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AQA A-Level Media Studies – Paper 2 25 markers

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A-Level Media Studies Paper 1 How to Structure a Response

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AQA A-Level Media Studies – Paper 2 25 markers

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Analytical Verbs for A-Level Media Studies

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media studies "media studies" "film studies" "creative media" a-level gcse revision "film analysis"

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Helping you write, analyse, and enjoy films and media! If you are a film/media student, teacher or enthusiast, here is where you will find videos that go into detailed analysis of how films are made, and how to make films yourself!

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"media studies" a-level gcse revision eduqas

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All about GCSE & A-level Media Studies, to help students and teachers with key concepts, key words, theories and set texts.

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The following subject specific vocabulary provides definitions of key terms used in our A-level Media Studies specification. Students should be familiar with and gain understanding of these terms.

ABC figures

The Audit Bureau of Circulations is responsible for measuring the reach of different media across a range of platforms.

Aberrant reading

A reading of a product which does not recognise the preferred meaning but produces instead a deviant or unanticipated reading.

Action code

A narrative device by which a resolution is produced through action eg a gun fight.

Active audience

The theory that media audiences do not just consume a text passively, they actively engage with it because of personal and social contexts.

Actively purchased circulation

A term used by the industry to describe the copies of a magazine purchased by an individual. This includes single copy purchases, subscription, sales and retail.

Advertising campaign

A campaign run by an advertising agency which incorporates all of the ways in which a product, event or service is beneficial to the audience. This can be in the form of packaging, television, print and online adverts.

Advertising spots

These are the spaces in commercial breaks that are sold to advertisers. Most spots are around 30 seconds but can vary in length.

Advertorial

An advert that is presented in the form of editorial content. For example an advertorial vlog is an advert presented by a vlogger in their usual editorial style.

Agenda setting

The importance ascribed to news stories by news media. Those deemed most important will take prominence in coverage.

A process or set of rules which when followed in calculations will solve a problem or complete a task - for example, they are used to determine which adverts are most suitable for a particular website.

Alley

The space between columns of text.

Anchorage

The text (copy) that fixes (anchors) an image and its meaning.

In a plot, the character whose function is to disrupt the protagonist - often, but not always, a villain.

Anthology series

A series that is a collection of free-standing episodes - each episode features a completely different set of characters and storyline.

Artificial Intelligence

The branch of computer science which focuses on the capacity of machines to simulate human behaviour.

Archetype

A universal type of character found in various media texts, eg anti-hero, hero.

Audience

The people who are intended to see, hear, consume a media text.

Audience positioning

Each media text that is constructed to position its intended audience in a particular place and to respond in a certain way to it.

Audience surrogate

A character in a text that stands in for the audience. They may think and act as the audience might in the same situation.

Audio streaming

Listeners can click on a link to play a radio programme instantly. It is used to increase the global reach of radio programmes so that people can access radio content from abroad.

Augmented reality

Computer-generated content overlaid on a real-world environment, commonly used in video games.

Avatar

In gaming this is the player's representation of themselves within the game.

BARB

Broadcasters' Audience Research Board - the organisation that measures and collects television viewing data in the UK.

Bardic function

An analysis of television and its role as 'Bard' within society today.

BBFC

British Board of Film Classification - responsible for deciding the age classification and censorship of all films and video content released in the UK.

Below the line advertising

An advertising strategy where the product is promoted on platforms other than radio, television, billboards, print and film.

Big Close Up (BCU)

An extreme close up camera shot, usually focusing on the face or close detail of the body.

Billing Block

The block of text on a poster that contains the industry information, including actors, directors, producers, crew and production and distribution companies.

Binary opposite

When there are opposite values incorporated into a text, eg good and evil.

Binary opposition

The contrast between two ideas or concepts, such as good/evil, male/female. Usually the contrast causes conflict that drives the narrative.

Binge watching

When multiple episodes of a TV programme are watched in succession.

Blog

A website or web page often created by an individual or small group which is regularly updated, often written in an informal, conversational style.

Blogger

A person who engages in blogging by updating and adding content to a blog. Blog is a short term for weblog.

Brand

A type of product that is manufactured and marketed under a particular name, logo and design.

Brand ambassador

An individual, often a celebrity, who is paid to promote and endorse a product or service. They will become the face of the brand and their qualities are associated with the product.

Brand identity

The image that a brand projects and the associations the audience then make with the brand.

Brand recognition

The extent to which a brand can be identified, this is often aided by visual codes such as logos.

Bricolage

When signs or artefacts are borrowed from different styles or genres to create something new.

Broadsheet

This is a larger newspaper that focuses on more serious news for example, The Guardian.

Burden of representation

The concept that when representations of particular groups are limited, the representations that do appear in the media are more significant as they then represent larger groups or communities.

Buzz marketing

Word of mouth advertising. A 'buzz' is created when consumers of a product show excitement and anticipation about a new product.

By-line

The printed line of text in a newspaper/magazine that names the writer of an article.

Call to action

An instruction aimed at the audience with the hope to provoke an immediate response - can take the form of 'subscribe now', for example. Often used in advertising and marketing.

Camera movement

The way the camera is moved during filming to add depth, interest and variation for the viewer, such as pan and track.

Canted angle

A shot filmed from a slanted angle. Also known as 'Dutch tilt' or oblique angle.

CAP code

UK Code of Non-broadcast Advertising and Direct Promotional Advertising. The advertising code that covers non-broadcast media. It is written by the Committee of Advertising Practice (CAP) and administered by the ASA.

Censorship

The controls and regulations that exist about media content. Censorship powers can be held by governments or regulatory bodies.

CGI

Computer-generated imagery is the application of computer graphics to printed or moving image media. The term CGI commonly refers to 3D computer graphics used for special effects in film sequences.

Circular narrative

Where the narrative starts at the end and then explores the action up to that point. Circular narratives are often only understood clearly by the audience at the end of a film.

Circulation

The number of copies of a media product that are distributed, this includes subscriptions. Circulation audits are provided by the Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC).

A rating given to a film, DVD or video game which informs the audience the suitability for different ages of audience according to the criteria of violence, sexual content and inappropriate language.

Cliff hanger

A narrative device where suspension is created at the end of an episode or before an advert break in order to persuade the viewer to continue watching subsequent instalments of the programme to find out what happens next.

Closed narrative

A story where the main threads of the narrative are neatly resolved.

Close up (CU)

A common camera shot that tightly focuses on a person or object.

Code

Codes are the systems of signs that are used to create meaning in media texts. Codes can be both symbolic and technical.

Cognitive surplus

How technology makes consumers into collaborators.

Collective identity

The shared sense of belonging to a group.

Colloquialism

An informal expression, often used in casual conversation as opposed to writing. May be used to establish an informal communication with an audience.

Colour palette

The suite of colours that are used in the creation of media texts, such as websites and magazines, to reflect a brand and appeal to its audience.

Commercial broadcasting

Privately owned media broadcasting of television and radio programming.

Commissioning

When programmes get the 'go ahead' or 'green light' for production. Producers will pitch their ideas to commissioning controllers who will decide whether or not to commission the programme.

Commodification

The process of treating something as a commodity.

Concentration of ownership

Refers to the number of organisations or individuals who control ownership of the media. Fewer stakeholders holding increasing shares.

Conglomerate

A media conglomerate is a large corporation that owns a large number of media companies, such as television, radio, internet, publishing - giving the conglomerate control in the market.

Connotation

The way meaning is created, or the deeper meaning, in a media text.

Consumable product

These are products that we use regularly and that need to be replaced. Some audiences are loyal to a particular brand, whereas, others may be persuaded to change.

Media consumption is the diet of information and entertainment that is taken in by a group or individual.

Content analysis

A method of research that provides quantitative data. It generally involves counting the number of times a particular feature appears in a given context - for example, counting the number of men who have speaking roles in a TV programme.

Content creators

Those involved in creating and sharing content online, for example, vloggers and bloggers.

Context

The time, place and mindset of the audience are all features of context that affect how a media text is read.

Continuity

When one frame of a storyboard links to the next in sequence effectively conveying the narrative.

Continuity editing

The most commonly used type of video editing used in post-production - predominantly used to establish a logical and linear coherence between shots.

Contrapuntal

Sound that does not match the action on screen.

The widely recognised and typical way of doing things in a particular genre or media form.

The coming together of technologies and institutions to create a new product or media experience. This is often facilitated by digital technologies ie smartphones bring together the facility to perform different functions such as internet browsing, playing music, taking photographs, watching video content etc.

Constructed reality

A type of TV series where people talk naturally but are placed in pre-arranged situations by the producers.

Cookies

Small pieces of computer code that are placed on your hard drive by web sites and advertisers. They are used to track your progress through a website and allows the operator to evaluate which pages are the most popular.

Copy

The written material, as opposed to images, that features in a media text.

Countertype

A positive stereotype that reinforces the positive qualities of a person/type of person.

Cover lines

The written text that features on the cover of a magazine, they usually give a preview of the content inside.

Cover price

The price printed on the cover of a printed media text.

Cross platform marketing

When one form is advertised on another media platform.

Crane shot

A camera shot that is taken from above the ground high on a crane (also known as a jib).

Cross-head

Words used as a title or sub-heading to break up text in a newspaper or magazine.

Cross cut

An editing technique used to establish that action is occurring at the same time.

CRPG

Computer role-playing game.

Cultivation differential

The margin of 'heavy' viewers over 'light' viewers when assessing the perception of social reality that the media creates.

Cultural capital/competence

The knowledge, experience, taste and skills an audience possess which shapes their choice and interpretation of media products. It is related to social class and other divisions such as education and career.

A simple editing technique. One shot ends and another begins, with no transitions or effects added.

Date line

A line that shows the date that a media publication/article was written/first published.

Decoding

The process through which an audience interprets a message.

Deconstruction

The act of breaking something down to its separate parts in order to understand it.

Deep focus

A technique used in photography or cinematography which produces a 'depth of field' where everything is in focus.

Demerger

Separating a large corporation into two or more smaller organisations.

Demographics

The characteristics and make-up of a sample of the population eg age, gender, nationality.

Demographic profiling

A way of categorising audiences by dividing consumers into groups based on age, sex, income, education, occupation, household size, marital status, home ownership or other features. It is used to help advertisers determine their target audience for particular products in order that they can then develop advertising that focus on that demographic.

Denotation

The literal or surface meaning in a media text.

Deregulation

The relaxing of commercial controls and limitations imposed upon the media by the state, usually focuses on ownership and the requirements of the quality of their services.

Desensitisation

A psychological process which suggests that audiences who are regularly exposed to acts of violence through tv programmes, films and video games etc, are increasingly less likely to feel empathy or concern when exposed to violence, bad language or other forms of aggressive behaviour.

Desk Top Publishing

Desk Top Publishing (DTP) software allows the user to create printed media texts with various page layouts and designs.

Dialogue

Words spoken by characters in a media product, such as films or television dramas.

Diegesis

The time and space of the audio-visual narrative world, most often useful in distinguishing between diegetic and non-diegetic sound.

Diegetic sound

Actual sound from the world of the film or TV programme, whether on or off screen.

Digital native

A person who is brought up with digital technology from an early age.

Diversification

Large corporations spreading their interest and shares in a wide variety of mass media forms.

Duopoly

An industry within which two companies control the market.

Dynamic

Constantly changing, progressing and evolving.

Dystopia

An imagined place within which everything is unpleasant or bad.

Economic determinist

A theory in political economy which looks for economic conditions as the basis to explain social and cultural differences in society.

Economies of scale

Cost savings which can be made by large organisations due to the size of their operation eg 'bulk buying'.

Editing

A post-production technique - any arranging, revising and preparing of written, audio or video content to get the piece ready for audience consumption.

An article in a newspaper or magazine that expresses an opinion on a topical issue.

Editorial philosophy

A media product's underlying values, attitudes and beliefs and the viewpoint it adopts. The editorial philosophy helps to determine the style and content of the media product including the mode of address it adopts.

Effect

The impact a code or product may have upon the audience.

Ellipsis

Where sentences are incomplete and are finished with a set of three dots; the words then need to be filled in by the consumer.

Emerging media

The communication that occurs through digital technology and new platforms with interactive elements, for example podcasts, social media etc.

Encode

Communication of ideas and messages through a system of signs.

Enculturation

How we learn the requirements of our surrounding culture through experience and observation.

Enigma

A question that is not immediately answered which draws the audience into a text.

Equilibrium/disequilibrium

Refers to balance, stability or order for a text or the tensions in the narrative. In Todorov's theory it refers to the status quo or normal state of affairs (equilibrium) which give way to unpredictability (disequilibrium) and then a restoration of balance (return to equilibrium).

Essentialisation

A process that involves ascribing certain traits or characteristics to someone by nature, those traits are seen to be part of that person's nature and as such they are fixed and cannot be changed.

Establishing shot

The opening shot of a visual narrative sequence often showing the geographical location.

Ethics

The principles and standards that are upheld in broadcast media, film and the internet.

Ethnicity

Ethnicity is defined by your cultural identity, often demonstrated through customs, food and dress. It suggests identity is based on a sense of place, ideology or religion. For example you can be British but of Muslim ethnicity.

Ethnocentric

Roger Brown defines ethnocentrism as 'the application of the norms of one's own culture to that of others' (Social Psychology, 1965). Stuart Hall refers to this definition in his theory of representation as he suggests ethnocentrism is an example of the way in which stereotypes reinforce the power of certain groups over others.

Event

Something that occurs or is about to occur and is of particular interest to an audience. Events can be local, national or global eg The World Cup, Glastonbury Music festival, royal births or deaths. International events may include wars.

Event television

Events that will attract a large audience, eg the final of Strictly Come Dancing.

Exhibition

Where a film can be viewed, eg multiplex, independent art house cinemas, online, and film festivals.

Exotic other

A term used to describe someone who is perceived to be different or 'foreign'. The difference or 'otherness' becomes a source of fascination or pleasure.

Expert witness

A person whose level of specialised knowledge or skill in a particular field qualifies them to present their opinion.

Eyeline match

A film editing technique that makes the audience feel that they are seeing the same as the character on screen.

Fabula

A term in narrative theory - Russian for 'story'.

