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Central Nervous System: Composed of the brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System: Composed of nerves in the body aside from the brain and spinal cord.
a) Somatic PNS: In control of touch and muscle movement.
b) Autonomic PNS: Regulates involuntary bodily functions. Composed of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

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2-Minute Neuroscience: Divisions of the Nervous System

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1) Structural: Neuroimaging that highlights the physical structure of the brain, but does not show brain activity (e.g. MRI, CT).

2) Functional: Neuroimaging that highlights activity in the brain, but does not provide clear detail of anatomical structures (e.g. fMRI, PET, SPECT).

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1) Neuropsychological Approach: Compares the function of a healthy brain with that of those with pathological disorders.
2) Neuro-Correlational Approach: Correlates neural function/structure with behavioral performance.
3) Activation Imaging Approach: Directly associates brain function with behavior.

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The Theory of Mind is the idea that humans have the ability to understand that others have beliefs, feelings, views, etc. that differ from their own. As children, this notion develops as we develop awareness. As adults, Theory of Mind decreases when reaching old age. The article above provides in-depth details about ToM.

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Explaining age-related decline in theory of mind: Evidence for intact competence but compromised executive function

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Previous studies suggest theory of mind (ToM) ability declines with age. However, prior tasks not only required ToM competence but also imposed high executive function (EF) demands, so decline in ToM ability could be caused by deterioration in ToM competence, ...

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There are two main types of cells in the nervous system:
1) Neurons - Cells that transmit impulses throughout the nervous system via electrical and chemical signals. Neural stem cells regenerate neurons across the lifespan
a) Dendrites: Branches stemming off of the neuron to receive signals.
b) Soma (cell body): The impulse travels from the dendrites to the soma where it builds an action potential.
c) Action Potential: An action potential is created due to a ratio of sodium and potassium ions and is released from the soma when it reaches a certain threshold.
d) Axon: After the action potential leaves the soma, it travels down the myelinated axon to the synapse. The fibers of the axon get tangled as individuals age.
- Myelin: An insulating sheath surrounding axons to speed up transmission. Neurons covered in myelin are referred to as white matter. As individuals age, the myelin wears down. This results in slower transmission and some atrophy.
- Axon Terminal: The end of the axon which releases neurotransmitters into the synapse.
e) Synapse: The space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another. The synapse is traveled by neurotransmitters.
- Neurotransmitters: Chemical communicators released into the synapse to carry signals from one neuron to another.
2) Glial Cells: Support cells for neurons found throughout the nervous system.

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The brain has four four lobes in each hemisphere:
1) Frontal: Located at the front of the cerebrum and is considered as the "CEO" of the brain. The frontal lobe is in control of executive brain functioning. The frontal lobe finishes developing at 25. There tends to be a decline in the frontal lobe after the age of 75. Older adults also tend to use the frontal parts of the brain more for emotional processing than younger adults. The most significant age-related changes can be found in the anterior areas of the brain.
2) Temporal: Responsible for hearing, emotion, language, and memory. Contains the amygdala and hippocampus.
- Amygdala: Part of the limbic system responsible for emotion.
-> Positivity Effect: Older adults generally activate more areas of the brain when processing positive emotions than younger adults. Older adults strive to find emotional meaning and purpose in life.
- Hippocampus: Part of the limbic system responsible for memory.
3) Parietal: Posterior to the frontal lobe. In charge of sensory information processing and movement responses.
4) Occipital: Located posterior to the rest of the lobes. Responsible for vision.

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1) HAROLD: The Hemispheric Asymmetry Reduction in Older Adults. Younger adults tend to use one hemisphere for completing a task. Older adults tend to use more resources for similar tasks and are forced to utilize both hemispheres.
2) CRUNCH: The Compensation-Related Utilization of Neural Circuits Hypothesis. This model explains the adaptation of the brain by utilizing extra neural circuits to complete tasks sufficiently. Older adults often show overactivation in the brain due to this compensation.
3) PASA: The Posterior-Anterior Shift in Aging. This model describes an age-related change. With age, less processing occurs in the posterior regions of the brain and more processing occurs in the anterior parts of the brain.
4) STAC-r: The Scaffolding Theory of Cognitive Aging-revised. The basis of this model demonstrates the compensatory ability of the brain by bringing in additional support from other areas of the brain.
*P-FIT: The Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory. This is not a brain activation theory. This theory suggests that neurons distributed throughout the parietal and frontal lobes compose intelligence.

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As individuals age, brain changes force the brain to compensate for the functions it has lost. This generally results in older adults activating more and different areas than younger adults when completely similar tasks.

Brain Plasticity: The brain adapts to its environment by changing both structure and function. This demonstrates the ability of people to change and the ability of older adults to maintain a higher level of thinking.

In class, Professor Graham compared this concept to driving. As young adults, our brains work like taking the highway. Our brains are making fast, direct connections. As older adults, our brains operate like taking back roads. There are more turns and you are moving at a slower pace. The important concept is that both methods end up in the same place.