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you think you or your child have missed any vaccinations

you or your child have a vaccination appointment - but you've missed it or cannot attend

Your GP surgery can book or rearrange an appointment.

It's best to have vaccines on time, but you can still catch up on most vaccines if you miss them.

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A full list of the routine vaccinations offered on the NHS and when they should be given.

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Vaccines are the most effective way to prevent many infectious diseases. This page explains how vaccines work, what they contain and the most common side effects.

Be aware of anti-vaccine stories

Anti-vaccine stories are often spread online through social media and offline.

Always get your vaccine and health information from trusted sources, such as the NHS or World Health Organisation (WHO).

The vaccine information on social media may not be based on scientific evidence and could put your child at risk of a serious illness.

All the current evidence tells us that getting vaccinated is safer than not getting vaccinated.

Things you need to know about vaccines

Vaccines:

Do

help to protect you and your child from many serious and potentially deadly diseases

protect other people in your family and community - by helping to stop diseases spreading to people who cannot have vaccines, such as babies too young to be vaccinated and those who are too ill to be vaccinated

undergo rigorous safety testing before being introduced - they're also constantly monitored for side effects after being introduced

sometimes cause mild side effects that will not last long - you may feel a bit unwell and have a sore arm for 2 or 3 days

reduce or even get rid of some diseases - if enough people are vaccinated

Don't

do not overload or weaken the immune system - it's safe to give children and adults several vaccines at a time and this reduces the amount of injections needed

do not contain mercury (thiomersal)

do not contain any ingredients that cause harm - only ingredients essential to making them safer and more effective and only in very small amounts

do not cause autism - studies have found no evidence of a link between the MMR vaccine and autism

Why vaccines are important

Vaccination is the most important thing we can do to protect ourselves and our children against ill health. They prevent millions of deaths worldwide every year.

Since vaccines were introduced in the UK, diseases like smallpox, polio and tetanus that used to kill or disable millions of people are either gone or are now very rarely seen.

Other diseases like measles and diphtheria have reduced to a very low number of cases each year since vaccines were introduced. These cases are often related to travel.

However, if people stop having vaccines, it's possible for infectious diseases to quickly spread again.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has listed vaccine hesitancy as one of the biggest threats to global health.

Important

If 95% of children receive the MMR vaccine, this would stop measles spreading completely.

However, measles, mumps and rubella can quickly spread again if fewer than 90% of people are vaccinated.

Everyone should be up to date with their routine vaccinations to give them the best protection.

How vaccines work

Vaccines teach your immune system how to create antibodies that protect you from diseases.

It's much safer for your immune system to learn this through vaccination than by catching the diseases and treating them.

Once your immune system knows how to fight a disease, it can often give you life long protection.

Herd immunity

Having a vaccine also benefits your whole community through "herd immunity".

If enough people are vaccinated, it's harder for the disease to spread to those people who cannot have vaccines. For example, people who are ill or have a weakened immune system.

Vaccine safety

All vaccines are thoroughly tested to make sure they will not harm you or your child.

It often takes many years for a vaccine to make it through the trials and tests it needs to pass for approval.

Once a vaccine is being used in the UK it's also monitored for any rare side effects by the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). It is also carefully monitored to make sure it still works.

Anyone can report a suspected side effect of vaccination to the MHRA through the Yellow Card Scheme.

Who cannot have vaccines

There are very few people who cannot have vaccines.

Generally, vaccines are only not suitable for:

People with weakened immune systems (for example, because of cancer treatment or a health condition) may also not be able to have some vaccines.

If you're not sure if you or your child can be vaccinated, check with a GP, practice nurse, health visitor or pharmacist.

Side effects of vaccination

Most of the side effects of vaccination are mild and do not last long.

The most common side effects of vaccination include:

the area where the needle goes in looking red, swollen and feeling a bit sore for 2 to 3 days

feeling a bit unwell or developing a high temperature for 1 or 2 days

older children and adults may feel faint

feeling tired, having a headache, mild fever, or flu-like symptoms

Some children might also cry and be upset immediately after the injection. This is normal and they should feel better after a cuddle. Common side effects usually pass after a few days.