Facial action coding system

A technique whereby computer technology is used to capture a range of high resolution skin textures and different facial expressions used to help animators replicate computer generated images. This was used in the Galaxy chocolate advert to make Audrey Hepburn look real.

Fade

In video editing post-production, a fade is the transition to and from a blank image.

Female gaze

A feminist theoretical term in response to Laura Mulvey's Male Gaze theory. Female Gaze represents the gaze of the female viewer.

Promoting women's rights for the equality of the sexes.

First run

A programme that is available for viewing to the public for the first time.

Flagship show

A programme that has particular importance for a channel or broadcaster - it might attract high ratings or strongly identify with the channel.

Flashback

A scene in a moving image text that is set in an earlier time than the main story.

Flexi narrative

A narrative structure that combines aspects of the same serial or series. For example, whilst each episode may feature a self-contained narrative, character relationships may develop over the course of several episodes forming a wider story arc.

Flow

A term first coined by Raymond Williams, after his first experience of US television in the mid-1950s, to suggest that broadcast media are experienced as a flow of similar segments not as separate items.

Fly-on-the-wall

A form of documentary filmmaking where the camera is an invisible presence, positioning the viewer voyeuristically as an unseen observer.

Focus group

Qualitative research where a group of people are asked about their views of a product which enables the producers to form an opinion of the needs of the target audience.

Font

The style and size of text characters on the printed page or screen.

Form

The various formats that media texts and products come in, such as newspapers, magazines, films. Each media form will have its own set of codes and conventions.

Framing

The way a camera shot is composed.

Franchise

A media franchise is a collection of connected media products derived from a single original source, for example, a film - with a comic and video game also produced about the film.

Freelance

A person who is hired by different companies to work on particular projects. Freelancing is common in many areas of the media.

Free market

A system where the prices for goods and services are determined by the open market and consumers.

Gatekeeping

The way in which information is filtered by the media before it is prepared for publication, broadcast or distribution.

Gender norms

Cultural expectations of how different genders should behave - what is considered 'normal' for men or women.

Gender performativity

A term coined by Judith Butler where she criticises outdated notions and perceptions of gender.

Genre

A style or category of a media form.

The global spread of media and communications systems and businesses. How local and national industries are linked to a wider world culture.

Global village

A term coined by Marshall McLuhan where he described how modern electronic media have interconnected around the globe and have 'shrunk' the world making it seem like a village.

Guerilla marketing

Low-cost and unconventional marketing methods with a clear focus on grabbing the audience's attention.

Gutter

The space between two pages of text in a newspaper or magazine.

Hand-held camera

A style of filming where the camera is hand held and not mounted on a tripod. This often produces jerky footage which makes the product appear more realistic to audiences.

Headline

The text, usually in larger font, at the top of a page or article in a newspaper or article, indicating what the content is to the reader.

Hegemony

The leadership or dominance in the media of a particular social group. In the UK, there is a distinct lack of working class people working in the media. The middle classes dominate.

Home page

The first page of a website that a user will access at a web address. The home page usually contains navigation links to the other pages of the website.

Hook

Something within a media product that catches the attention of the audience and pulls them in, this could be an image or a tag line.

Horizontal integration

Companies who acquire other companies operating in the same sector.

House style

The overall design style of a newspaper, website or magazine. This might include font, colour scheme and layout. The house style sets a product apart from its competition and makes it easily recognisable to its audience.

Hybrid

A type of media created through convergence resulting in a new form consisting of different media combined. Can also be used as a way of describing a media product that is a combination of different genres and styles.

Hyperlink

An icon, graphic or text within a document that links to another file or object.

An inability to distinguish reality from a simulated version of reality, often used in a postmodern context.

Hypodermic syringe model

The hypodermic syringe or needle model is an outdated effects theory that suggests a mass audience behaves in the same way in response to a media product. The assumption is that the media injects ideas into the minds of the supposed passive audience who all respond in the same manner.

Icon

An iconic figure is somebody/thing immediately recognised as being important in its field. The term icon can also refer to the logo and branding of symbols used on social media.

Iconography

The visual images used within a media product such as costumes, settings etc.

Ideology

A system of beliefs which determines how power relations are organised within a society.

Ident

Short for identifier - can be a short visual image shown on the screen in between television programmes, signaling the channel that is being watched, or an audio 'call sign' to identify a particular radio station/programme.

Implosion

The sudden collapse of a system.

Independent company

A company that operates outside of the major companies within that industry. There are independent companies in film, TV and music industries.

Index

A sign that works by a relationship to the object or concept it refers to ie sweat is indexical of hard work.

Institutions

The organisations that create and distribute media texts, such as the BBC and News International.

Interactivity

Interactive media allows the user/consumer to take an active involvement in the media text, even by contributing to it.

Interpellation

The process by which a media product draws an audience in to make an announcement about something/someone.

Intertextuality

Often media texts make references to other texts and popular culture to interest and engage the audience.

Inter-weaving plot lines

Some media products will include several narratives and will move between these narratives to retain the attention of the audience.

IPSO

The Independent Press Standards Organisation is the independent regulator of the newspaper and magazine industry in the UK.

Jingle

A short and catchy piece of music or song/slogan used to promote a product, used particularly in advertising and on the radio.

Jump cut

A noticeable edit between two images with the same subject and framing.

Jump line

This is a journalism term for the line after or before an article telling you where an article continues on or where it began.

Juxtaposition

Placing two things close together with contrasting effect.

Left wing

Often used to refer to people whose political views are left of the centre of politics.

Let's play video

Let's play or LP is a style of video series documenting the play through of a video game.

Lifestyle magazine

A popular magazine concerned with lifestyle these can include men's magazines and women's magazines as well as health and fitness, beauty, interiors etc.

Linear narrative

A plot that moves forward in a straight line and logical fashion and does not use flashbacks or flashforwards.

Links

Clickable text or images that take users to different pages of a website.

Logo

The visual image used to identify a product, brand or company.

Long shot

Shot size or framing which shows the whole of a person.

The most commercialised areas of media production where dominant cultural and operational norms operate.

Male gaze

A term derived from feminist film theory where the assertion is that women are placed in media products by men for their satisfaction and that women are seen as passive sexual objects of male desire.

Mass amateurisation

The capabilities that new forms of media have given to non-professionals and the way the non-professionals have used these capabilities to create and distribute media content.

Masterplot

The main conflict around which a story revolves.

Masthead

The name of a magazine or newspaper, often presented in the form of a logo using a specially designed typeface.

Mean world syndrome

A term coined by George Gerbner to describe a situation where violence-related content of a mass media makes consumers of that media believe that the world is more dangerous than it actually is in reality.

Media imperialism

The notion that powerful and wealthy countries can exercise economic, cultural and social control over others through exposing them to media content.

Media literacy

The ability to access, analyse and create media. Media literacy means we are better able to understand the complex messages we receive from the various forms of the media.

Media saturation

A term used to describe how our experience of the world and the way we view it is dominated by the media on a national and global level.

Mediation

Mediation is when the media takes a person or event and changes or interprets in a particular way to create a media text.

Medium/mid shot (MS)

A commonly used camera shot. Typically it will frame the subject from the waist up or show some background detail in the shot.

Merchandising

The exploitation of a character in TV/Film through a range of non-media branded products, eg Star Wars action figures etc.

Merger

A combination of two media companies into one - usually to gain more power and influence in the market.

Message

The expected reading that the audience takes from a media text.

Metadata

The data providing information about one or more aspects of the data, it often summarises basic information such as title and description of an online video plus any tags and thumbnails.

Mise-en-scene

Literally 'everything that is in the shot/scene' in a single frame. This is what helps the audience to gain meaning from a scene.

MMORPG

Massively multi-player online role-playing game. An online video game where a very large number of people play it at the same time.

Mock-up

A rough plan of how the layout of a page of printed media will look.

Mode of address

The way a media product 'speaks' to its audience.

Monopoly

Where one company dominates or has total control of the market place.

Moral panic

The way that the media stirs up intense feelings because of the way it covers a news event or issue.

Multimedia

Technology that enables sound, video, text and graphic images to be used in the same media production.

A socially or historically determined idea which has become accepted truth.

Mytheme

A fundamental part of narrative structure (typically involving a relationship between a character, an event and a theme) from which myths are constructed.

Narrative

The way in which a story or sequence of events is put together in a media text. All media texts have some sort of narrative running through them.

Narratology

The study of narrative and narrative structures.

Narrowcasting

In opposition to broadcasting, narrowcasting addresses the needs of a specialised or niche audience.

Negotiated position

From Hall's encoding/decoding model. When making a negotiated reading the consumer of a media product may agree with some aspects of the message in the product but may also disagree with other aspects of the message.

Neo-liberalism

A form of liberalism favouring free market capitalism.

News agenda

The importance given to stories in broadcast and print news, these will often reflect the ownership, and ethos of the news product.

News values

Ways in which media companies will assess and categorise news stories and decide on their newsworthiness. Each media publication will have its own news agenda and set of news values.

Niche audience/market

A relatively small segment of an audience with specific tastes and interests.

Non-diegetic sound

Sound that is neither on the screen or features in the 'world of the film'. Typically, non-diegetic sound will be sound effects or background music added to create mood and atmosphere.

Non-linear consumption

When audiences consume products at their own leisure, often using video-on-demand or streaming services. Linear viewing is where products are consumed at the time of their broadcast.

OFCOM

The Office of Communications is a government-approved regulatory body that is responsible for ensuring that the communication and broadcasting industries in the UK operate fairly and competitively. It also protects the public from inappropriate or offensive material.

Oligopoly

A market is shared by a small number of companies who have control or dominance.

Open text

A text which lacks a preferred reading and could lead to several different readings.

Opening sequence

The opening section of a film/television drama. Often this is action-packed and ends on a cliffhanger. Opening sequences are also used to introduce key characters or to establish settings.

Opinion leaders

An individual or organisation that has the ability to influence others around them. These could be vloggers, media producers and owners.

Oppositional reading

From Hall's encoding/decoding model. When making an oppositional reading the consumer of a media product will disagree with the message in the product.

Orders of signification

Roland Barthes ideas of two orders of signification being denotation and connotation.

Ownership

The companies who own the companies that produce and distribute media texts.

Panning

A basic camera movement - the camera sweeps from one side to the other.

Paradigm

From Hall's encoding/decoding model. When making an oppositional reading the consumer of a media product will disagree with the message in the product.

Parallel action

A narrative device in which two separate scenes are seen as happening at the same time by cutting between the two.

Para-social interaction

A media effects theory where the illusion of face-to-face relations is constructed through techniques such as the mode of address. This can be applied to online media such as blogs and vlogs as well as traditional media forms like television.

Participatory media

Audiences play an ever increasing role in creating, producing and distributing media content.

Passive audience

A passive audience is one that merely observes and takes in a media text without interacting or responding to it. The assumption is that a passive audience will agree with the preferred meaning of a text and will not challenge the content and that passive audiences will be directly affected by the messages in media texts.

Pastiche

A work which imitates that of another.

A society within which men hold the power and women are excluded.

PEGI

Pan European Game Information - the organisation that judges what the age ratings should be for games. Produces guidance for consumers (mainly aimed at parents) so that they can decide if a game is suitable.

Pitch

An outline of an idea for the creation of a particular media product.

Platform

The technologies, software or apps that allow media producers and consumers to interact, such as social media.

Plot

The main events of a storyline.

Pluralism

Where power is dispersed amongst a range of groups within a society and no one groups exerts consistent dominance. The plurality of power is reflected in a diverse range of ideas and opinions found in the media.

Point of view (POV)

A first-person camera shot that allows the audience to see from the viewpoint of an individual character.

Political economy

A study of the social relations (power) that together constitute the production, distribution and consumption of resources.

Polysemic

A sign that has more than one meaning.

Positioning

When texts place the audience in a particular position. This can be done through the use of audio, visual, technical and narrative codes which can be used to evoke empathy in an audience.

Post feminism

A society that is no longer defined by

gender binary

and

gender role

.

A Postmodernism

The social, political and cultural attitudes and images of the late twentieth century.

Post-production

Further production work that is undertaken after moving and still images have been taken.

Preferred reading

The reading of a media text that the producers intended the audience to have.

Pre-production

The work, planning and research that is done on a media product before the actual production begins.

Pre-title sequence

Used to hook in the audience from the opening section of a television programme.

Primary media

Where we pay close attention to the media text, can be applied to when we are reading a magazine or newspaper or in the cinema watching a film.

Primary research

Original and new research that is carried out to answer particular questions or issues.

Prime time

The times of the day when radio and TV audiences are expected to be at their highest.

Privatisation

When a company is sold to a private bidder and taken out of public ownership.

Producer

The people who plan, coordinate and create media products.

Product

Any media text can also be called a media product.

Production values

The qualities of a media text which indicate the cost. High budget products will be recognisable by their use of stars, expensive settings and props etc.

Propaganda

Media images and campaigns which are designed to promote a particular point of view or ideology.

Prosumer

Derives from the term 'production by consumer', It describes those people who create, and adapt existing media content and then distribute it via social media and the internet.

Psychographic profiling

Audience categories based on personality, values, opinions, attitudes and lifestyle.

PSB or Public service broadcasting

Television and radio programmes that are broadcast to inform, entertain or educate the public, without trying to make a profit.

Qualitative research

Qualitative research is used to explore and gain an understanding of audience opinions and motivations.

Quantitative research

Quantitative research is the collection of numerical data and statistics.

Raunch culture

A culture which promotes overtly sexual representations of women through the acceptance of pornography, nudity in adverts etc especially if it is encouraged by women.

Realism

Representation by media products of situations or ideas in a way that seems real.

Reception studies

The study of how people use and interpret the media.

Register

This can be spoken or written and is the range and variety of language used within a product and will change depending on the target audience and the purpose of the product.

Regulation

Rules or sets of standards that are expected to be adhered to. Regulatory bodies oversee that this is being done by media companies.

Remit

This outlines a broadcaster's area of responsibility. The BBC's remit is 'to inform, educate and entertain'.

Repetition and difference

The mix of familiar and new characteristics which offer pleasures for existing audiences and attract new audiences to generic media texts.

Representation

The way in which the media 're-presents' people and the world around us.

Restricted narrative

When the audience only sees the narrative from the perspective of one character and therefore only knows as much as that character.

