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The Indian Reorganisation Act was one of John Collier's policies in 1934. It "ended the policy of allotment, banned the further sale of Indian land and decreed that any unallotted land not yet sold should be returned to tribal control." Even though 174 out of 252 Indian tribes accepted the IRA, it was, and still is, highly controversial.

https://www.historytoday.com/archive/feature/native-americans-and-federal-government

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John Collier was a Commissioner for Indian Affairs in 1933. His main goals were to try and preserve as much Native American culture and land as he could. While he did help add four million acres to Native American land, in the end, the relocation and removal of Indians left 100,000 landless Native Americans.

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Why Americans Wanted to Remove Native Americans?

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Why Americans Wanted to Remove Native Americans?

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Americans were land-hungry and they saw economic opportunity in Native American lands, and the pressure to remove Native Americans grew. Americans tried to justify their actions by saying that Native Americans were uncivilized people who made little use of their vast tribal lands. They believed that the United States had a "manifest destiny" to occupy the entire continent from coast to coast. Most American Indian Nations rejected the idea of removal, and they tried every strategy to avoid it.

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In Worcester v. Georgia in 1832, the Supreme Court ruled "that the states did not have the right to impose regulations on Native American land."
Even though the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Cherokee nation, "some tribes still signed treaties giving the federal government the legal authority to 'assist' them in their move to the Indian Territory."

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Worcester-v-Georgia

https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/native-american/removing-native-americans-from-their-land/

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President Thomas Jefferson was one of the first advocates for Indian removal. The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 gave the United States the opportunity to explore and buy vast lands west of the Mississippi River from American Indian Nations that owned them. President Jefferson then hoped to persuade the eastern Indian Nations to sign treaties and exchange their lands for territory west of the Mississippi.

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This shows the different perspectives of the Native Americans verses the perspective of the US government about removing Native Americans from their land.

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"According to Cuneo, Columbus ordered 1,500 men and women seized, letting 400 go and condemning 500 to be sent to Spain, and another 600 to be enslaved by Spanish men remaining on the island. About 200 of the 500 sent to Spain died on the voyage, and were thrown by the Spanish into the Atlantic."

https://www.vox.com/2014/10/13/6957875/christopher-columbus-murderer-tyrant-scoundrel

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"In 1953, Congress enacted Public Law 83-280 to grant certain states criminal jurisdiction over Indians on reservations and to allow civil litigation that had come under tribal or federal court jurisdiction to be handled by state courts."

https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ana/fact-sheet/american-indians-and-alaska-natives-public-law-280-tribes

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The Termination Policy and Alcatraz Island

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The Termination Policy and Alcatraz Island

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The House Resolution No. 108, 83rd Congress, also known as the Termination Policy, was enacted on August 1, 1953. Congress "announced their support for a new Indian policy: 'termination.'"  After the Termination Policy was codified, Native American land was sold. Native Americans were told to become "civilized" and assimilate into the white society. And, on June 11, 1971, federal officers "forcibly removed the remaining occupiers of Alcatraz Island and in 1973 Alcatraz opened as a national park and has been one ever since."

https://library.law.howard.edu/civilrightshistory/indigenous/termination

https://www.library.pima.gov/blogs/post/the-native-occupation-of-alcatraz-looking-back-50-years-later/

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A group of "white men selected by President Harry Truman began working in Washington, D.C., to come up with a solution to the so-called 'Indian problem.' Among them were congressmen, cabinet officials and pundits." And in 1949, the Hoover Commission recommended that Native Americans be assimilated into the general white society "by detribalizing, revoking federal recognition of tribes. The Hoover Commission recommends removal of all Indian lands from trust status, the repeal of the IRA, and the outlawing of 100 tribal constitutions." This was going on while the Termination Policy was being put together.

https://www.apmreports.org/episode/2019/11/01/uprooted-the-1950s-plan-to-erase-indian-country

https://nativephilanthropy.candid.org/events/hoover-commission-recommends-terminating-tribes-promoting-urbanization/#:~:text=The%20Hoover%20Commission%20recommends%20removal,outlawing%20of%20100%20tribal%20constitutions

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The Removal Act of 1830 allowed President Andrew Jackson to negotiate for the removal and resettlement of Native American tribes. A primary target was the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole from Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. Although the removal and resettlement was supposed to be voluntary, ultimately, this resulted in the series of forcible removals known as the Trail of Tears.

"In 1838, as the deadline for removal approached, thousands of federal soldiers and Georgia volunteers entered the territory and forcibly relocated the Cherokees, some hunting, imprisoning, assaulting, and murdering Cherokees during the process. Cherokees who survived the onslaught were forced on a 1,000-mile march to the established Indian Territory with few provisions. Approximately 4,000 Cherokees died on this 'Trail of Tears.'"

https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/native-american/removing-native-americans-from-their-land/

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The Indian Relocation Act of 1956 was a United States law that pushed Native Americans to leave Indian reservations and assimilate into the general white population. This law offered money if the Native Americans voluntarily moved from their reservations to metropolitan areas: Chicago, Denver, Los Angeles, Cleveland, and Seattle. The "BIA pledged assistance with locating housing and employment," but when "they faced unemployment, low-end jobs, discrimination, homesickness and the loss the traditional cultural supports," the BIA turned a blind eye. If the Native Americans wanted to return to their reservations, which they did often, it must come out of their own pockets.

https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/indian-relocation.html#:~:text=In%20response%20to%20this%20policy,with%20locating%20housing%20and%20employment

https://weareili.org/timeline/the-indian-relocation-act-of-1956/#:~:text=The%20Indian%20Relocation%20Act%20of%201956%20(also%20known%20as%20Public,assimilate%20into%20the%20general%20population

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Jackson prompted congress to pass the Removal Act not long after saying he, "'to observe toward the Indian tribes within our limits a just and liberal policy, and to give that humane and considerate attention to their rights and their wants which is consistent with the habits of our Government and the feelings of our people.'"

The Removal Act forced Native Americans to settle in special 'Indian Territory' located west of the Mississippi River.

https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/andrew-jackson-calls-indian#:~:text=In%20Andrew%20Jackson's%20first%20inaugural,with%20the%20habits%20of%20our

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Despite President James Monroe's care for Native Americans, his administration removed Native Americans from states north of the Ohio River.

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American Indians continued the fight to keep their lands after the passing of the Indian Removal Act, however from about 1830 to 1850, the U.S. government used treaties, fraud, intimidation, and violence to remove about 100,000 American Indians west of the Mississippi. Thousands of Native men, women, and children died on the difficult trek to new land that became known as Indian Territory, which is modern-day Oklahoma.

After resettling in Indian Territory, Native Peoples rebuilt their lives and cultures, and continued their struggle for self-government under their own laws on their new lands in the West.