Allergic reactions

It's rare for anyone to have a serious allergic reaction to a vaccination. If this does happen, it usually happens within minutes.

The person who vaccinates you or your child will be trained to deal with allergic reactions and treat them immediately. With prompt treatment, you or your child will make a good recovery.

Read vaccination tips for parents, including what to expect after vaccination

What's in a vaccine?

Most vaccines contain a small amount of bacteria, virus or toxin that's been weakened or destroyed in a laboratory first.

Some contain chemicals that make your body think it's coming into contact with the bacteria, virus or toxin.

This means there's a very low risk of healthy people catching a disease from a vaccine. It's also why you might see vaccines being called "live" or "non-live".

What's the difference between a live and a non-live vaccine?

Live (weakened) vaccines

Non-live (destroyed) vaccines

Live (weakened) vaccines

Contain viruses or bacteria that have been weakened

Non-live (destroyed) vaccines

Contain viruses or bacteria that have been destroyed

Live (weakened) vaccines

Cannot be given to people with a weakened immune system

Non-live (destroyed) vaccines

Can still be given to people with a weakened immune system

Live (weakened) vaccines

Gives long-term protection

Non-live (destroyed) vaccines

Often needs several doses or a booster vaccine for full protection

Other vaccine ingredients

Vaccines contain other ingredients that help make the vaccine more effective.

The main ingredient in vaccines is water. The other ingredients are used in very small amounts.

There is no evidence that any of the ingredients are harmful in such small amounts.

Aluminium (adjuvant)

An adjuvant is an ingredient added to vaccines in very small amounts to make them work more effectively. This may be particularly important for certain individuals, such as young babies or older people.

The most common vaccine adjuvants are aluminium salts. These have been used safely in many of our routine infant and adult vaccines for more than 70 years.

We come into contact with aluminium all the time. It's found naturally in very small amounts in:

almost all foods

drinking water

breast milk

baby formula milk

It's also used in medicines, such as antacids, and in food packaging.

There's no evidence that the levels of aluminium we come across every day increase the risk of conditions like dementia or autism.

The amount of aluminium used in non-live vaccines is very, very small. No harmful effects have been seen with vaccines that contain an aluminium-based adjuvant.

What is it?

Aluminium is a very common metal that's been used safely in vaccines for more than 70 years.

Most killed vaccines contain a very small amount of aluminium-based adjuvant to:

help to boost our immune response

make the vaccine more effective and long-lasting

reduce the amount of antigen needed in a vaccine

sometimes reduce the number of doses that need to be given

Squalene oil (adjuvant)

Adjuvants are added to vaccines in very small amounts to make the response to the vaccine more effective. They have been shown to not be harmful.

They might cause minor reactions, such as a small temporary lump or redness at the injection site.

What is it?

Squalene oil is a component of the adjuvant added to the trivalent flu vaccine and the Sanofi (VidPrevtyn) COVID-19 vaccine recommended for older adults.

It comes from marine oil and is highly purified before being used in the vaccines.

Adjuvants are added to some vaccines to:

help to boost our immune response, especially as we get older

make the vaccine more effective and long-lasting

reduce the amount of antigen needed in a vaccine

sometimes reduce the number of doses that need to be given

Pork gelatine

There have been a small number of allergic reactions to vaccines containing gelatine. Speak to your doctor first if you have a known allergy to gelatine.

Some religious groups, such as Muslims and Jews, may be concerned about using vaccines containing gelatine from pigs. But some faith group leaders have stated the use of gelatine in vaccines is acceptable and does not break any religious rules.
Read this NHS leaflet about vaccines and porcine gelatine
What is it?

Gelatine derived from pigs is used as a stabilising agent in some vaccines to:

help protect vaccines from the effects of heat or freeze-drying

help maintain the shelf life of the vaccine

The only vaccines containing gelatine in the UK routine vaccination schedule are:

the children's nasal flu vaccine

1 of the 2 types of MMR vaccine

1 of the 2 types of shingles vaccine

Human serum albumin and recombinant albumin

These are considered safe. Human serum albumin used in vaccines comes from screened blood donors. The manufacturing process ensures there is no risk of transmitting any diseases.