Right wing

Often used to refer to people whose political views are right of the centre of politics.

Scheduling

The decisions of when and where to broadcast programmes on TV and radio.

Secondary media

Where an audience is not fully engaged with a text such as when watching television, they might be eating a meal, texting, engaging on social media on mobile phones etc.

Secondary research

Secondary research involves the collation and analysis of research that already exists.

Segmentation

The division of audiences into segments and categories.

What is and is not chosen to be used by media producers and creators, it can reflect the attitudes, beliefs and values of the producer/creator.

Self-contained narrative

When a whole story is told within a single episode.

Self-identification

How you view and categorise yourself as belonging to a group ie member of a political party etc.

Semiotics

The language of codes and signs; the way in which media products are encoded by the producer and decoded by audiences.

Serial

A narrative where the story unfolds over several episodes.

Sexual politics

The power relations between men and women.

SFX

Special Effects. Graphics techniques that are applied to moving images to create specific effects.

Shot

A single image taken by a camera, or a single take of video footage.

Sign

A word or image that is used to represent or convey an idea or object.

Signposting

The technique of establishing what the location of a scene is from the beginning. For example, a hospital drama might be signposted by audio of medical equipment or ambulance sirens.

Simulacra

Simulation or copies that are replacing the 'real' products.

Simulation

The imitation or reenactment of a situation or process.

Slogan

A catchy, eye-catching and memorable phrase, often used in advertising.

Social media/networking

Websites, platforms and apps that enable users to communicate with other people across the world.

Socialisation

How we learn the norms and values of our culture.

Spin

The activities of RP officers ('spin doctors') employed to put a positive 'spin' or angle on stories about their employer or client.

Standardisation

The process of making something conform to a standard.

Standfirst

An introductory paragraph in an article which summarises the article.

Statutory regulation

A regulation system that is implemented by law.

Stereotype

A set of ideas held about what a person or place is like, these are often over-exaggerated traits to make the stereotype easily recognisable.

Stock characters

The basic character types you would expect to encounter in a particular media genre.

Story arc

The progression of a narrative from its start to the end, this may progress across several episodes.

Storyboard

A visual representation and plan of how a moving image scene will be shot. Typically includes a sketch of each frame, camera movements, edits and timing, etc.

Strapline

A cross-column subheading, usually found in newspapers, magazines and websites, that emphasises part of an article or advert.

Stripping

Radio and TV technique where a programme is broadcast at the same time every day.

Structuralism

A media approach which argues that identifying underlying structures is vital in analysing products.

Sub-genre

A sub-division within a genre.

Subscription broadcasting

Any platform/broadcaster that offers access to its content for a subscription.

Surveillance culture

Where CCTV or computer based networks monitor social and public spaces and people.

Symbol

A sign or image of some sort that symbolises an idea and is intended to make the audience respond in a certain way.

Synergy

Where two or more media products are linked for commercial purposes, eg a film and a video game based on the film.

Syntagm

A combination of signs that are linked together in a particular way to convey meaning ie in language a sentence is a syntagm where words are placed in a certain sequence to convey meaning.

Tabloid

A compact size of newspaper, smaller than a broadsheet. The term is often used to describe the content where tabloid refers to a lighter content which makes reference to celebrity gossip, popular sports and media.

Tag line

Short phrases that sum up a product, can be used in print and moving image promotional material.

Target audience

The group at which a product is aimed.

Teaser

A form of trailer that 'teases' the audience about a forthcoming film. Often meant to intrigue, teasers are typically short and aimed at perking interest.

Textual poaching

The appropriation of mass-media texts by fans for their own pleasure.

Theoretical framework

Media language, audience, industries and representation. The tools used to critically understand the construction and meaning of media products.

Titles

The opening credits of a television programme or film, including the title but often including information about key personnel and snippets of the product.

Trailer

A short advert for a forthcoming film. Usually adhering to a particular set of codes and conventions, trailers might include highlights from the film and information about the stars of the film.

Transitions

How shots are edited together to produce a particular effect, they include cuts, wipes and fades.

Transmedia storytelling

A term coined by Henry Jenkins. 'A process where integral elements of a fiction get dispersed systematically across multiple delivery channels for the purpose of creating a unified and coordinated entertainment experience' (transmedia Storytelling 2007).

Transnational culture

An analysis of the cultural, linguistic and political effects of colonisation, migration and globalisation upon cultures.

Treatment

A short outline of an intended media production. This might include written descriptions, sketches and mock-ups.

Typography

Font styles that are used in a media product. These can be sub divided into serif fonts, those which have short decorative lines such as Times New Roman and look more traditional, and sans serif fonts, without decorative lines such as Calibri and look more modern and contemporary.

Unrestricted narrative

When the audience is aware of more than the characters within the world of the product, they have a privileged spectator position.

User-generated content

User generated content (UGC) is any content created and distributed on a particular platform by a user of that platform.

Uses and gratifications theory

The idea that the media audiences make active use of what the media offer to them. The audience has a set of needs which the media gratify: surveillance, social integration, entertainment or 'escapism' and personal identity.

Utopian

An ideal, if not impossible social world.

Verisimilitude

When a product's content appears truthful or authentic.

Vertical integration

When one company acquires another so that it has ownership of different paths of the production process, this might be that a company owns the production and distribution arms of a media product.

Violence debate

A recurring debate over assumed audience behaviour which focuses on the possible 'effects' of the representation of violence.

Viral marketing

A method of marketing which encourages media consumers to share opinion and information about a media product on the internet and on social media.

Vlog

A video blog or video log, usually shortened to vlog, is a form of blog that uses video rather than written text.

Vlogger

A person who creates an online blog or video blog.

Voice of God

A voiceover or commentary provided by a narrator.

A segment of narration that is added to a broadcast with the speaker not seen on screen.

Vox pop

An interview which is conducted with 'ordinary' people, often in the street.

Voyeurism

Gaining pleasure from looking at other people whilst remaining anonymous, often associated with the idea of men deriving sexual pleasure from looking at women.

Walkthrough

A demo on how to play a video game, the vlogger 'walks' the audience through a tour of the product.

Watershed

The time, after which is it allowed for media products (TV programmes) to contain more adult content or content that is deemed unsuitable for younger audiences. In the UK the watershed is 9pm.

Web 2.0

A phase in the history of the internet where it involved interactivity, user participation and collaboration.

White space

In magazines and newspapers where there is space free from text and images.

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The following subject specific vocabulary provides definitions of key terms used in our A-level Media Studies specification. Students should be familiar with and gain understanding of these terms. The Audit Bureau of Circulations is responsible for measuring the reach of different media across a range of platforms. A reading of a product which does not recognise the preferred meaning but produces instead a deviant or unanticipated reading.

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The following subject specific vocabulary provides definitions of key terms used in our A-level Media Studies specification. Students should be familiar with and gain understanding of these terms.

ABC figures

The Audit Bureau of Circulations is responsible for measuring the reach of different media across a range of platforms.

Aberrant reading

A reading of a product which does not recognise the preferred meaning but produces instead a deviant or unanticipated reading.

Action code

A narrative device by which a resolution is produced through action eg a gun fight.

Active audience

The theory that media audiences do not just consume a text passively, they actively engage with it because of personal and social contexts.

Actively purchased circulation

A term used by the industry to describe the copies of a magazine purchased by an individual. This includes single copy purchases, subscription, sales and retail.

Advertising campaign

A campaign run by an advertising agency which incorporates all of the ways in which a product, event or service is beneficial to the audience. This can be in the form of packaging, television, print and online adverts.

Advertising spots

These are the spaces in commercial breaks that are sold to advertisers. Most spots are around 30 seconds but can vary in length.

Advertorial

An advert that is presented in the form of editorial content. For example an advertorial vlog is an advert presented by a vlogger in their usual editorial style.

Agenda setting

The importance ascribed to news stories by news media. Those deemed most important will take prominence in coverage.

A process or set of rules which when followed in calculations will solve a problem or complete a task - for example, they are used to determine which adverts are most suitable for a particular website.

Alley

The space between columns of text.

Anchorage

The text (copy) that fixes (anchors) an image and its meaning.

In a plot, the character whose function is to disrupt the protagonist - often, but not always, a villain.

Anthology series

A series that is a collection of free-standing episodes - each episode features a completely different set of characters and storyline.

Artificial Intelligence

The branch of computer science which focuses on the capacity of machines to simulate human behaviour.

Archetype

A universal type of character found in various media texts, eg anti-hero, hero.

Audience

The people who are intended to see, hear, consume a media text.

Audience positioning

Each media text that is constructed to position its intended audience in a particular place and to respond in a certain way to it.

Audience surrogate

A character in a text that stands in for the audience. They may think and act as the audience might in the same situation.

Audio streaming

Listeners can click on a link to play a radio programme instantly. It is used to increase the global reach of radio programmes so that people can access radio content from abroad.

Augmented reality

Computer-generated content overlaid on a real-world environment, commonly used in video games.

Avatar

In gaming this is the player's representation of themselves within the game.

BARB

Broadcasters' Audience Research Board - the organisation that measures and collects television viewing data in the UK.

Bardic function

An analysis of television and its role as 'Bard' within society today.

BBFC

British Board of Film Classification - responsible for deciding the age classification and censorship of all films and video content released in the UK.

Below the line advertising

An advertising strategy where the product is promoted on platforms other than radio, television, billboards, print and film.

Big Close Up (BCU)

An extreme close up camera shot, usually focusing on the face or close detail of the body.

Billing Block

The block of text on a poster that contains the industry information, including actors, directors, producers, crew and production and distribution companies.

Binary opposite

When there are opposite values incorporated into a text, eg good and evil.

Binary opposition

The contrast between two ideas or concepts, such as good/evil, male/female. Usually the contrast causes conflict that drives the narrative.

Binge watching

When multiple episodes of a TV programme are watched in succession.

Blog

A website or web page often created by an individual or small group which is regularly updated, often written in an informal, conversational style.

Blogger

A person who engages in blogging by updating and adding content to a blog. Blog is a short term for weblog.

Brand

A type of product that is manufactured and marketed under a particular name, logo and design.

Brand ambassador

An individual, often a celebrity, who is paid to promote and endorse a product or service. They will become the face of the brand and their qualities are associated with the product.

Brand identity

The image that a brand projects and the associations the audience then make with the brand.

Brand recognition

The extent to which a brand can be identified, this is often aided by visual codes such as logos.

Bricolage

When signs or artefacts are borrowed from different styles or genres to create something new.

Broadsheet

This is a larger newspaper that focuses on more serious news for example, The Guardian.

Burden of representation

The concept that when representations of particular groups are limited, the representations that do appear in the media are more significant as they then represent larger groups or communities.

Buzz marketing

Word of mouth advertising. A 'buzz' is created when consumers of a product show excitement and anticipation about a new product.

By-line

The printed line of text in a newspaper/magazine that names the writer of an article.

Call to action

An instruction aimed at the audience with the hope to provoke an immediate response - can take the form of 'subscribe now', for example. Often used in advertising and marketing.

Camera movement

The way the camera is moved during filming to add depth, interest and variation for the viewer, such as pan and track.

Canted angle

A shot filmed from a slanted angle. Also known as 'Dutch tilt' or oblique angle.

CAP code

UK Code of Non-broadcast Advertising and Direct Promotional Advertising. The advertising code that covers non-broadcast media. It is written by the Committee of Advertising Practice (CAP) and administered by the ASA.

Censorship

The controls and regulations that exist about media content. Censorship powers can be held by governments or regulatory bodies.

CGI

Computer-generated imagery is the application of computer graphics to printed or moving image media. The term CGI commonly refers to 3D computer graphics used for special effects in film sequences.

Circular narrative

Where the narrative starts at the end and then explores the action up to that point. Circular narratives are often only understood clearly by the audience at the end of a film.

Circulation

The number of copies of a media product that are distributed, this includes subscriptions. Circulation audits are provided by the Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC).

A rating given to a film, DVD or video game which informs the audience the suitability for different ages of audience according to the criteria of violence, sexual content and inappropriate language.

Cliff hanger

A narrative device where suspension is created at the end of an episode or before an advert break in order to persuade the viewer to continue watching subsequent instalments of the programme to find out what happens next.

Closed narrative

A story where the main threads of the narrative are neatly resolved.

Close up (CU)

A common camera shot that tightly focuses on a person or object.

Code

Codes are the systems of signs that are used to create meaning in media texts. Codes can be both symbolic and technical.

Cognitive surplus

How technology makes consumers into collaborators.

Collective identity

The shared sense of belonging to a group.

Colloquialism

An informal expression, often used in casual conversation as opposed to writing. May be used to establish an informal communication with an audience.

Colour palette

The suite of colours that are used in the creation of media texts, such as websites and magazines, to reflect a brand and appeal to its audience.

Commercial broadcasting

Privately owned media broadcasting of television and radio programming.

Commissioning

When programmes get the 'go ahead' or 'green light' for production. Producers will pitch their ideas to commissioning controllers who will decide whether or not to commission the programme.

Commodification

The process of treating something as a commodity.

Concentration of ownership

Refers to the number of organisations or individuals who control ownership of the media. Fewer stakeholders holding increasing shares.

Conglomerate

A media conglomerate is a large corporation that owns a large number of media companies, such as television, radio, internet, publishing - giving the conglomerate control in the market.

Connotation

The way meaning is created, or the deeper meaning, in a media text.

Consumable product

These are products that we use regularly and that need to be replaced. Some audiences are loyal to a particular brand, whereas, others may be persuaded to change.

Media consumption is the diet of information and entertainment that is taken in by a group or individual.

Content analysis

A method of research that provides quantitative data. It generally involves counting the number of times a particular feature appears in a given context - for example, counting the number of men who have speaking roles in a TV programme.

Content creators

Those involved in creating and sharing content online, for example, vloggers and bloggers.

Context

The time, place and mindset of the audience are all features of context that affect how a media text is read.

Continuity

When one frame of a storyboard links to the next in sequence effectively conveying the narrative.

Continuity editing

The most commonly used type of video editing used in post-production - predominantly used to establish a logical and linear coherence between shots.

Contrapuntal

Sound that does not match the action on screen.

The widely recognised and typical way of doing things in a particular genre or media form.

