking about

# data[].attributes.body
- Identify specific student you like to have better learning partnership with
- Assess quality of your relationship with chosen student
- create a system to help you look closely and listen carefully to chosen student
- keep track of student responses over time
- crunch numbers and analyze data
- based on findings, identify one small change you can make to build trust with chosen student
- track impact of the one small change
- express care in nonverbal ways that shows your concern
- find time to play and have fun as a class
- commit to practicing affirmation

# data[].attributes.headline
Marginalized Dependent Learners Need an Ally

# data[].attributes.subject
Marginalized Dependent Learners Need an Ally

# data[].attributes.body
Education system has historically underserved marginalized students.

Dependent learners can become discouraged, can lead to
Learned helplessness: a student's belief that he has no control over his ability to improve as a learner

Stereotype threat: racially charged amygdala hijack.  Happens when student is anxious about inadequacy as a learner because he believes his failure on an assignment/test will confirm the negative stereotype about his race

Internalized oppression: student internalizes negative social messages about their racial group, begins to believe them, loses confidence.

# data[].attributes.body
- A shared understanding and agreement to tackle a specific goal
- A shared understanding and agreement about the tasks necessary to reach the goal along with confidence that these activities will lead to progress
- A relational bond based on mutual trust that creates an emotional connection and sense of safety for student in order to do the hard work necessary to achieve goal

# data[].attributes.headline
Features of the Learning Partnership Alliance

# data[].attributes.subject
Features of the Learning Partnership Alliance

# data[].attributes.body
Bordin's idea of therapeutic alliance (see previous page also)

1. The Pact - the formal agreement between teacher and student to work on goal
2. Teacher as Ally and Warm Demander -  teacher offers care and push as needed
- warm demander pedagogy allows teachers to push students to take more academic risks and gain confidence
3. Student as Driver of Their Own Learning -  student commits to being an active participant in process

# data[].attributes.body
1. ask student to identify what is getting in the way of learning target
2. together select a small, specific, significant learning target
3. set a deadline
4. set up progress benchmarks
5. share what you are willing to do as student's ally
6. be explicit about your belief in their ability to master learning target
7. forward them that you'll ask them to stretch themselves
8. ask them to explicitly name intention as part of the partnership to meet the challenge
9. create simple ritual to mark the occasion - high 5 or fist bump
10. write down key agreements and notes

# data[].attributes.headline
Give Dependent Learners Basic Tools for Independent Learning

# data[].attributes.subject
Give Dependent Learners Basic Tools for Independent Learning

# data[].attributes.body
1. Kid Friendly Vocal for talking about learning moves
2. Checklists
3. Tools for tracking their own progress towards a learning target
4. Easily accessible space to store their data
5. Regular time to process data
6. Practice engaging in metacognitive covos
7. A clear process for reflecting on and acting on teacher or peer feedback

# data[].attributes.body
- Instructive rather than evaluative
- Specific + in right dose
- Timely
- Delivered in low stress, supportive environment

Cohen and Steele recommend...
Wise Feedback: different from sandwich feedback, instead reassures student they won't be stereotyped or doubted as less capable.  Teacher conveys faith in potential of student while being honest about gap in student's current performance.

Wise Educator adds 3 elements to feedback:
1. Explicit holding of high standards - lets students understand that gap in performance is not a result of their shortcomings, but of the high standards
2. Personal assurance to the student that they're capable and can improve
3. Specific actionable steps

# data[].attributes.body
Concept: ideas that group object, events, characteristics based on common properties

To promote concept formation:
- learn key features about concepts
- Defining concepts and providing examples:
1. define the concept
2. clarify terms in the definition
3. give examples to illustrate key features/characteristics
4. provide additional examples

Concept map: a visual presentation of a concept's connections and hierarchal organization

# data[].attributes.body
Prototype Matching: deciding whether an idea is a member of a category by comparing it with the most typical items of a catagory

# data[].attributes.body
Thinking: manipulating & transforming info in memory, which is often done to form concepts, reason, think critically, make decisions, think creatively, solve problems

Executive Function: concept that encompasses many higher-level cognitive processes linked to development of brain's prefrontal cortex. Involves managing thoughts to engage in goals directed behavior & have self control

# data[].attributes.body
Inductive: reasoning from specific to general
- drawing conclusions about a category based on observing some of its members
- example: chickens, ducks, and geese have feathers and are birds.  Swans have feathers, and therefor are birds.