Recombinant albumin does not contain any human or animal products.

What are they?

Human serum albumin is a substance from human blood. It's used to stabilise a chickenpox vaccine called Varilix and maintain its quality during storage.

Recombinant albumin is produced by cells, such as yeast cells, that have had the gene for human albumin inserted into them.

The cells are then able to generate large quantities of human serum albumin without any need to extract it from human blood.

Recombinant albumin may be used in very small amounts as a stabiliser in 1 of the MMR vaccines used in the UK (MMRVaxPro).

Egg protein

Children and adults with a severe egg allergy can safely receive the MMR vaccine.

Children and adults with an egg allergy are advised to have either:

an egg-free inactivated flu vaccine

a vaccine with a very low egg protein (ovalbumin) content

The live nasal spray flu vaccine given to children has a very low egg protein content. It can be safely given to children with an egg allergy.

Children and adults who have previously had a very severe allergic reaction to eggs may be advised to have their flu vaccine in a hospital.

What is it?

There are 2 vaccines in the UK routine schedule that contain small amounts of egg protein:

the flu vaccine - which is grown on hens' eggs. It can potentially trigger an allergic reaction in people with an egg allergy

the MMR vaccine - which is grown on cells from chick embryos, which is not the same as hens' eggs. This means it does not trigger an allergic reaction

Formaldehyde

Formaldehyde can be found naturally in our bloodstream at levels far higher than we would be exposed to in vaccines.

Although formaldehyde can be harmful in high concentrations, there are no health concerns about the small amounts found in vaccines.

What is it?

Formaldehyde is a chemical also used in the production of killed vaccines. It's used very early in the manufacturing process to kill or inactivate the toxins from bacteria or viruses.

Once the antigens are inactivated, the formaldehyde is diluted out. It's possible that trace amounts may remain in the final vaccine.

Antibiotics

If you know you're allergic to neomycin or any other antibiotic, speak to your doctor or practice nurse before having a vaccine.

Antibiotics known to cause allergic reactions, such as penicillin, are generally not used in vaccines.

But tiny amounts of an antibiotic called neomycin, which is capable of triggering an allergic reaction, are found in:

the MMR vaccine

6-in-1 vaccine

quadrivalent inactivated flu vaccine

4-in-1 pre-school booster vaccine Repevax

shingles vaccine

What are they?

Antibiotics are added to some vaccines to prevent the growth of bacteria during the production and storage of the vaccine.

Antibiotics can only be found in tiny amounts in the final vaccine.

A full list of any vaccine's ingredients is available on the electronic medicines compendium (emc) website

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Why vaccination is important and the safest way to protect yourself

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Read about how vaccines work, what they contain and the most common side effects.

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Advantages and disadvantages of immunisation

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Advantages and disadvantages of immunisation - Treating, curing and preventing disease - Edexcel - GCSE Biology (Single Science) Revision - Edexcel - BBC Bitesize

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Revise treating, curing and preventing disease Edexcel for GCSE Biology.

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Why do parents Worry about Vaccines

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We are in the midst of a measles epidemic. As of July 25th, more than 1,100 cases have been reported in 30 states since the beginning of the year. That's the highest number since 1992 - and since measles was declared eliminated in 2000. Given that measles is extremely contagious - the virus can linger in rooms even after a sick person has left - and can lead to serious complications, this is really alarming.

There is a simple way to help: get more people immunized.

How many children receive vaccines?

Most children in the US are immunized. Only a little more than 1% of children have no immunizations. This is important not only for the children who are immunized, but also for those around them who either cannot be immunized - because they are too young, or because they have a problem with their immune system that prevents it - or have not been immunized. Having enough immunized people around stops a virus like measles from spreading. For measles, this "community" or "herd" immunity exists when around 95% of the people are immune. When clusters of people aren't immunized, this allows cases, usually brought in from other countries where a virus like measles is more common, to spread.

Fear spreads as easily as measles does. People hear something about a vaccine that worries them, and they tell their friends and family. With social media, fear can spread even more quickly and broadly. Once you are afraid, it's hard to get unafraid. And on the internet, all information - whether based on scientific studies or not - is equally available. Agreeing to vaccines requires a choice to do something; it requires action, and when parents get afraid, it can seem easier to just not take action.