The coming together of technologies and institutions to create a new product or media experience. This is often facilitated by digital technologies ie smartphones bring together the facility to perform different functions such as internet browsing, playing music, taking photographs, watching video content etc.

Constructed reality

A type of TV series where people talk naturally but are placed in pre-arranged situations by the producers.

Cookies

Small pieces of computer code that are placed on your hard drive by web sites and advertisers. They are used to track your progress through a website and allows the operator to evaluate which pages are the most popular.

Copy

The written material, as opposed to images, that features in a media text.

Countertype

A positive stereotype that reinforces the positive qualities of a person/type of person.

Cover lines

The written text that features on the cover of a magazine, they usually give a preview of the content inside.

Cover price

The price printed on the cover of a printed media text.

Cross platform marketing

When one form is advertised on another media platform.

Crane shot

A camera shot that is taken from above the ground high on a crane (also known as a jib).

Cross-head

Words used as a title or sub-heading to break up text in a newspaper or magazine.

Cross cut

An editing technique used to establish that action is occurring at the same time.

CRPG

Computer role-playing game.

Cultivation differential

The margin of 'heavy' viewers over 'light' viewers when assessing the perception of social reality that the media creates.

Cultural capital/competence

The knowledge, experience, taste and skills an audience possess which shapes their choice and interpretation of media products. It is related to social class and other divisions such as education and career.

A simple editing technique. One shot ends and another begins, with no transitions or effects added.

Date line

A line that shows the date that a media publication/article was written/first published.

Decoding

The process through which an audience interprets a message.

Deconstruction

The act of breaking something down to its separate parts in order to understand it.

Deep focus

A technique used in photography or cinematography which produces a 'depth of field' where everything is in focus.

Demerger

Separating a large corporation into two or more smaller organisations.

Demographics

The characteristics and make-up of a sample of the population eg age, gender, nationality.

Demographic profiling

A way of categorising audiences by dividing consumers into groups based on age, sex, income, education, occupation, household size, marital status, home ownership or other features. It is used to help advertisers determine their target audience for particular products in order that they can then develop advertising that focus on that demographic.

Denotation

The literal or surface meaning in a media text.

Deregulation

The relaxing of commercial controls and limitations imposed upon the media by the state, usually focuses on ownership and the requirements of the quality of their services.

Desensitisation

A psychological process which suggests that audiences who are regularly exposed to acts of violence through tv programmes, films and video games etc, are increasingly less likely to feel empathy or concern when exposed to violence, bad language or other forms of aggressive behaviour.

Desk Top Publishing

Desk Top Publishing (DTP) software allows the user to create printed media texts with various page layouts and designs.

Dialogue

Words spoken by characters in a media product, such as films or television dramas.

Diegesis

The time and space of the audio-visual narrative world, most often useful in distinguishing between diegetic and non-diegetic sound.

Diegetic sound

Actual sound from the world of the film or TV programme, whether on or off screen.

Digital native

A person who is brought up with digital technology from an early age.

Diversification

Large corporations spreading their interest and shares in a wide variety of mass media forms.

Duopoly

An industry within which two companies control the market.

Dynamic

Constantly changing, progressing and evolving.

Dystopia

An imagined place within which everything is unpleasant or bad.

Economic determinist

A theory in political economy which looks for economic conditions as the basis to explain social and cultural differences in society.

Economies of scale

Cost savings which can be made by large organisations due to the size of their operation eg 'bulk buying'.

Editing

A post-production technique - any arranging, revising and preparing of written, audio or video content to get the piece ready for audience consumption.

An article in a newspaper or magazine that expresses an opinion on a topical issue.

Editorial philosophy

A media product's underlying values, attitudes and beliefs and the viewpoint it adopts. The editorial philosophy helps to determine the style and content of the media product including the mode of address it adopts.

Effect

The impact a code or product may have upon the audience.

Ellipsis

Where sentences are incomplete and are finished with a set of three dots; the words then need to be filled in by the consumer.

Emerging media

The communication that occurs through digital technology and new platforms with interactive elements, for example podcasts, social media etc.

Encode

Communication of ideas and messages through a system of signs.

Enculturation

How we learn the requirements of our surrounding culture through experience and observation.

Enigma

A question that is not immediately answered which draws the audience into a text.

Equilibrium/disequilibrium

Refers to balance, stability or order for a text or the tensions in the narrative. In Todorov's theory it refers to the status quo or normal state of affairs (equilibrium) which give way to unpredictability (disequilibrium) and then a restoration of balance (return to equilibrium).

Essentialisation

A process that involves ascribing certain traits or characteristics to someone by nature, those traits are seen to be part of that person's nature and as such they are fixed and cannot be changed.

Establishing shot

The opening shot of a visual narrative sequence often showing the geographical location.

Ethics

The principles and standards that are upheld in broadcast media, film and the internet.

Ethnicity

Ethnicity is defined by your cultural identity, often demonstrated through customs, food and dress. It suggests identity is based on a sense of place, ideology or religion. For example you can be British but of Muslim ethnicity.

Ethnocentric

Roger Brown defines ethnocentrism as 'the application of the norms of one's own culture to that of others' (Social Psychology, 1965). Stuart Hall refers to this definition in his theory of representation as he suggests ethnocentrism is an example of the way in which stereotypes reinforce the power of certain groups over others.

Event

Something that occurs or is about to occur and is of particular interest to an audience. Events can be local, national or global eg The World Cup, Glastonbury Music festival, royal births or deaths. International events may include wars.

Event television

Events that will attract a large audience, eg the final of Strictly Come Dancing.

Exhibition

Where a film can be viewed, eg multiplex, independent art house cinemas, online, and film festivals.

Exotic other

A term used to describe someone who is perceived to be different or 'foreign'. The difference or 'otherness' becomes a source of fascination or pleasure.

Expert witness

A person whose level of specialised knowledge or skill in a particular field qualifies them to present their opinion.

Eyeline match

A film editing technique that makes the audience feel that they are seeing the same as the character on screen.

Fabula

A term in narrative theory - Russian for 'story'.

Facial action coding system

A technique whereby computer technology is used to capture a range of high resolution skin textures and different facial expressions used to help animators replicate computer generated images. This was used in the Galaxy chocolate advert to make Audrey Hepburn look real.

Fade

In video editing post-production, a fade is the transition to and from a blank image.

Female gaze

A feminist theoretical term in response to Laura Mulvey's Male Gaze theory. Female Gaze represents the gaze of the female viewer.

Promoting women's rights for the equality of the sexes.

First run

A programme that is available for viewing to the public for the first time.

Flagship show

A programme that has particular importance for a channel or broadcaster - it might attract high ratings or strongly identify with the channel.

Flashback

A scene in a moving image text that is set in an earlier time than the main story.

Flexi narrative

A narrative structure that combines aspects of the same serial or series. For example, whilst each episode may feature a self-contained narrative, character relationships may develop over the course of several episodes forming a wider story arc.

Flow

A term first coined by Raymond Williams, after his first experience of US television in the mid-1950s, to suggest that broadcast media are experienced as a flow of similar segments not as separate items.

Fly-on-the-wall

A form of documentary filmmaking where the camera is an invisible presence, positioning the viewer voyeuristically as an unseen observer.

Focus group

Qualitative research where a group of people are asked about their views of a product which enables the producers to form an opinion of the needs of the target audience.

Font

The style and size of text characters on the printed page or screen.

Form

The various formats that media texts and products come in, such as newspapers, magazines, films. Each media form will have its own set of codes and conventions.

Framing

The way a camera shot is composed.

Franchise

A media franchise is a collection of connected media products derived from a single original source, for example, a film - with a comic and video game also produced about the film.

Freelance

A person who is hired by different companies to work on particular projects. Freelancing is common in many areas of the media.

Free market

A system where the prices for goods and services are determined by the open market and consumers.

Gatekeeping

The way in which information is filtered by the media before it is prepared for publication, broadcast or distribution.

Gender norms

Cultural expectations of how different genders should behave - what is considered 'normal' for men or women.

Gender performativity

A term coined by Judith Butler where she criticises outdated notions and perceptions of gender.

Genre

A style or category of a media form.

The global spread of media and communications systems and businesses. How local and national industries are linked to a wider world culture.

Global village

A term coined by Marshall McLuhan where he described how modern electronic media have interconnected around the globe and have 'shrunk' the world making it seem like a village.

Guerilla marketing

Low-cost and unconventional marketing methods with a clear focus on grabbing the audience's attention.

Gutter

The space between two pages of text in a newspaper or magazine.

Hand-held camera

A style of filming where the camera is hand held and not mounted on a tripod. This often produces jerky footage which makes the product appear more realistic to audiences.

Headline

The text, usually in larger font, at the top of a page or article in a newspaper or article, indicating what the content is to the reader.

Hegemony

The leadership or dominance in the media of a particular social group. In the UK, there is a distinct lack of working class people working in the media. The middle classes dominate.

Home page

The first page of a website that a user will access at a web address. The home page usually contains navigation links to the other pages of the website.

Hook

Something within a media product that catches the attention of the audience and pulls them in, this could be an image or a tag line.

Horizontal integration

Companies who acquire other companies operating in the same sector.

House style

The overall design style of a newspaper, website or magazine. This might include font, colour scheme and layout. The house style sets a product apart from its competition and makes it easily recognisable to its audience.

Hybrid

A type of media created through convergence resulting in a new form consisting of different media combined. Can also be used as a way of describing a media product that is a combination of different genres and styles.

Hyperlink

An icon, graphic or text within a document that links to another file or object.

An inability to distinguish reality from a simulated version of reality, often used in a postmodern context.

Hypodermic syringe model

The hypodermic syringe or needle model is an outdated effects theory that suggests a mass audience behaves in the same way in response to a media product. The assumption is that the media injects ideas into the minds of the supposed passive audience who all respond in the same manner.

Icon

An iconic figure is somebody/thing immediately recognised as being important in its field. The term icon can also refer to the logo and branding of symbols used on social media.

Iconography

The visual images used within a media product such as costumes, settings etc.

Ideology

A system of beliefs which determines how power relations are organised within a society.

Ident

Short for identifier - can be a short visual image shown on the screen in between television programmes, signaling the channel that is being watched, or an audio 'call sign' to identify a particular radio station/programme.

Implosion

The sudden collapse of a system.

Independent company

A company that operates outside of the major companies within that industry. There are independent companies in film, TV and music industries.

Index

A sign that works by a relationship to the object or concept it refers to ie sweat is indexical of hard work.

Institutions

The organisations that create and distribute media texts, such as the BBC and News International.

Interactivity

Interactive media allows the user/consumer to take an active involvement in the media text, even by contributing to it.

Interpellation

The process by which a media product draws an audience in to make an announcement about something/someone.

Intertextuality

Often media texts make references to other texts and popular culture to interest and engage the audience.

Inter-weaving plot lines

Some media products will include several narratives and will move between these narratives to retain the attention of the audience.

IPSO

The Independent Press Standards Organisation is the independent regulator of the newspaper and magazine industry in the UK.

Jingle

A short and catchy piece of music or song/slogan used to promote a product, used particularly in advertising and on the radio.

Jump cut

A noticeable edit between two images with the same subject and framing.

Jump line

This is a journalism term for the line after or before an article telling you where an article continues on or where it began.

Juxtaposition

Placing two things close together with contrasting effect.

Left wing

Often used to refer to people whose political views are left of the centre of politics.

Let's play video

Let's play or LP is a style of video series documenting the play through of a video game.

Lifestyle magazine

A popular magazine concerned with lifestyle these can include men's magazines and women's magazines as well as health and fitness, beauty, interiors etc.

Linear narrative

A plot that moves forward in a straight line and logical fashion and does not use flashbacks or flashforwards.

Links

Clickable text or images that take users to different pages of a website.

Logo

The visual image used to identify a product, brand or company.

Long shot

Shot size or framing which shows the whole of a person.

The most commercialised areas of media production where dominant cultural and operational norms operate.

Male gaze

A term derived from feminist film theory where the assertion is that women are placed in media products by men for their satisfaction and that women are seen as passive sexual objects of male desire.

Mass amateurisation

The capabilities that new forms of media have given to non-professionals and the way the non-professionals have used these capabilities to create and distribute media content.

Masterplot

The main conflict around which a story revolves.

Masthead

The name of a magazine or newspaper, often presented in the form of a logo using a specially designed typeface.

Mean world syndrome

A term coined by George Gerbner to describe a situation where violence-related content of a mass media makes consumers of that media believe that the world is more dangerous than it actually is in reality.

Media imperialism

The notion that powerful and wealthy countries can exercise economic, cultural and social control over others through exposing them to media content.

Media literacy

The ability to access, analyse and create media. Media literacy means we are better able to understand the complex messages we receive from the various forms of the media.

Media saturation

A term used to describe how our experience of the world and the way we view it is dominated by the media on a national and global level.

Mediation

Mediation is when the media takes a person or event and changes or interprets in a particular way to create a media text.

Medium/mid shot (MS)

A commonly used camera shot. Typically it will frame the subject from the waist up or show some background detail in the shot.

Merchandising

The exploitation of a character in TV/Film through a range of non-media branded products, eg Star Wars action figures etc.

Merger

A combination of two media companies into one - usually to gain more power and influence in the market.

Message

The expected reading that the audience takes from a media text.

Metadata

The data providing information about one or more aspects of the data, it often summarises basic information such as title and description of an online video plus any tags and thumbnails.

Mise-en-scene

Literally 'everything that is in the shot/scene' in a single frame. This is what helps the audience to gain meaning from a scene.

MMORPG

Massively multi-player online role-playing game. An online video game where a very large number of people play it at the same time.

Mock-up

A rough plan of how the layout of a page of printed media will look.

Mode of address

The way a media product 'speaks' to its audience.

Monopoly

Where one company dominates or has total control of the market place.

Moral panic

The way that the media stirs up intense feelings because of the way it covers a news event or issue.

Multimedia

Technology that enables sound, video, text and graphic images to be used in the same media production.

A socially or historically determined idea which has become accepted truth.

Mytheme

A fundamental part of narrative structure (typically involving a relationship between a character, an event and a theme) from which myths are constructed.

Narrative

The way in which a story or sequence of events is put together in a media text. All media texts have some sort of narrative running through them.