Analogy: correspondence in some respects between two otherwise dissimilar things
- an example of inductive reasoning
- can be used to build understanding of new concepts for students

Deductive: general to specific
- ex: all basketball players are motorcycle drivers. All motorcycle drivers are women. Therefor, all basketball players are women.

# data[].attributes.body
Critical Thinking: thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence

Mindfulness: being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life's every day activities & tasks. Mindful students maintain an active awareness of the circumstances in their lives

# data[].attributes.body
Decision Making: evaluating alternatives and making choices among them

Biases and flaws in Decision Making:

Confirmation Bias: tendency to search for and use info that supports ideas rather than refutes them
Belief Perseverance: tendency to hold on to belief in face of contradictory evidence
Overconfidence Bias: tendency to have more confidence in judgments and decisions than we should, based on probability/past experience
Hindsight Bias: tendency to falsely report, after the fact, having accurately predicted an event

Dual-process Model: Says decision making is influenced by 2 systems - one analytical & one experiential - that compete w/ each other; in this model, the experiential system benefits adolescent decision making

# data[].attributes.body
Creativity: ability to think about something in new way & come up with unique solutions to problems

J.P. Guilford distinguishes between 2 kinds of thinking -
Convergent:  thinking with aim of producing one correct answer
Divergent: thinking with aim of producing many answers to same question - a characteristic of creativity

# data[].attributes.body
Secondary issues can be more longstanding and deeply ingrained.

Students can be more unruly and even dangerous

# data[].attributes.body
Carol Weinstein and Andrew Mignano (2007) - created "The crowded, complex, and potentially chaotic classroom"
- Highlights Walter Doyle's 6 characteristics that reflect classroom's complexity and potential for problems:

1. Classrooms are multidimensional
2. Activities occur simultaneously
3. Things happen quickly
4. Events are often unpredictable
5. There is little privacy
6. Classrooms have histories

# data[].attributes.body
Take time in 1st week to establish rules, expectations, norms, routines that set tone for rest of semester

# data[].attributes.body
Tests with uniform procedures for administering and scoring. Assess performance in different areas compared to performance of other students on different grade levels/nationally.

Purpose of standardized tests:
- provide info about students' progress
- diagnose students' strengths & weaknesses
- give evidence for placement of students in specific programs
- give info for planning and instruction
- contribute to accountability

# data[].attributes.body
Standards based tests: tests that assess skills that students should master before they can go to next grade/graduate.

High-stakes testing: using tests in a way that will have important consequences for student, like if they can graduate or not.

# data[].attributes.body
Norm group: group tested to provide score basis

Norm-referenced tests: tests in which students score is compared with how norm group preformed

Criterion-referenced tests: tests in which student score is compared with established criteria

Validity: extent to which test measures what it's intended to measure and whether inferences about test scores are accurate/appropriate

Content validity: tests ability to sample content being measured

Criterion validity: test's ability to predict students performance

Concurrent validity: relation between a test's scores and other criteria that are currently available

# data[].attributes.body
Predictive validity: relation between test scores and student's future performance

Construct validity: extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular construct.  A construct is an observable trait/characteristic of a person (ex. intelligence, learning style, personality, anxiety)

Reliability: consistant, reproductible score

Test-retest reliability: test yields same performance when given multiple times

Alternate-forms reliability: reliability judged by giving different forms of same test on two different occasions to same group of students to determine their score consistency

Split-half reliability: judged by dividing test into 2 halves (ex. all even, all odd questions). Scores on 2 sets are compared.

# data[].attributes.body
Fair tests are unbiased and nondiscriminatory
- scores not affected by gender, ethnicity, bias of scorer, etc.