The consequences, though, can be deadly - not just for the unimmunized child, but for those around them. The vaccine decision isn't just an individual one; it affects whole communities.

Why are parents hesitant to vaccinate?

I have been a pediatrician for 28 years. I talk to a lot of parents who are hesitant to vaccinate. Here's what they tell me they worry about:

Side effects. It's certainly true that vaccines can have side effects. Any medical treatment can have a side effect. With vaccines, the most common side effects are mild, like soreness where the needle went in, or a slight fever. Serious side effects are rare. There is a database, called the Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System, which keeps track of all reported side effects. The information is publicly available, and I always encourage parents to look at it.

Autism is not a side effect of vaccines. I can understand why people might look at vaccines as a possible cause of autism. The symptoms of autism become apparent early in life, which is a time when we are giving a lot of vaccines (since infants are very vulnerable to infections). But this has been researched extensively, and there has been no link found. There are lots of other things going on during pregnancy and those first couple of years, and hopefully we will find the cause of autism soon. But it's not vaccines.

Additives. The worry used to be about thimerosal, a preservative that contains mercury. While its use was never linked to autism or any other problem, it was removed from everything except multi-dose vials of the flu vaccine out of an abundance of caution. Thimerosal-free versions of the flu vaccine are available if you're concerned. Now the worry is about other additives, such as aluminum, that are added to keep vaccines safe and make them work better. Before getting alarmed about additives, it's important to learn about them - because once people do, they are usually reassured. I encourage people to read about additives, and to make sure all their questions are answered.

Overwhelming the immune system. It's true that we give more shots to babies than we used to, but the antigens in vaccines are nothing compared to the antigens that babies, and all of us, encounter as we breathe, eat, touch things, get dirty, and otherwise live our lives. Vaccines give babies a "sneak peek" of an infection - one that can't cause the infection, but which gives the body a chance to make antibodies so that it's ready to fight the infection should it be exposed. It's not overwhelming the immune system. It's helping to make the immune system work more efficiently.

Because that's the point: we don't want our children - and the children around them - to get sick. Too often, that point gets lost. People get so worried about the risks of vaccines that they forget to worry about the risks of the diseases vaccines prevent. It's important to know - and worry - about those, as they can be serious. Because vaccines work so well, we've nearly forgotten about how dangerous polio, Haemophilus influenzae infections, or even chickenpox can be.

It's normal, and understandable, to be afraid as a parent. But we need to be afraid of the right things - and we need to make decisions that keep everyone safer.

About the Author

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Why do parents worry about vaccines? - Harvard Health

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The ongoing measles epidemic spotlights the importance of vaccinations -- and the concerns some parents have about vaccine safety. If you have such concerns, talk to your child's doctor and learn more about vaccine safety.

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Consequences of not getting a child vaccinated

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2. Other family members are also more likely to get seriously ill

Do you know other people around sick and unimmunized children at risk of contracting diseases or vice-versa?

When you get sick, your children, grandchildren, and parents may be at risk, too
Adults are the most common source of pertussis (whooping cough) infection in infants, which can be deadly for babies. When your child gets vaccinated, you are protecting yourself and your family, as well as those in your community who may not be able to be vaccinated.

Adults can also contract and experience mild symptoms with fatal complications; for example, pregnant women who are infected with the rubella virus are at high risk of giving birth to children with various disorders known as congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). Pregnant women who contract the measles virus are at risk of experiencing a miscarriage.

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7 consequences and risks of not getting your child routinely vaccinated

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Do you know other people around sick and unimmunized children at risk of contracting diseases or vice-versa? When you get sick, your children, grandchildren, and parents may be at risk, too Adults are the most common source of pertussis (whooping cough) infection in infants, which can be deadly for babies.

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Reasons for and against vaccinations

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Nearly two years since Chinese doctors first observed mysterious new cases of pneumonia, Covid-19 is still with us. On top of that, what has been described as the most worrying variant yet has emerged. Could mandatory vaccinations be a way out?

Covid vaccinations are already a requirement for public life in many parts of the world.