Narratology

The study of narrative and narrative structures.

Narrowcasting

In opposition to broadcasting, narrowcasting addresses the needs of a specialised or niche audience.

Negotiated position

From Hall's encoding/decoding model. When making a negotiated reading the consumer of a media product may agree with some aspects of the message in the product but may also disagree with other aspects of the message.

Neo-liberalism

A form of liberalism favouring free market capitalism.

News agenda

The importance given to stories in broadcast and print news, these will often reflect the ownership, and ethos of the news product.

News values

Ways in which media companies will assess and categorise news stories and decide on their newsworthiness. Each media publication will have its own news agenda and set of news values.

Niche audience/market

A relatively small segment of an audience with specific tastes and interests.

Non-diegetic sound

Sound that is neither on the screen or features in the 'world of the film'. Typically, non-diegetic sound will be sound effects or background music added to create mood and atmosphere.

Non-linear consumption

When audiences consume products at their own leisure, often using video-on-demand or streaming services. Linear viewing is where products are consumed at the time of their broadcast.

OFCOM

The Office of Communications is a government-approved regulatory body that is responsible for ensuring that the communication and broadcasting industries in the UK operate fairly and competitively. It also protects the public from inappropriate or offensive material.

Oligopoly

A market is shared by a small number of companies who have control or dominance.

Open text

A text which lacks a preferred reading and could lead to several different readings.

Opening sequence

The opening section of a film/television drama. Often this is action-packed and ends on a cliffhanger. Opening sequences are also used to introduce key characters or to establish settings.

Opinion leaders

An individual or organisation that has the ability to influence others around them. These could be vloggers, media producers and owners.

Oppositional reading

From Hall's encoding/decoding model. When making an oppositional reading the consumer of a media product will disagree with the message in the product.

Orders of signification

Roland Barthes ideas of two orders of signification being denotation and connotation.

Ownership

The companies who own the companies that produce and distribute media texts.

Panning

A basic camera movement - the camera sweeps from one side to the other.

Paradigm

From Hall's encoding/decoding model. When making an oppositional reading the consumer of a media product will disagree with the message in the product.

Parallel action

A narrative device in which two separate scenes are seen as happening at the same time by cutting between the two.

Para-social interaction

A media effects theory where the illusion of face-to-face relations is constructed through techniques such as the mode of address. This can be applied to online media such as blogs and vlogs as well as traditional media forms like television.

Participatory media

Audiences play an ever increasing role in creating, producing and distributing media content.

Passive audience

A passive audience is one that merely observes and takes in a media text without interacting or responding to it. The assumption is that a passive audience will agree with the preferred meaning of a text and will not challenge the content and that passive audiences will be directly affected by the messages in media texts.

Pastiche

A work which imitates that of another.

A society within which men hold the power and women are excluded.

PEGI

Pan European Game Information - the organisation that judges what the age ratings should be for games. Produces guidance for consumers (mainly aimed at parents) so that they can decide if a game is suitable.

Pitch

An outline of an idea for the creation of a particular media product.

Platform

The technologies, software or apps that allow media producers and consumers to interact, such as social media.

Plot

The main events of a storyline.

Pluralism

Where power is dispersed amongst a range of groups within a society and no one groups exerts consistent dominance. The plurality of power is reflected in a diverse range of ideas and opinions found in the media.

Point of view (POV)

A first-person camera shot that allows the audience to see from the viewpoint of an individual character.

Political economy

A study of the social relations (power) that together constitute the production, distribution and consumption of resources.

Polysemic

A sign that has more than one meaning.

Positioning

When texts place the audience in a particular position. This can be done through the use of audio, visual, technical and narrative codes which can be used to evoke empathy in an audience.

Post feminism

A society that is no longer defined by

gender binary

and

gender role

.

A Postmodernism

The social, political and cultural attitudes and images of the late twentieth century.

Post-production

Further production work that is undertaken after moving and still images have been taken.

Preferred reading

The reading of a media text that the producers intended the audience to have.

Pre-production

The work, planning and research that is done on a media product before the actual production begins.

Pre-title sequence

Used to hook in the audience from the opening section of a television programme.

Primary media

Where we pay close attention to the media text, can be applied to when we are reading a magazine or newspaper or in the cinema watching a film.

Primary research

Original and new research that is carried out to answer particular questions or issues.

Prime time

The times of the day when radio and TV audiences are expected to be at their highest.

Privatisation

When a company is sold to a private bidder and taken out of public ownership.

Producer

The people who plan, coordinate and create media products.

Product

Any media text can also be called a media product.

Production values

The qualities of a media text which indicate the cost. High budget products will be recognisable by their use of stars, expensive settings and props etc.

Propaganda

Media images and campaigns which are designed to promote a particular point of view or ideology.

Prosumer

Derives from the term 'production by consumer', It describes those people who create, and adapt existing media content and then distribute it via social media and the internet.

Psychographic profiling

Audience categories based on personality, values, opinions, attitudes and lifestyle.

PSB or Public service broadcasting

Television and radio programmes that are broadcast to inform, entertain or educate the public, without trying to make a profit.

Qualitative research

Qualitative research is used to explore and gain an understanding of audience opinions and motivations.

Quantitative research

Quantitative research is the collection of numerical data and statistics.

Raunch culture

A culture which promotes overtly sexual representations of women through the acceptance of pornography, nudity in adverts etc especially if it is encouraged by women.

Realism

Representation by media products of situations or ideas in a way that seems real.

Reception studies

The study of how people use and interpret the media.

Register

This can be spoken or written and is the range and variety of language used within a product and will change depending on the target audience and the purpose of the product.

Regulation

Rules or sets of standards that are expected to be adhered to. Regulatory bodies oversee that this is being done by media companies.

Remit

This outlines a broadcaster's area of responsibility. The BBC's remit is 'to inform, educate and entertain'.

Repetition and difference

The mix of familiar and new characteristics which offer pleasures for existing audiences and attract new audiences to generic media texts.

Representation

The way in which the media 're-presents' people and the world around us.

Restricted narrative

When the audience only sees the narrative from the perspective of one character and therefore only knows as much as that character.

Right wing

Often used to refer to people whose political views are right of the centre of politics.

Scheduling

The decisions of when and where to broadcast programmes on TV and radio.

Secondary media

Where an audience is not fully engaged with a text such as when watching television, they might be eating a meal, texting, engaging on social media on mobile phones etc.

Secondary research

Secondary research involves the collation and analysis of research that already exists.

Segmentation

The division of audiences into segments and categories.

What is and is not chosen to be used by media producers and creators, it can reflect the attitudes, beliefs and values of the producer/creator.

Self-contained narrative

When a whole story is told within a single episode.

Self-identification

How you view and categorise yourself as belonging to a group ie member of a political party etc.

Semiotics

The language of codes and signs; the way in which media products are encoded by the producer and decoded by audiences.

Serial

A narrative where the story unfolds over several episodes.

Sexual politics

The power relations between men and women.

SFX

Special Effects. Graphics techniques that are applied to moving images to create specific effects.

Shot

A single image taken by a camera, or a single take of video footage.

Sign

A word or image that is used to represent or convey an idea or object.

Signposting

The technique of establishing what the location of a scene is from the beginning. For example, a hospital drama might be signposted by audio of medical equipment or ambulance sirens.

Simulacra

Simulation or copies that are replacing the 'real' products.

Simulation

The imitation or reenactment of a situation or process.

Slogan

A catchy, eye-catching and memorable phrase, often used in advertising.

Social media/networking

Websites, platforms and apps that enable users to communicate with other people across the world.

Socialisation

How we learn the norms and values of our culture.

Spin

The activities of RP officers ('spin doctors') employed to put a positive 'spin' or angle on stories about their employer or client.

Standardisation

The process of making something conform to a standard.

Standfirst

An introductory paragraph in an article which summarises the article.

Statutory regulation

A regulation system that is implemented by law.

Stereotype

A set of ideas held about what a person or place is like, these are often over-exaggerated traits to make the stereotype easily recognisable.

Stock characters

The basic character types you would expect to encounter in a particular media genre.

Story arc

The progression of a narrative from its start to the end, this may progress across several episodes.

Storyboard

A visual representation and plan of how a moving image scene will be shot. Typically includes a sketch of each frame, camera movements, edits and timing, etc.

Strapline

A cross-column subheading, usually found in newspapers, magazines and websites, that emphasises part of an article or advert.

Stripping

Radio and TV technique where a programme is broadcast at the same time every day.

Structuralism

A media approach which argues that identifying underlying structures is vital in analysing products.

Sub-genre

A sub-division within a genre.

Subscription broadcasting

Any platform/broadcaster that offers access to its content for a subscription.

Surveillance culture

Where CCTV or computer based networks monitor social and public spaces and people.

Symbol

A sign or image of some sort that symbolises an idea and is intended to make the audience respond in a certain way.

Synergy

Where two or more media products are linked for commercial purposes, eg a film and a video game based on the film.

Syntagm

A combination of signs that are linked together in a particular way to convey meaning ie in language a sentence is a syntagm where words are placed in a certain sequence to convey meaning.

Tabloid

A compact size of newspaper, smaller than a broadsheet. The term is often used to describe the content where tabloid refers to a lighter content which makes reference to celebrity gossip, popular sports and media.

Tag line

Short phrases that sum up a product, can be used in print and moving image promotional material.

Target audience

The group at which a product is aimed.

Teaser

A form of trailer that 'teases' the audience about a forthcoming film. Often meant to intrigue, teasers are typically short and aimed at perking interest.

Textual poaching

The appropriation of mass-media texts by fans for their own pleasure.

Theoretical framework

Media language, audience, industries and representation. The tools used to critically understand the construction and meaning of media products.

Titles

The opening credits of a television programme or film, including the title but often including information about key personnel and snippets of the product.

Trailer

A short advert for a forthcoming film. Usually adhering to a particular set of codes and conventions, trailers might include highlights from the film and information about the stars of the film.

Transitions

How shots are edited together to produce a particular effect, they include cuts, wipes and fades.

Transmedia storytelling

A term coined by Henry Jenkins. 'A process where integral elements of a fiction get dispersed systematically across multiple delivery channels for the purpose of creating a unified and coordinated entertainment experience' (transmedia Storytelling 2007).

Transnational culture

An analysis of the cultural, linguistic and political effects of colonisation, migration and globalisation upon cultures.

Treatment

A short outline of an intended media production. This might include written descriptions, sketches and mock-ups.

Typography

Font styles that are used in a media product. These can be sub divided into serif fonts, those which have short decorative lines such as Times New Roman and look more traditional, and sans serif fonts, without decorative lines such as Calibri and look more modern and contemporary.

Unrestricted narrative

When the audience is aware of more than the characters within the world of the product, they have a privileged spectator position.

User-generated content

User generated content (UGC) is any content created and distributed on a particular platform by a user of that platform.

Uses and gratifications theory

The idea that the media audiences make active use of what the media offer to them. The audience has a set of needs which the media gratify: surveillance, social integration, entertainment or 'escapism' and personal identity.

Utopian

An ideal, if not impossible social world.

Verisimilitude

When a product's content appears truthful or authentic.

Vertical integration

When one company acquires another so that it has ownership of different paths of the production process, this might be that a company owns the production and distribution arms of a media product.

Violence debate

A recurring debate over assumed audience behaviour which focuses on the possible 'effects' of the representation of violence.

Viral marketing

A method of marketing which encourages media consumers to share opinion and information about a media product on the internet and on social media.

Vlog

A video blog or video log, usually shortened to vlog, is a form of blog that uses video rather than written text.

Vlogger

A person who creates an online blog or video blog.

Voice of God

A voiceover or commentary provided by a narrator.

A segment of narration that is added to a broadcast with the speaker not seen on screen.

Vox pop

An interview which is conducted with 'ordinary' people, often in the street.

Voyeurism

Gaining pleasure from looking at other people whilst remaining anonymous, often associated with the idea of men deriving sexual pleasure from looking at women.

Walkthrough

A demo on how to play a video game, the vlogger 'walks' the audience through a tour of the product.

Watershed

The time, after which is it allowed for media products (TV programmes) to contain more adult content or content that is deemed unsuitable for younger audiences. In the UK the watershed is 9pm.

Web 2.0

A phase in the history of the internet where it involved interactivity, user participation and collaboration.

White space

In magazines and newspapers where there is space free from text and images.

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The following subject specific vocabulary provides definitions of key terms used in our A-level Media Studies specification. Students should be familiar with and gain understanding of these terms. The Audit Bureau of Circulations is responsible for measuring the reach of different media across a range of platforms. A reading of a product which does not recognise the preferred meaning but produces instead a deviant or unanticipated reading.

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Introduction

Before you complete your coursework, you might have to submit a Statement of Intent which explains your production in terms of your target audience while applying your knowledge and understanding of the theoretical framework of media studies. Put simply, it is your chance to outline your aims and objectives. You can also use the Statement of Intent as an opportunity to justify some of your choices regarding representation and media form.

This document is a compulsory element of the non-exam assessment (NEA) must be submitted to your teacher no later than 1 April and will be sent to the exam board for marking with your product.

The Statement

A Statement of Intent is a broad outline of what you hope to achieve in your cross-media product. However, these details should be supported by the language of Media Studies.

For example, you could define your target audience in terms of their demographics and psychographics. There are a number of theories that define audience and their relationship with the media: Uses and Gratifications, Hypodermic Needle Model, Two-Step Flow Theory, Cultivation Theory, interactive, narrowcast, and niche. If you have any of these theories in mind when you make your choices about your product, you should integrate them into your Statement of Intent.

It is also important to establish some of the codes and conventions that will influence your texts. Think about media form and define the type of product you are creating in terms of genre.

What marketing techniques will you apply to target your audience? Are you going to use shock tactics, humour, glamour or celebrity endorsement. Perhaps your narrative will focus on enigma codes to intrigue your audience.

Since representation is one of the key concepts, you could explain how you will ask your actors to pose and what visual codes you are hoping to employ to deliver you message effectively to the audience. Again, make sure you justify your choices.

You need to pick some dominant signifiers and what they might signify to your target audience. These might be clothing and costume, make-up, lighting, body language, facial expression, general appearance, and iconic images. Is stereotyping an aspect of your cross-media product?