# data[].attributes.body
Aptitude test: used to predict students's ability to learn/accomplish skill with further education/training

Achievement Test: measures what student has learned or what skills student has mastered

# data[].attributes.body
- Survey battery: group of individual subject matter tests designed for specific level of students
- Tests for specific subjects
- Diagnostic tests: evaluation of specific area of earning to determine specific learning needs of student

High stakes state standards-based tests:
Advantages:
- improved student performance
- more time teaching subjects tested
- high expectations for all students
- identification of poorly performing schools, teachers, admin
- improved confidence is schools as test scores increase

Criticisms:
- dumbs down curriculum with greater emphasis on memorization than problem solving & critical thinking
- teaching to the test
- discriminating against low socioeconomic status & ethnic minority students
- narrows curriculum

# data[].attributes.body
- Government program: holds schools & districts accountable for students success/failure
- one criticism is that students who are gifted might not get the level of work they need in an effort to not leave other students behind

# data[].attributes.body
Standardized test for teachers
Tests:
- basic skills
- academic ability
- subject matter knowledge
- pedagogical knowledge

# data[].attributes.body
For analyzing test scores (summarize data):
- frequency distribution
- histogram
- central tendency
- mean
- median
- mode
- measures of variablity
- range
- standard deviation
- normal distribution

Scores:
Raw score: number of items student answered correctly on test
Percentile-rank score: percentage of a distribution that lies at or below the score
Stanine score: a 9-point scale to describe student performance
Grade-equivalent score: score that indicates performance in relation to grade level/point in year
Standard score: involves standard deviation

# data[].attributes.body
Emphasizes social contexts of learning & tat knowledge is mutually built/constructed
- Vygotsky's approach is an example

Situated Cognition: idea that thinking is located in social/physical contexts, not within an individual's mind

Scaffolding: changing level of support over course of learning. Adjusts amount of guidance.

Cognitive apprenticeship: relationship in which an expert supports a novice's understanding/use of a culture's skills

# data[].attributes.body
Slavin, 1995 & 2015 - 2 conditions are important to implement in cooperative learning
1. group rewards - lets kids see that helping each other learn is in their best interest
2. individuals are held accountable - kids should contribute individually (example: group jobs like notetaker, leader, etc.)

# data[].attributes.body
- Class cooperation
- Interclass
- Schoolwide
- School-parent
- School-neighborhood

# data[].attributes.body
Organize groups into heterogeneous ability (different levels)
- benefits low ability students, who can learn from high ability students

Recommended to form diverse groups, but don't make it too obvious

Assign different roles:
Examples:
- encourager
- gatekeeper
- coach
- checker
- taskmaster
- recorder
- quiet captain
- materials monitor

(These might be different for secondary ed.)
Some of my ideas:
- note taker
- filmer/photographer
- time keeper

# data[].attributes.body
A systematic/organized strategy for lesson planning.
- sometimes, principles and admin will ask for lesson plans to see what you do in class

Planning ahead is essential, but also plan on things changing and being flexible

Read the room and "take temp" of class to see what everyone is in the mood for/what would be an effective use of time.

# data[].attributes.body
Statements that communicate changes in students' behavior to reach desired performance.

As a tool for planning:
- student's behavior - focus on what student will learn/do
- conditions under which behavior will occur- state how behavior will be evaluated
- performance criteria - determine what level of performance is acceptable

Task analysis: break down complex task into smaller parts/componants

# data[].attributes.body
Benjamin Bloom 1956

Classifies educational objective into 3 domains: cognitive, affective, psychomotor.

Cognitive:
1. knowledge
2. comprehension
3. application
4. analysis
5. synthesis
6. evaluation

Affective: requires student to commit
1. receiving
2. responding
3. valuing
4. organizing
5. value characterizing

Psychomotor: movement/physical linked
1. reflect movements
2. basic fundamentals
3. perceptual abilities
4. physical abilities
5. skilled movements
6. nondiscursive behaviors

# data[].attributes.body
Direct instruction: structured, teacher centered instruction.  Teacher keeps students on task, organized, control.