If you are a French doctor, a New Zealand teacher or a Canadian government employee, getting your shots is essential to go to work. Indonesia can deny benefits to people who refuse jabs. Greece is making them compulsory for the over-60s.

Austria is set to go further still, with a plan to introduce mandatory vaccinations for all by February.

This would not mean Austrians being forcibly injected. There will be medical and religious exemptions. But the bulk of the remaining unvaccinated population face fines for not getting their shots.

With Germany planning a similar move it is not a debate that is going away. I spoke to public health and other experts to get a sense of what's at stake.

FOR: Vaccines save lives

There's a very simple argument in favour of mandating Covid-19 vaccinations. By getting vaccinated you reduce your risk of serious illness. Less serious illnesses mean fewer deaths, and less pressure on hospitals.

Historically, immunisation campaigns have seen huge success, eradicating smallpox and drastically reducing mortality levels in diseases such as polio and measles.

"We have really good examples that just show a direct causal relationship between requirements, getting very high vaccination rates, and protecting not just individuals but protecting communities," says Jason Schwartz, an associate professor in the History of Medicine at Yale University.

"Vaccines work, they absolutely work, we're got a large body of evidence to show that."

Mandates softer than the one proposed by Austria have achieved their goal of raising vaccination levels. France's pass sanitaire, required to access restaurants and other public spaces, is credited with boosting rates to the extent the government hopes it can avoid compulsory vaccinations.

AGAINST: There will be resistance

Here in London, in July anti-lockdown demonstrators took to the streets to demonstrate against a lockdown that had been lifted just hours earlier.

The point is, whatever a government does, it will face opposition. Covid restrictions in particular have drawn protests around the world and mandatory vaccinations are a step beyond, say, a mask mandate.

"When it comes to vaccines, people do think very differently," says Vageesh Jain, a public health doctor at the Institute for Global Health at University College London.

"Anything that's administered to them in their body, it's not going to be thought of in the same way, even though academics and others may think theoretically it's just a restriction, people do have this kind of emotive response."

While there will always be some who will never be persuaded to get vaccinated, it is possible to be sceptical about vaccinations without being an anti-vaxxer.

An Austrian study distinguished between the 14.5% of the country's 9m population who were unprepared to get vaccinated and the 9% who were simply hesitant.

Governments must weigh whether the benefits outweigh the backlash. But as Cathleen Powell, a law professor at the University of Cape Town, argues, there is a legal case to be made.

"The right to bodily integrity as a person who doesn't want to be vaccinated, who wants to make his or her own choices about what medical treatment to get, comes up directly against the rights of other people, not to be infected with potentially fatal diseases," she says.

FOR: We've exhausted other options...

Covid has been with us for some time, but then so have vaccines.

In Europe at least, the momentum behind mandates reflects a frustration that after months of vaccinations and widespread availability there remain significant unvaccinated populations.

There's a stark difference in vaccination rates across the continent from west to east.

European Commission chief Ursula von der Leyen said it was now time to think about mandatory vaccinations, although she stressed individual governments would decide.

"We have the vaccines, the life-saving vaccines, but they are not being used adequately everywhere," she said.

While there is a strong health argument in favour of mandatory vaccinations, it is not the only way to boost levels.

"What is quite noticeable in the past is how politicians do like the idea of mandatory vaccination because it seems to give a quick answer to the problem," says Samantha Vanderslott, a social sciences researcher at the Oxford Vaccine Group.

"I wouldn't want government to neglect other things that need to be done to make sure that people really have access to vaccines."

Austria won't be making vaccines mandatory until February and is still using other means. "For those who are afraid, who have no trust, for those whose assessment of risk is low - for them it is important that they are listened to and that their concerns are taken seriously," Barbara Juen, a health psychologist at the University of Innsbruck, told national broadcaster ORF.

In South Africa, 24% of the population is vaccinated, less than half the European average but considerably higher than the 7% average recorded across the African continent. There's no shortage of jabs and low take-up has been blamed in part on misinformation.

The government has floated making vaccines compulsory in some circumstances, but the number of vaccines administered has risen rapidly since the discovery of the Omicron variant. It's not just governments that provide nudges.