Finally, you need to conceptualise and develop the institutions behind the products. Consider your use of slogans and how other lexical codes meet the brand values. Logos are always important.

Generic Example

Even though there might be a 500-word limit at A2 Level, the following example tries to squeeze in lots of media language and theory.

The demographic for my media product are females in the late teens and twenties.

In terms of psychographics, this audience likes fast-fixes of celebrity gossip but also want to delve beneath the superficial filters and representation of the Instagram generation. They want something more considered. When it comes to trends, they poke fun at the ridiculous crazes. My target audience would be the fun seekers and armchair rebels of the Youth Facts IAOs: work hard, play hard and have attitude. VALS (Value Life Styles) classification would place audience on the outer-direct category: they are belongers and achievers.

There is also the secondary audience of males and a similar age range to the sceptical main audience.

Since my target audience have a natural and healthy suspicion of the world, they are not victims of "fake news". Therefore, humour and irony will be a key element of my branding and representation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggests that "lack of prejudice" is part of the self-actualisation classification of consumption. This freedom of thought will be an important motif in my narrative.

I would like several of my images to shock the audience and take advantage of the hypodermic needle model of conveying the message. This should "attract" their attention in line with the AIDA principle.

There will certainly be disequilibrium throughout the narrative. I will use enigma codes and sustain the audience's "interest" (AIDA) until the final reveal and the equilibrium is restored.

I think it is important to use celebrity endorsement. This one of Gillian Dyer's Lines of Appeal. This idea also utilises the Two-Step Flow Theory so my message mediated through my fake celebrity.

Representation is incredibly important. I will use well-known signifiers that will immediate connote excitement and glamour. My actor will pose appropriately, directly gazing at the audience to grab their attention. The mise-en-scene will reinforce the sense of fun. Even some angles will be tilted to create that playful tone.

This Statement of Intent is intentionally vague so it can apply to many different briefs. However, you would need to be more specific and focus your ideas on your chosen brief. There are so many other theories and theorists that can be used, so please do not limit your own Statement to the ones in this example.

Student Example One

The brief for this particular response required the student to promote a music magazine and a band.

The demographic for my media product are both male and females in early twenties to late thirties who have an interest in the vibrant music scene, particularly in the city of Bristol.

The psychographics of my audience could be categorised as free spirits. This group are very laid back but identify heavily with their musical influences, expressing themselves and their views openly. They are a new-age group of young adults with strong political views and a passion for what they believe in and their interests. They also may be open to explore and discover new interests like different music genres and styles.

Another psychographic label would be the armchair rebels. Sometimes, reckless and careless, this group do not always follow the norm in society, dressing and acting as individuals. They can be reckless and careless, with no worries for anything like the future or their general wellbeing.

Therefore, with such a dynamic target audience, the genre of my magazine is music, but will have an edgy centre in Bristol, focusing on different interests of different social groups in the city such as indie-pop, reggae and rave culture. However, it will be distributed for free at gigs and concerts so I will rely on advertising to pay for the production. I will also rely on the different print advertisements to promote the magazine.

The Two-Step Flow Theory would help to promote my magazine because consumers of the product will already have an interest in the local music scene and the connection with the bands they have just seen can spread the magazine's content with their social circle and people who have similar tastes and views as them. Also, people will have seen the poster advertisements promoting the content of the magazine and will want to read up on it. The Uses and Gratifications Model will also be useful in selling my media product as people will use it to feed their 'Personal Identity' which Blumer and Katz define as the need to understand our own identity. Music helps people have a sense of self-identity and purpose, along with the style they develop from their preferred music genre. 'Diversion' is also encouragement for an audience to buy my product as it provides entertainment and time to relax, or just to satisfy their interests.

Style is an obvious a marketing tactic because it is hand-in-hand with music genre and the culture that comes along with the music people choose to listen to. Different music preferences influence people to adopt a specific fashion sense, attitude and set of views. I will also include information on local venues and events that readers can get involved in or attend themselves and meet other people who share the same musical identity.

Representation is important in my media product and the composition of my shots will be equally as important due to the nature of the environment the photos will be taken in. They will include a variety of angles including long shots of live performances in venues and low angle shots of people influenced by music and the style that comes with it. Each of my print medias will appear coherent and will have recurring themes that means an audience will be able to recognise each one as from the same campaign.
Example One

This Statement of Intent defines the target audience in tremendous detail, but this could be at the expense of important aspects of representation and industry. Perhaps a more balanced approach would take this response into Level 5.

Student Example Two

This cross-media brief required the candidates to create a lifestyle magazine and advertisements that would appeal to its audience.

I intend to create an art magazine that will showcase a variety of different urban art around Leeds known as "Graffito". I will also create a series of three print advertisements alongside my magazine to promote local artist's art shows and special events through billboards, magazines, and bus advertisements.

The target demographic is both males and females in their late teens and twenties. Since they are active and energetic, the psychographics would be the free spirits who are laid back and enjoy being outside. They care about the environment and appreciate the beauty of it, as well as being interested in social matters, which can be reflected in urban street art. Another psychographic would be the armchair rebel which consist of the active youth who enjoy exploring and discovering new things.

My target audience appreciate the colourful, urban style of street art and are, themselves, unique and alternative. There is also a secondary audience of an older generation of men and women who appreciate urban art around their local city of Leeds and like to look at and know the meaning behind some of the most iconic murals hidden around Leeds in hope to learn more about their local surroundings. I will also create a series of print advertisements to further promote local art in Leeds that is related to my magazine.

They have a natural suspicion of the world so branding and representation will evoke debate because, for example, the uses and gratification theories see audiences as active participators in media transactions and not as passive receivers. Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggests that "lack of prejudice" is part of the self-actualisation classification of consumption. This freedom of thought will be an important motif in my narrative because it is vital that people have their own unique and individual thoughts and interpretations when looking at any type of art.

Including the two-step flow theory, the magazine will be "curated" by experts because this theory suggests that information from the media moves from the opinion leaders who pass on their own interpretations of the message in addition to the original media content to the wider audience. This can anchor meaning for the reader.

Representation is very important in any product and shot composition is even more vital in an art magazine. Therefore, my variety of images will contain a range of angles including low angles, to make the art look bigger and more powerful; extreme long shots, in order to show the street art in relation to its surroundings to add the style of the photo as the art is located on sides of buildings. The mise-en-scene of these shots will hopefully pierce the viewer, and inject them with an immediate sense of style. My print advertisements will all be unique and individual to each other but will all have an aspect of the same theme and therefore will be able to be related back to each other so that the audience will know each of the advertisements is for the same event.
Example Two

Activity

Read through the Statement of Intent examples and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses.

Further Reading

Making media products can be tremendous fun, but there are a number of targets you need tor reach if you want to achieve the top grade. Our outline of the coursework assessment objectives might help clarify how your texts are being marked. If you are not sure about what to create, read our guide to media studies indicative content.

Unassessed Participants

Inevitably, you will have friends and family appearing in your products, or you might need help to operate the lighting and sound equipment. You must acknowledge their efforts, stating what they did and outlining what direction you have them to help complete your tasks. This can be done on the Candidate Record Form (CRF) or on a supplementary page.

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How to write a statement of intent | A Level Media Studies (NEA)

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Our guide to writing a great statement of intent will help you focus on important theories and approaches to delivering your own NEA products.

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Media Studies Coursework | Information and Support

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Struggling with coursework? Our information and guides will help.

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Introduction

The Sims FreePlay is a mobile video game where players create and manage their own virtual characters, known as Sims. You can determine their personality and customise their appearance, including their clothing, hairstyles, and facial features. Players are then tasked to fulfil the needs and desires of their characters by cooking meals, going to work, and building relationships with other Sims. Once you have designed your house, there is a store where you can purchase furniture, appliances, and other items to decorate your home and keep your Sim happy.

The game's community is an important part of its success. You can visit and interact with other Sims, play against friends in in multiplayer competitions, and compare your scores and achievements.

Released in 2011 and still available on iOS and Android devices, this virtual town and story builder is free to play, but users are able to purchase in-game items with real money to speed up progress or unlock additional features. If you have over 1GB of spare memory on your phone, download the game and see why The Sims FreePlay scores 4.5 out of 5 in the App Store and remains in the top ten of the Free Apps Charts.

The tremendous popularity of The Sims FreePlay makes it an interesting text to evaluate the influence mobile games have on our identity and behaviour, especially in terms of representation and the way users play an active role in the production process. We will also explore the game's business model and how it attracts and retains consumers. You might be unfamiliar with the Sims franchise so let's start with the gameplay.

Game Play

There are 55 levels in The Sims FreePlay with plenty of main quests and discovery quests to pursue. These objectives include building and decorating your home, going on holiday, organising a party, and interacting with other Sims. When you complete each quest, you will be rewarded with new content and experience points to use in the game.

The first thing you need to do is create your unique Sim. Type a name into the two fields. Click the buttons to choose their gender and skin tone. Customise the look of your avatar from the default pants, shoes, outfits, hats, and other accessories available in the wardrobe tab. This ability to construct your own Sim gives you a sense of ownership over the character and a closer connection to the virtual world.

You are then asked to test out the touch controls: swipe around the screen to pan the camera, rotate the view, and pinch to zoom in and out. A thumbs up icon and an uplifting sound effect will confirm your actions. Easy.

Your Sim moves into their prebuilt home, and you have to complete a series of tasks. Maybe the builders forgot to add a toilet, so you need to purchase one from the home store and install it in your bathroom. Or you need to take a shower because your Sim reeks from their long trip to the town. Follow the instructions in the pop-up screen and you will be rewarded with "TASK COMPLETE" and a tick symbol congratulating you on your success. Your Sim might yell with excitement, or you will hear a pleasing applause sound effect. Each positive reinforcement is designed make you feel good about your accomplishments. Even the green progress bar encourages you to continue playing.

The tutorial then takes you through the basic aspects of the game to get you started. Producers want you to feel comfortable using the controls, so you don't get disorientated and frustrated. In Tomb Raider: Anniversary, for example, you can solve the fun puzzles and complete the time trials in Croft Manor to develop your skills controlling the avatar before you start the more demanding story mode.

Once you complete the tutorial, the town is yours to explore.

The following walkthrough is the first video in a series on all The Sims FreePlay quests, hobbies and limited time events.

Revenue

David Hesmondhalgh argued companies involved in the cultural industries, such as EA, were just like any other business who wanted to minimise risk and maximise profit. The Sims FreePlay follows the freemium business model - a strategy commonly used in the media industry to attract users to try the product or service. The basic version of The Sims Freeplay is available to download for free and there are standard items and hobbies which can be unlocked as you progress through the game. For example, if you complete the Two and a Half Sims quest within the time limit, you will be able to add babies to your town and access the baby decoration pack in the home store. Or the Life Dreams and Legacies quest enables automatic ageing and personality options.

By completing these quests and tasks, players also earn Simoleons and Lifestyle Points which are used to pay for additional features and special items, such as haircuts, pets, exclusive clothing, and unique clothing.

However, you can also use real money to buy these in-game currencies through the App Store. £5 will get you 30,000 Simoleons or 40 Lifestyle Points.

Many players measure their success in The Sims FreePlay by the size of their house and its contents, so they spend plenty of cash in the home store on virtual coffee machines, exclusive wallpapers, large swimming pools, suits of armour, and pianos for their spoilt teenagers. To be honest, a couple of pounds for the automatic pool cleaner is worth the investment.

When you purchase items from the online store, you earn VIP points and unlock more perks, including the ability to increase the number of Sims you can have in your town. If you are bored watching your Sim drink water for two minutes or sleep for hours in real time, you can pay for Lifestyle Points to complete the task sooner.

Another way EA tempt users to spend money is through their collaborations with other companies, such as product placements. You can upgrade your pixelated wardrobe with the Moschino collections from the luxury Italian fashion house. There is also a lucrative crossover with LEGO DOTS.

All these microtransactions generate huge profits for EA because lots of players are willing to spend hundreds of pounds on expansion packs and exclusive perks. Overall, in 2021-2 fiscal year, the company received $3.91 billion in revenue from extra content sales, including the controversial loot boxes which are often viewed as a form of gambling.

The Sims FreePlay is free to download and play. But you will be tempted to spend your pocket money on the automatic pool cleaner for your mansion. It is interesting to note the designer of the original Sims game, Will Wright, stated his idea was "actually meant to be a satire of US consumer culture " because objects which were supposed to make your character happy would somehow make them feel miserable. That automatic pool cleaner is going to break, and your virtual life will become unbearable until you pay to get it fixed.

Values and Ideology

Instead of poking fun at our obsession with material possessions and home comforts, The Sims FreePlay encourages the player to shop in the home store to buy more and more expensive goods. Progress is measured by the number of floors in your beach house and whether or not you have a stable for your horses.

This focus on consumerism is epitomised by the mall quests. Once you reach level 12, you can choose to start The Sunset Mall Quest and build your own centre "filled to the brim with stores, clothes and activities". If you complete the various tasks within the time limit, you unlock the Pickle Sauce Burger Bar to enjoy burgers and milkshakes with other Sims. You can then work through the Pretty Little Planters Quest to unlock a second floor with even more ways to waste your Simoleons.

Put simply, the game reinforces a capitalist culture by normalising the desire for wealth and status.

Audience Profile

The 2020 survey from The Entertainment Software Association (ESA) found "video games transcend age, gender and where we live" and that "there's a game for everyone". Interestingly, women were more likely to play games on their smartphones with a strong preference in casual games.

The survey also revealed different uses and gratifications. 55% of women in the 18-34 age group said "games help them stay connected with friends and family". This obviously reinforces the argument audiences consume media to develop their personal relationships or, according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, their sense of social belonging. Competing against friends in The Sims FreePlay might also improve the player's self-esteem because they will feel accepted by their social circle.

77% of women surveyed in 35-54 age group said they played games to "help them relax". For women aged 55-64, games provided "mental stimulation". These motivations are examples of diversion because they are using the games to escape the stresses and strains of the real world. In The Sims FreePlay, who wouldn't want to unlock the pirate ship or the ghost hunting hobby?