Teacher-Centered instructional strategies -

Orienting: before new materials establish framework to orient students

Advance organizers: teaching activities that establish framework before material is presented
Expository advance organizers: provide students with new knowledge
Comparative advance organizers: introduce new material by connecting it to prior knowledge

Mastery learning: must master a concept before moving to harder one
- has mixed reviews

Types of work:
- Homework
- Seatwork

Learner Centered Instructional Strategies:
Students are the central focus, not teacher.
- problem based learning
- essential questions
- discovery learning
- guided discovery learning

# data[].attributes.body
Technology/internet can be very effective and helpful in teaching

Wiske (2005) - 5 ways to use tech. to enhance learning:
1. Evaluate which topics are worth understanding
2. Think about what students should understand about a topic
3. Pay attention to how students develop/demonstrate understanding
4. Consider how students & teachers assess learning
5. Reflect on how students and teachers can learn together

Stages of integrating tech. into classroom:
1. Teacher is aware tech exists, doesn't use it.
2. Teacher tries to learn basics of tech but lacks confidence
3. Teacher starts to see how and when to use tech for certain tasks
4. Teacher gains confidence
5. Teacher sees how helpful it is, feels comfortable using it
6. Teacher uses tech as an effective teaching skill

# data[].attributes.body
Behavioral perspective: emphasizes external rewards & punishment, uses incentives.

Humanistic perspective: emphasizes student's capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose destiny, positive qualities.
- uses Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow (1954, 1971)
Hierarchy of Needs: concept that needs must be satisfied in following order:
1. Physiological - food, water, sleep
2. Safety - ensuring survival, safety from war and crime
3. Love and belongingness - security, affection, attention
4. Esteem - feeling good about yourself
5. Self-actualization - realization of your potential

# data[].attributes.body
Extrinsic motivation: external incentives like rewards and punishments. Ex: student studies hard to get a good grade.

Intrinsic motivation: internal motivation to do something for your own sake. Ex: student studies because they enjoy the content.

Attribution Theory: individuals are motivated to discover underlying causes of their own behavior & performance.

Bernard Weiner (1986, 1996)
3 elements of casual attributions:
1. Locus - is the cause internal or external?
2. Stability - does cause remain same or change?
3. Controllability - can someone control the cause?

Mastery orientation: task-oriented response to hard challenge, focuses on learning strategies and process of achieving instead of outcome

Helpless orientation: individual feels trapped by difficulty of a task

Performance orientation: focus on winning rather than achieving outcome, success = winning

Mindset: Carol Dweck - cognitive view people develop for themselves

***Fixed or Growth mindset***

Bandura:
Self efficacy: belief that one can master the situation & produce good outcomes

# data[].attributes.body
Jere Brophy (1998)
Students who are low achieving have low expectations for success.

Failure syndrome: having low expectations of success makes one give up at first sign of difficulty.

Some students protect their self worth by avoiding failure.
- nonperformance
- procrastination
- setting unreachable goals

How to help with this:
- guide students in setting realistic goals
- help students strengthen link between effort and pride.  Take pride in effort, minimize social comparison
- encourage students to be positive about their abilities, but don't praise them for high ability

Some students are perfectionists, some have anxiety.

# data[].attributes.body
Assessment in important in teaching.
- assessment should support learning
- use assessment results to inform teaching
- classroom tests give better feedback than state tests

Times for assessment:
- preinstruction
- during instruction
formative assessment: during course of instruction rather than after
- post instruction
summative assessment

# data[].attributes.body
When making as assessment:
- create clear learning targets (remember in class assignment)
Example: "students will demonstrate knowledge by..."

# data[].attributes.body
Multiple Choice

# data[].attributes.body
True False (see strengths and limits)

Matching

# data[].attributes.body
Short answer questions

Essay questions (see strengths and limits):
- specify limitations
- structure and clarify task
- ask questions directly, no trickiness
- give rubric

# data[].attributes.body
Not traditional tests

Lets students show skill in areas outside of essays, multiple choice, etc.

Authentic assessment: evaluation student's knowledge/skill in context that approximates real life as closely as possible

# data[].attributes.body
An organized collection of work that shows student's skills and accomplishments.
Can include:
- artifacts
- reproductions
- attestations
- productions

growth portfolio: work over extended time to reveal progress in meeting learning targets

best work portfolio: shows best work

# data[].attributes.body
Translating assessment into numbers and letters that indicate quality of student's learning/performance

Serves 4 basic purposes:
1. administrative
2. informational
3. motivational
4. guidance

norm-referenced grading: compares students performance to other students or other classes
criterion-referenced grading: assigns grade for terrain level of performance regardless of other students performance