Compulsory vaccinations are not the only form of mandate. Most governments have imposed some form of restrictions, from Covid passes to travel bans, that carry their own costs.

On top of the lives saved, a blanket vaccine mandate could spell the end of lockdowns.

"It's not just about having your liberty changed... it's about economic damage and the mental health damage the physical health damage," says Alberto Giubilini, a senior research fellow at the Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics. He favours mandates for those most vulnerable to coronavirus.

"There is no reason to impose the huge, huge costs of lockdowns on people when you have another measure available."

Some have more long-term concerns, such as whether a successful programme could build distrust of future campaigns.

"When people have what we call conspiracy theories or they have misbeliefs or misunderstandings, [such schemes] will only strengthen their opinions."

Vanderslott points to the political climate: "We have witnessed, especially in Europe, parties tapping into the vaccine opposition and knowing that that might be a way to get votes from a certain section of the population," she says.

"We could see more parties, and they tend to be on the right, putting out that kind of message in their political campaign and saying that they want to remove measures for mandatory vaccination. That's a fear and then once that happens, we don't have the option anymore to use that as a policy measure."

More on this story

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Mandatory vaccinations: Three reasons for and against

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Nearly two years since Chinese doctors first observed mysterious new cases of pneumonia, Covid-19 is still with us. On top of that, what has been described as the most worrying variant yet has emerged. Could mandatory vaccinations be a way out? Covid vaccinations are already a requirement for public life in many parts of the world.

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Why Vaccination is safe and important

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Vaccines are the most effective way to prevent many infectious diseases. This page explains how vaccines work, what they contain and the most common side effects.

Be aware of anti-vaccine stories

Anti-vaccine stories are often spread online through social media and offline.

Always get your vaccine and health information from trusted sources, such as the NHS or World Health Organisation (WHO).

The vaccine information on social media may not be based on scientific evidence and could put your child at risk of a serious illness.

All the current evidence tells us that getting vaccinated is safer than not getting vaccinated.

Things you need to know about vaccines

Vaccines:

Do

help to protect you and your child from many serious and potentially deadly diseases

protect other people in your family and community - by helping to stop diseases spreading to people who cannot have vaccines, such as babies too young to be vaccinated and those who are too ill to be vaccinated

undergo rigorous safety testing before being introduced - they're also constantly monitored for side effects after being introduced

sometimes cause mild side effects that will not last long - you may feel a bit unwell and have a sore arm for 2 or 3 days

reduce or even get rid of some diseases - if enough people are vaccinated

Don't

do not overload or weaken the immune system - it's safe to give children and adults several vaccines at a time and this reduces the amount of injections needed

do not contain mercury (thiomersal)

do not contain any ingredients that cause harm - only ingredients essential to making them safer and more effective and only in very small amounts

do not cause autism - studies have found no evidence of a link between the MMR vaccine and autism

Why vaccines are important

Vaccination is the most important thing we can do to protect ourselves and our children against ill health. They prevent millions of deaths worldwide every year.

Since vaccines were introduced in the UK, diseases like smallpox, polio and tetanus that used to kill or disable millions of people are either gone or are now very rarely seen.

Other diseases like measles and diphtheria have reduced to a very low number of cases each year since vaccines were introduced. These cases are often related to travel.

However, if people stop having vaccines, it's possible for infectious diseases to quickly spread again.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has listed vaccine hesitancy as one of the biggest threats to global health.

Important

If 95% of children receive the MMR vaccine, this would stop measles spreading completely.

However, measles, mumps and rubella can quickly spread again if fewer than 90% of people are vaccinated.

Everyone should be up to date with their routine vaccinations to give them the best protection.

How vaccines work

Vaccines teach your immune system how to create antibodies that protect you from diseases.

It's much safer for your immune system to learn this through vaccination than by catching the diseases and treating them.

Once your immune system knows how to fight a disease, it can often give you life long protection.

Herd immunity

Having a vaccine also benefits your whole community through "herd immunity".

If enough people are vaccinated, it's harder for the disease to spread to those people who cannot have vaccines. For example, people who are ill or have a weakened immune system.

Vaccine safety

All vaccines are thoroughly tested to make sure they will not harm you or your child.