Regulation

In the United Kingdom, computer games are mostly rated and regulated by the Video Standards Council which applies the PEGI content descriptors. This independent organisation classifies games according to their suitability for different age groups, taking account of a number of factors, including the game's themes, language, violence, and content. The Sims FreePlay is rated 12 because it "may contain themes that are not suitable for younger children", such as the potential for violent fist fights and "woohoo!".

These content descriptors are designed to help consumers make informed choices about the games. This is particularly important for parents who want to ensure the well-being of their children. We should also note it is illegal to sell or rent a video game to someone who is below the age rating on the game.

Many critics have called for the regulation of gambling-like behaviours in computer games. In The Sims FreePlay, when you reach level 7, completing The Money Grows in Trees Quest unlocks the Social Point Flower where you bet 5 Lifestyle Points to try to win Social Points. Remember, you can use real money to purchase Lifestyle Points. Real money which can be lost with the spin of a virtual reel.

The UK government investigated the use of loot boxes in video games and decided to pursue "enhanced industry-led measures to deliver protections for children and young people and all players" rather than regulating the practice by amending the Gambling Act 2005. In other words, the Social Point Flower game remains unregulated.

Privacy

The developer offers its own warning of "infrequent or mild references to violence, profanity, or crude themes". EA also draws attention to the "location detection, user generated content, advertisements" in the game which might be inappropriate for younger audiences.

In terms of privacy, the company stores some of your personal information, such as age and gender, and tracks your use of the app. They might even collect data when you access other apps and websites so they can improve their targeted advertising.

Many critics are worried about the potential for personal information to be mishandled or misused. That is why the European Union strengthened the data protection laws in all its member states in 2018 with the introduction of The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

The law sets out a number of rights for individuals in relation to their personal data, including the right to be informed about the collection and use of their personal data. The GDPR also requires companies to implement appropriate measures to protect personal data and to report any breaches to the relevant authorities and affected individuals. Companies which fail to comply with the law can face significant fines.

Of course, all participatory media come with real world risks, especially for young and vulnerable children who may not realise the importance of keeping their personal information private.

Censorship

Although The Sims FreePlay looks like harmless fun compared to the more violent titles available to play, EA made the game unavailable in some countries in 2018 because of "regional standards". Many users were quick to suggest the ban was implemented because of the possibility of establishing same-sex relationships in the virtual world. If you want to play the game in places such as China, Saudi Arabia and Qatar, you need to use a VPN and change your location.

The Sims Freeplay's Socials

We are studying The Sims FreePlay because it offers a great insight into participatory media and online communities, so it is worth analysing the game's social media output. Here is a link to the latest tweets but you should also check out the Facebook page.

Essay Questions

1. "Computer games are worthy of study because they are capable of conveying important cultural meanings". To what extent do you agree with this statement?

2. To what extent is narrative theory useful in explaining the success of simulation games?

3. How useful is Jean Baudrillard's concepts of hyperreality and simulation in understanding how computer games construct meaning?

4. "Players may interpret simulation games differently depending on their goals or purposes for consuming the text." To what extent do you agree with this statement?

5. David Gauntlett suggests media texts help audiences construct their identities. Explore this idea in relation to life simulation games.

6. How valid are Judith Butler's ideas of gender trouble and performativity to understanding simulation games such as The Sims FreePlay?

7. What are the values, attitudes and beliefs embodied in the representations found in The Sims FreePlay?

8. "When we see representations of ethnicity in computer games, we need to critically assess those representations". To what extent do you agree with this statement?

9. "Computer games should be regulated to protect young consumers from potential health risks." To what extent do you agree with this statement?

10. Explain why the Close Study Product The Sims FreePlay demonstrates the target audience for computer games continues to change.

11. How useful is Henry Jenkins' theory of fandom in explaining the audience's engagement with computer games?

12. To what extent do computer games blur the definitions of producer and audience? You should refer to the Close Study Product The Sims FreePlay to support your answer.

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Develop your understanding of the popular video game with our analysis of the media landscape, representation, and the impact on the audience.

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Evaluating Representation in Horizon Forbidden West

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Analysis of the representation of characters and setting in “Horizon Forbidden West”, including ethnicity, gender, and social class.

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Introduction

"Horizon Forbidden West" was developed by Guerilla Games and released on PlayStation consoles in 2022. Players assume the role of Aloy, a skilled hunter and archer, to battle against mechanical beasts in a quest to save the world from another apocalypse. The combat sequences are exciting, and the game world is full of fascinating lore, compelling characters, and stunning visuals, so it no surprise Sony sold over 8 million copies of the title worldwide in its first year.

We are going to explore to what extent genre and narrative are important to the critical and commercial success of this popular game.

Genre

Combining the physical challenges of real-time combat with a highly developed story full of interesting characters and rich landscapes, "Horizon Forbidden West" is a hybrid of action and role-playing conventions. Quick response times and good hand-eye coordination are essential to battle the deadly machines, but you will also need plenty of wit and patience to solve the puzzles and save the world.

Action Mode

The action genre emphasises real-time gameplay and combat with the player taking control of the hero to overcome challenges and defeat enemies. During the tutorial mission, "Reach for the Stars", Aloy tells Varl she "ran into a lot of trouble" on the way to the ruins and "lost a lot of... gear", so you start the sequel with just the basic hunter bow and spear in your inventory. Make sure you forage for ridge-wood to craft hunter arrows before you clash with any enemies.

Most action games feature an enhanced targeting system. "Horizon Forbidden Dawn" has its own concentration mode which slows down time and zooms towards your target to help you release the perfect shot. This combat mechanic is particularly useful when you are trying to shoot the Soundshell or Resource Container off a Burrower for future upgrades.

You could try sneaking up on a machine to perform a stealth kill with your spear. Or simply hack and slash your way to glory by connecting basic melee attacks into longer combos. Both strategies will require sharp reflexes.

More weapons, upgrades and powerups become available as you progress through the story. The elemental bombs launched from Blastslings are good for hitting distant targets whereas Spike Throwers are better at inflicting significant damage at shorter ranges. The legendary Brawlbreaker is a Boltblaster that promises to "silence all enemies" with 39 Impact Damage and, if you complete "The Way Home Mission" and work through some final challenges, you can access the Skykiller and make "enemies fall out of the sky like streaks of burning light". This impressive inventory of weapons delivers a great mix of combat events to keep fans of the genre entertained.

Boss fights are another convention of action games. At the end of first mission, for example, you have to destroy a Slitherfang. It's not easy hitting the machine's weak spots while trying to dodge sprays of acid and its huge whipping tail, but you will be rewarded with a Skill Point and an additional +10 to your Max Health.

There are fourteen main boss fights in "Horizon Forbidden Dawn" - each with their distinct attack patterns and phases to test your combat skills. Importantly, these encounters help drive the game's storyline.

Role-playing Games

Role-playing and adventure games are defined by the interplay of narrative codes, dynamic characters, and a highly developed game world.

The Open World

"Horizon Forbidden West" is set in a post-apocalyptic United States about one thousand years after a plague of self-replicating robots almost wiped out all life on the planet. Humans now live in primitive tribes scattered across the land. Most of the lore is established in the first game, "Horizon Zero Dawn", but Aloy still has plenty to discover in this "immersive open world, filled with adventure, culture, and opportunity ".

The Lead Living World Designer, Epsen Sogn, described how his team at Guerilla worked hard to make sure the game world was "authentic and alive" so that "everything should feel like it belongs there". Taking advantage of the PS5's incredible processing power, the textures and assets which were part of the background in older games are now "elevated into actual objects". Even the non-playing characters "move and exist with purpose".

The day-night cycle and the dynamic weather system add more variety to this stunning game. You can watch the icy glow of the sun disappear behind the snow laden Sheerside Mountains or listen to the gentle rainfall from the comfort of a shelter in No Man's Land. It really makes the environment feel more alive and responsive to our actions. As you move through this vast world, you can scale up the six Tallnecks to unlock new map areas, take in the mesmerising views, and plan your next route.

From the Sacred Lands of the Nora tribe to the uncharted regions beyond the Daunt canyons, "Horizon Forbidden West" offers plenty of landscapes for players to explore and experience. In open world games, you have more choice over which order you complete the quests and errands. For instance, at Chainscrape, you can ignore Mildif's request for Wild Meat and Bitter Leaf and continue on with the primary story. However, the game encourages you to discover hidden locations and uncover secrets by rewarding you with optional items and powerups. You will gain 830XP, 1 Skill Point and unlock the Food Pouch for completing "A Dash of Courage" and helping the cook satisfy his customers' appetites.

Open worlds can leave players feeling disorientated and confused. Although "Horizon Forbidden West" contains an impressive 28 side quests and 20 errands, the 17 main story quests and 3 interludes provide a clear structure and narrative for you to follow. Players can also track their progress in the useful quests screen:

Additionally, if you selected the Guided mode, your heads-up display (HUD) places icons on the screen which direct you to your destination and the distance you need to cover so you won't get lost on your journey to save the world.

Of course, some players will prefer the freedom and challenge of the Explorer setting which does not offer these tips.

When you want to climb an obstacle, use your Focus and yellow markers will identify the cracks and holds you can use to reach the top. These faint lines and crosses are also helpful when you want to jump from one platform to the next.

In terms of the Uses and Gratifications theories, players will engage with "Horizon Forbidden Dawn" because it offers diversion. The game is supposed to be fun. That is why it is important for the developers to deliver a good balance between the freedom of an open world with more linear gameplay. They don't want players to become frustrated and switch off their PlayStations.

Character Development

Aloy is the red-haired protagonist of "Horizon Forbidden West". Exiled from the Nora tribe for being a "no-mother", she was raised by another outcast, Rost, who trained her to survive and prepared her for the life-changing journey to uncover her true origins and the mysteries of the past.

At the end of "Horizon Zero Dawn", Aloy killed the Deathbringer that was guarding HADES and purged the Extinction Protocol. The horde of corrupted machines were no longer a threat to the tribes.

In the cutscene before the sequel's tutorial mission, Varl calls her the "Saviour of Meridian" and the "Anointed of the Nora". Despite rejecting the praise, Aloy believes she is "the only one" who can complete the "sacred task" and save the planet.

This character trope is often called the chosen one. Another obvious example is Link in the "Legend of Zelda" franchise because he is the only one who can wield the master sword and defeat Ganon. In film, Luke Skywalker fulfils his destiny and kills Darth Vader, and the protagonist in the "Matrix" is called Neo - a clever reworking of the word "one".

Chosen by some sort of prophecy or supernatural force, only these characters have the power and skill needed to bring order to the world. Aloy is a clone who was "made... by a machine" to restore GAIA and save humanity from "a new extinction". She is a "champion for all humankind".

Compelled to "fix" the world, she neglects her own needs and finds it difficult to build relationships with other characters, so many of them view her as cold and arrogant. Varl says she has a "sharp bite" and, in Chainscrape, Petra is disappointed her friend has "bigger gears to grind" and won't join her for a "cold beer" in the tavern.

As the story unfolds, Aloy begins to fully appreciate the importance of friendship. During "The Wings of the Ten" quest, she encourages Zo, Erend, Alivia and Kotallo to combine their strengths to strike back against Regalla and Zenith.

In another cutscene, she sits with Zo beside Varl's grave. Zo buried him on the spot where they used to "sit and watch the sunrise" over Plainsong. It is an incredibly poignant moment, especially when Zo sings wistfully for her beloved.

Role-playing games emphasise character development more than most other computer game genres, so it is crucial to represent Aloy as a vulnerable and dynamic character who is capable of change. In this scene, our hero expresses her regret for not thanking him for saving her life and being a steadfast friend - her anguish is clear in her facial expressions and body language.

The Dialogue Wheel

This depth of character is reinforced by the Flashpoints where you are able to choose how Aloy interacts with other characters. For example, in "The Point of the Lance" interlude, it is clear Avad is disappointed his affections for Aloy are not returned. You can choose to reply with compassion, intelligence, or aggression. If you select the heart option, Aloy says she hopes to see him again, but she has to "stay focused" on her "mission".

Although these choices do not impact the story, they are an opportunity for the player to shape Aloy's personality and develop a stronger emotional connection to the character.

Clothes

Clothing in "Horizon Forbidden Dawn" also helps players engage closely with the protagonist.

You begin the game in your Nora Anointed armour, but you can purchase, for example, The Oseram Explorer outfit from the Stitchers in Chainscrape to boost your Critical Stike and Power Attack skills by one point each. If you like to avoid melees and prefer using stealth attacks, you should acquire the Utaru Gravesinger because it will suit (pun intended) your gameplay.

The outfits can be upgraded at the workbench and by unlocking weaves to increase their damage resistance and boost the skills. This stats system in "Horizon Forbidden Dawn" is another key convention of role-playing games.

Aware that players enjoyed wearing certain outfits, the developers added a patch to the game called the transmog feature which enables you to keep the stats of one set of armour while wearing another. This is a great option if you need the stealth benefits of the Utaru Gravesinger but prefer the aesthetics of the Oseram Explorer outfit when you are sneaking up on a machine.

It is worth noting having a female protagonist does not prevent male players from bonding with their role-playing identity. In fact, MacCallum-Stewart (2008) argued gender switching is "standard practice" in the gaming community.

Her research is supported by the Gamer Motivation Profile which found "29% of men prefer playing female characters" and "about 60% of female avatars... are played by a male player" in a typical PC/console game. You can complete the survey at Quantic Foundry and get your own customised report.

The Third-person Perspective

Another convention of action role-playing games is the use of the third-person perspective with the camera positioned outside of the protagonist, giving the player a clear view of Aloy and her surroundings. Just rotate the right analog stick to pan and tilt the lens in any direction. This will help you navigate through the complex textures of the open world with a better sense of distance and depth. You are also able to make more effective strategic decisions during combat events because you can assess the battlefield and enemy positions, especially when you are low on health and need to find cover from a vicious attack.

The dynamic third-person perspective increases the visibility of Aloy - an important aspect of the game's key selling point and branding - and makes the transitions from gameplay to cutscenes and scripted events seamless. "Horizon Forbidden Dawn" is not just a game - it's a cinematic masterpiece.