It often takes many years for a vaccine to make it through the trials and tests it needs to pass for approval.

Once a vaccine is being used in the UK it's also monitored for any rare side effects by the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). It is also carefully monitored to make sure it still works.

Anyone can report a suspected side effect of vaccination to the MHRA through the Yellow Card Scheme.

Who cannot have vaccines

There are very few people who cannot have vaccines.

Generally, vaccines are only not suitable for:

People with weakened immune systems (for example, because of cancer treatment or a health condition) may also not be able to have some vaccines.

If you're not sure if you or your child can be vaccinated, check with a GP, practice nurse, health visitor or pharmacist.

Side effects of vaccination

Most of the side effects of vaccination are mild and do not last long.

The most common side effects of vaccination include:

the area where the needle goes in looking red, swollen and feeling a bit sore for 2 to 3 days

feeling a bit unwell or developing a high temperature for 1 or 2 days

older children and adults may feel faint

feeling tired, having a headache, mild fever, or flu-like symptoms

Some children might also cry and be upset immediately after the injection. This is normal and they should feel better after a cuddle. Common side effects usually pass after a few days.

Allergic reactions

It's rare for anyone to have a serious allergic reaction to a vaccination. If this does happen, it usually happens within minutes.

The person who vaccinates you or your child will be trained to deal with allergic reactions and treat them immediately. With prompt treatment, you or your child will make a good recovery.

Read vaccination tips for parents, including what to expect after vaccination

What's in a vaccine?

Most vaccines contain a small amount of bacteria, virus or toxin that's been weakened or destroyed in a laboratory first.

Some contain chemicals that make your body think it's coming into contact with the bacteria, virus or toxin.

This means there's a very low risk of healthy people catching a disease from a vaccine. It's also why you might see vaccines being called "live" or "non-live".

What's the difference between a live and a non-live vaccine?

Live (weakened) vaccines

Non-live (destroyed) vaccines

Live (weakened) vaccines

Contain viruses or bacteria that have been weakened

Non-live (destroyed) vaccines

Contain viruses or bacteria that have been destroyed

Live (weakened) vaccines

Cannot be given to people with a weakened immune system

Non-live (destroyed) vaccines

Can still be given to people with a weakened immune system

Live (weakened) vaccines

Gives long-term protection

Non-live (destroyed) vaccines

Often needs several doses or a booster vaccine for full protection

Other vaccine ingredients

Vaccines contain other ingredients that help make the vaccine more effective.

The main ingredient in vaccines is water. The other ingredients are used in very small amounts.

There is no evidence that any of the ingredients are harmful in such small amounts.

Aluminium (adjuvant)

An adjuvant is an ingredient added to vaccines in very small amounts to make them work more effectively. This may be particularly important for certain individuals, such as young babies or older people.

The most common vaccine adjuvants are aluminium salts. These have been used safely in many of our routine infant and adult vaccines for more than 70 years.

We come into contact with aluminium all the time. It's found naturally in very small amounts in:

almost all foods

drinking water

breast milk

baby formula milk

It's also used in medicines, such as antacids, and in food packaging.

There's no evidence that the levels of aluminium we come across every day increase the risk of conditions like dementia or autism.

The amount of aluminium used in non-live vaccines is very, very small. No harmful effects have been seen with vaccines that contain an aluminium-based adjuvant.

What is it?

Aluminium is a very common metal that's been used safely in vaccines for more than 70 years.

Most killed vaccines contain a very small amount of aluminium-based adjuvant to:

help to boost our immune response

make the vaccine more effective and long-lasting

reduce the amount of antigen needed in a vaccine

sometimes reduce the number of doses that need to be given

Squalene oil (adjuvant)

Adjuvants are added to vaccines in very small amounts to make the response to the vaccine more effective. They have been shown to not be harmful.

They might cause minor reactions, such as a small temporary lump or redness at the injection site.

What is it?

Squalene oil is a component of the adjuvant added to the trivalent flu vaccine and the Sanofi (VidPrevtyn) COVID-19 vaccine recommended for older adults.

It comes from marine oil and is highly purified before being used in the vaccines.

Adjuvants are added to some vaccines to:

help to boost our immune response, especially as we get older

make the vaccine more effective and long-lasting

reduce the amount of antigen needed in a vaccine

sometimes reduce the number of doses that need to be given

Pork gelatine

There have been a small number of allergic reactions to vaccines containing gelatine. Speak to your doctor first if you have a known allergy to gelatine.

Some religious groups, such as Muslims and Jews, may be concerned about using vaccines containing gelatine from pigs. But some faith group leaders have stated the use of gelatine in vaccines is acceptable and does not break any religious rules.
Read this NHS leaflet about vaccines and porcine gelatine
What is it?

Gelatine derived from pigs is used as a stabilising agent in some vaccines to:

help protect vaccines from the effects of heat or freeze-drying

help maintain the shelf life of the vaccine

The only vaccines containing gelatine in the UK routine vaccination schedule are:

the children's nasal flu vaccine

1 of the 2 types of MMR vaccine

1 of the 2 types of shingles vaccine

Human serum albumin and recombinant albumin

These are considered safe. Human serum albumin used in vaccines comes from screened blood donors. The manufacturing process ensures there is no risk of transmitting any diseases.

Recombinant albumin does not contain any human or animal products.

What are they?

Human serum albumin is a substance from human blood. It's used to stabilise a chickenpox vaccine called Varilix and maintain its quality during storage.

Recombinant albumin is produced by cells, such as yeast cells, that have had the gene for human albumin inserted into them.

The cells are then able to generate large quantities of human serum albumin without any need to extract it from human blood.

Recombinant albumin may be used in very small amounts as a stabiliser in 1 of the MMR vaccines used in the UK (MMRVaxPro).

Egg protein

Children and adults with a severe egg allergy can safely receive the MMR vaccine.

Children and adults with an egg allergy are advised to have either:

an egg-free inactivated flu vaccine

a vaccine with a very low egg protein (ovalbumin) content

The live nasal spray flu vaccine given to children has a very low egg protein content. It can be safely given to children with an egg allergy.

Children and adults who have previously had a very severe allergic reaction to eggs may be advised to have their flu vaccine in a hospital.

What is it?

There are 2 vaccines in the UK routine schedule that contain small amounts of egg protein:

the flu vaccine - which is grown on hens' eggs. It can potentially trigger an allergic reaction in people with an egg allergy

the MMR vaccine - which is grown on cells from chick embryos, which is not the same as hens' eggs. This means it does not trigger an allergic reaction

Formaldehyde

Formaldehyde can be found naturally in our bloodstream at levels far higher than we would be exposed to in vaccines.

Although formaldehyde can be harmful in high concentrations, there are no health concerns about the small amounts found in vaccines.

What is it?

Formaldehyde is a chemical also used in the production of killed vaccines. It's used very early in the manufacturing process to kill or inactivate the toxins from bacteria or viruses.

Once the antigens are inactivated, the formaldehyde is diluted out. It's possible that trace amounts may remain in the final vaccine.

Antibiotics

If you know you're allergic to neomycin or any other antibiotic, speak to your doctor or practice nurse before having a vaccine.

Antibiotics known to cause allergic reactions, such as penicillin, are generally not used in vaccines.

But tiny amounts of an antibiotic called neomycin, which is capable of triggering an allergic reaction, are found in:

the MMR vaccine

6-in-1 vaccine

quadrivalent inactivated flu vaccine

4-in-1 pre-school booster vaccine Repevax

shingles vaccine

What are they?

Antibiotics are added to some vaccines to prevent the growth of bacteria during the production and storage of the vaccine.

Antibiotics can only be found in tiny amounts in the final vaccine.

A full list of any vaccine's ingredients is available on the electronic medicines compendium (emc) website

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Why vaccination is important and the safest way to protect yourself

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Read about how vaccines work, what they contain and the most common side effects.

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you think you or your child have missed any vaccinations

you or your child have a vaccination appointment - but you've missed it or cannot attend

Your GP surgery can book or rearrange an appointment.

It's best to have vaccines on time, but you can still catch up on most vaccines if you miss them.

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A full list of the routine vaccinations offered on the NHS and when they should be given.