Science Fiction Codes

"Horizon Forbidden West" borrows heavily from the language of science fiction. The game is set in the future long after the Earth was ravaged by self-replicating machines which were supposed to act as peacekeepers but obliterated the planet's biomass instead. Elisabet Sobeck, a roboticist and engineer, led the development of Zero Dawn - a project aimed at deactivating the machines and terraforming the "barren rock" by reseeding the planet with DNA stored in its systems. GAIA was the artificial intelligence built to oversee this new world.

The sequel introduces the players to Oswald Dalgard who is the public face of Far Zenith. He describes the consortium's ambition to build a spaceship to send settlers across the galaxy to another star system, Sirius. Again, the colonisation of other planets is a popular theme in science fiction, especially alongside the threat of a global environmental catastrophe.

It is no surprise the game relies on the iconography of the genre. In first quest, you have to find your way through the "wilds" to the spaceship on the launchpad in the distance. There are plenty of remnants of the old world hidden among the trees, plants, and undergrowth - the ruined buildings with exposed metal girders, automatic doors glowing with futuristic colours, electronic shutters on the windows in the viewing gallery, and even the turnstiles into the auditorium. It is a stunning vision of a post-apocalyptic world.

The Horizon series plays on our fears regarding climate change and the use of artificial intelligence. It is a pleasing sort of fear because we get to play the saviour in this alternate reality.

The screenshot below is taken from a cutscene in the "Reach for the Stars" quest. The holographic projection of Dalgard, data screens, constellations, and the orbit of an exoplanet are all typical signifiers used in science fiction films:

Perhaps the best example of futuristic technology in the game is the Focus. It is an augmented reality device worn by Aloy to help her process objects in the environment, target weaknesses in the machines, and decode other datapoints for information. In terms of gameplay, this "second sight" makes a great user interface to experience the world. The pulse of sound coming through the controller's speaker when you use the Focus draws the player further into the story.

The machines are another obvious signifier found in science fiction. There are 43 types, including the small Burrowers and huge Slitherfangs we have already mentioned. The representation of these mechanical monsters is important for the game's age rating because the graphic violence and intense combat events mostly contain fantasy elements with only occasional melees against human enemies. Small splatters of blood are depicted when you kill animals and people. The amount of combat does place the action firmly in the PEGI 16 category.

Narrative

Aloy has been "searching for months" for a "backup of GAIA" to save the world from the blight. Her "only remaining lead" has taken her to the Far Zenith complex in the valley. This equilibrium is established in the opening cutscenes before the player takes control of the character and then continues in the tutorial section of the game.

The disruption occurs when Aloy realises Sylens stole HADES. The opening credits roll while Aloy rides a machine through the wastelands towards the region referred to as the Forbidden West. This signals the disequilibrium.

Searching for a repair makes up most of the gameplay experience - embarking on exciting quests, revealing secrets, making choices, and developing new skills and abilities. The promotional material for the game challenges players to overcome new enemies, uncover the mystery behind the blight and "restore order and balance to the world". This would be the new equilibrium according to Tzvetan Todorov's narrative theory.

"Horizon Forbidden West" can be classified as genre of order, but there is always room for a third instalment!

We have already argued the game is a diversion. By positioning the player as the saviour in this narrative, "Horizon Forbidden West" also appeals to our personal identity because we can learn to work through stressful situations and negative emotions more effectively by solving puzzles and destroying the deadly enemies in the game.

Roland Barthes and Narrative Codes

The chronology of computer games rely on proairetic (action) codes to sequence actions and events in the narrative. For example, Aloy and Varl realise they will not be able to defeat the Slitherfangs so they devise a plan to crush them with the old spaceship. Or you need to gather ridge-wood to craft arrows. This simple causality ensures players follow the progression of the story and understand how events are connected.

There are also plenty of hermeneutic (enigma) codes in "Horizon Forbidden West" to create suspense and prompt the player to uncover secrets. What is causing the blight? And why does Sylens want Aloy to journey into the Forbidden West?

The level of detail in the game is incredible. Pick any beat of the story and you should be able to analyse the semantic codes which help communicate meanings to the player in that moment. For example, the dress codes for each tribe carry connotations of their environment and culture, such as the way Nora outfits are made with animal hides and fur and are designed for hunting in the wilds.

Consider the following screenshot from the cutscene between Aloy and Varl:

Players will immediately recognise the braided wire and the sentry tower in the background. These signifiers suggest the characters have entered an area which was once restricted and secure. This creates intrigue and we are eager to find out what was being protected. When you are playing the game, look out for the semantic codes the developers use to "show" meaning and develop the sense of history and intent in the game.

For symbolic codes, there are plenty of binary oppositions to analyse. The central conflict in the game is between the natural world and advanced technology. The robots destroyed the biosphere, Aloy is trying to save the planet despite being a clone developed by a machine, the blight is killing plant life and animals, and our salvation depends on artificial intelligence.

Of course, these issues are also cultural codes because climate change does pose a real danger to our planet and we are increasingly concerned about our reliance on technology, such as the harmful effects of playing computer games and the impact AI will have on the economy. The interplay between these oppositions makes the game more engaging and thought-provoking by adding depth and complexity to the narrative.

Another binary opposition worth considering is Aloy's desire to be a lone hunter but needing to form alliances with other characters and factions. This internal conflict links to the tension in our own lives between the individual and our responsibility to society. In other words, the representation of Aloy in "Horizon Forbidden West" can help players shape their personal identity.

Taking a structuralist approach, the binary opposition between the Aloy and the machines could draw our attention to the wider theme of good versus evil found in cultures around the world. By battling the Burrowers and Slitherfangs, we can better understand our own internal struggles and contemplate our actions and reactions, especially when it comes to moral dilemmas and making difficult decisions which might have negative consequences.

Character Types

We can easily apply Vladimir Propp's character types to "Horizon Forbidden West". Computer games have often reduced female characters to the role of princess - a damsel in distress who needs rescued. However, Aloy is obviously the hero who embarks on the quest to repair the lack.

During the opening tutorial, Varl is a helper who assists the hero on her initial journey.

Sylens stole the HADES system - an action typical of the villain. However, we should classify this major character as the dispatcher who sends Aloy into the uncharted territory in search of answers and sets the story in motion. In fact, we could label many of the minor characters involved in errands as dispatchers.

Aloy receives the Shieldwing from Grudda, the Tenakth rebel, after beating him in single combat. He fulfils the donor's sphere of action. Again, there are plenty of donors in this complex narrative, such as Thurlis who gives Aloy the Tripcaster

You will just have to play the game to find out which character can be called the villain.

Neale and Genre Theory

Steve Neale (1980) described cinema as a "series of signifying processes" and genres were "specific variations of the interplay of codes". The same semiotic framework can be used to explore computer games.

First, we can evaluate the narrative modes to classify games. Action role-playing games usually have violent and physical disruptions and repairs. This is certainly true in "Horizon Forbidden West", Sylens steals Hades and then Aloy has to defeat a final boss to bring order to the world. By contrast, strategic life simulation games, such as " SIMS FreePlay " and "Animal Crossing: New Horizons", follow a "process of desire" because you focus on the emotional and social needs of the avatars while building their worlds.

We have already discussed how action and enigma codes form the chronology of "Horizon Forbidden West" with an effective mix of narrative and spectacle. This mode of address is typical of the action role-playing genre whereas older platform games relied heavily on action codes and a simple linear gameplay.

Neale also argued discussions around genre should refer to "matters of expression" - the technical codes. Dynamic camera movement, HUDs and advanced combat systems are conventions of action role-playing games. "Horizon Forbidden West" moves effortlessly between the gameplay and cutscenes as well. The level of detail in the diegetic sound is incredible and epic quests also require the sort of epic orchestral score often found in Hollywood blockbusters.

Finally, the mode of authenticity is crucial to role-playing games because audiences really enjoy the lore, character backstories, costumes, representations of cultures and different environments. It is no surprise the Horizon series already has a dedicated fandom who engage intensively with the text.

Conclusion

Steve Neale believed "pleasure lies in both the repetition of the signifiers and the fundamental differences" in films. This argument is also true with computer games. "Horizon Forbidden West" follows the conventions of action role-playing games but delivers its own unique world for players to enjoy.

Games need to be commercially successful, so it makes sense for developers to offer consumers similar experiences to previous formats which have turned a profit. The "repetition" makes it easier to market new titles as well because genre provides the audience with a "coherent and systematic set of expectations".

If you are interested in the deption of gender identities, ethnicity and power, you should read our guide to "Horizon Forbidden West" and representation where we argue this open world experience is open to everyone.

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A comprehensive guide to the action role-playing codes and conventions in "Horizon Forbidden West", including genre theory and narrative.

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The Voice | Analysis of the Close Study Product

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Focusing on industry, representation and audience, this guide to The Voice Online will help you prepare for your A-Level Media Studies exam.

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Develop your knowledge and understanding of this close study product with our analysis of media representations, genre and narrative,

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Introduction

The Gentlewoman has been appealing to its target audience of "modern women of style and purpose" since its launch in 2010. With a distinctive editorial voice, engaging interviews, long-form profiles of inspirational women, and candid fashion photography, the magazine claims to be "consistently one of the best performing publications on newsstands today".

Analysis of the Front Cover

The dominant signifier is a close up of the cover star, Scarlett Johansson. Her face fills the frame and her eyes, half-open and dreamy, gaze back at the viewer with a soft confidence.

Although the main image is a little more experimental than most of the magazine's covers, the rest of the page follows The Gentlewoman 's house style with the masthead positioned at the top and the cover star's name at the bottom. The message is clear - Johansson is "the gentlewoman" and this is her story.

The title uses a variation of the Futura typeface. The geometric letters and the distinctive "l" and "h" shapes create a feeling of modernity and progress. This ideology of function over form is appropriate for an independent magazine which aims to represent "real women" and "the way women actually look, think and dress".

The Gentlewoman does not rely on impulse buyers, so there is no need for coverlines to compete for the reader's attention at the newsstand. See our analysis of GQ magazine or Men's Health for comparison. The minimalist approach keeps our focus on Scarlet Johansson's narrative and celebrates her individuality.

Modern Punches and Representation

The first article we need to consider is the interview with Ramla Ali whose "lightning speed and exceptional footwork" in the boxing ring elevated her to "global athlete status". She refused to "give in to the pain" and "worked harder" to represent Somalia at the 2020 Olympic Games and then compete as a professional in the sport. The Gentlewoman "showcases inspirational women" and Ramla is an incredible role model.

Liesbet van Zoonen (1996) suggested "competition, individualism, ruthlessness" were supposed to be masculine values, but Ramla's physical and mental strength challenges that traditional ideology. The image of her standing tall and flexing her muscles in victory conveys her self-determination and power effectively to the audience. We might even argue the blue tracksuit plays with the colour codes of masculinity.

Ramla describes herself as "a total tomboy" who would "pick trainers over make-up any day". She actually lied to her mother about boxing, telling her "I was just going to the gym for a swim or spin class" because that was more socially acceptable for a girl.

The tomboy stereotype is seen by some critics as a threat to society because it undermines the binary opposition between men and women. However, the tone of the article suggests Ramla is proud of this identity because of her strong sense of independence. Judith Butler (1990) argued gender is a social construct that is constantly being reinforced through our behaviour and interactions with others. Gender is performative in the sense that it is maintained through this "stylized repetition of acts". Ramla is fully aware she is resisting the dominant ideology and she is eager to write her own script: "I just want to be perfect - is that too much to ask?"

The imbalance of power between men and women is still evident in the world of boxing. Although "everyone is equal" in the gym, Ramla mentions how she had to "grab every opportunity" because they were "few and far between" in female sport and "the pay gap between men and women" remains "so huge". That is why she has to rely on sponsorships from the likes of Nike and Cartier whose products she is modelling on page 67.

Ramla also refers to the negative stereotype of the thuggish boxer, preferring to tell people she is an "athlete rather than a boxer just to be spared the judgement". There is no doubt this inspirational woman will continue to shift expectations.

Finally, in terms of genre, the interview is a straightforward question and answer session, so Ramla's voice is unmediated through a narrator. It's her own words. This is an important choice for a magazine which aims to deliver "warm and personal... conversations with fascinating women of the moment".

Isabella Tree

The next article we need to explore features Isabella Tree who embarked on the "first lowland rewilding project" in England. With "minimal human intervention" and leaving the animals "to their own devices", many of her neighbouring farmers saw the conservation effort as an "immoral waste of land" and even "an assault in Britishness itself". However, Tree's Knepp Wildland has since become "a blueprint for other farmers keen to use their land to help regenerate nature" throughout the United Kingdom.

In contrast to the Ali interview, this article is written from the journalist's perspective who describes her experience walking with Isabella Tree around the estate and getting an insight into the innovator's thoughts and ambitions. This longer format enables the writer to delve into Tree's history and provide the reader with the wider environmental and political context behind the success of the rewilding project.

Tree draws attention to the fact "there are more gardens acreage-wise than there are nature reserves in Britain" so everyone should "get messy" with their own little plots of land. The article asks the reader to critically assess their "manicured gardens" and connect with the natural world in a more meaningful way.

The photographs which accompany the story also position the reader to admire the beauty and strength of the landscape. The first subject is a tree "about 550 years old" which "should live for another 400". Does the inclusion of the tips of the photographer's shoes simply help the viewer imagine the scale of the Knepp oak or does it draw attention to the transience of our lives compared to the more permanent trees?

The rainbow in the second image encodes a sense of optimism towards the trees whose "roots" have been "damaged by intensive ploughing and chemical use". Despite our misuse of the land in the past, we can follow Isabella Tree and work towards a brighter future.

The Gentlewoman is inspiring a new wave of environmentalism.

Values and Ideologies

The magazine is constructing representations of femininity which are not always evident in mainstream products aimed at women. In the interview with Stella McCartney, for example, the fashion designer says she has "an allergy for anything too cute and pretty" and "anything that is too hard and brash and masculine". This is another rejection of traditional gender modes.

Immediately echoing the values expressed in the interview with Isabella Tree, McCartney also focuses on sustainability and respect for animals. Her eco-friendly credentials are epitomised by her million-selling "vegan handbag".

There is also a similar mode of authenticity in the photographs taken at McCartney's offices in London. The first image suggests the fashion designer took a quick moment to pose for the camera in between her other work commitments - the large piece of hardboard replacing the broken glass panels in door does not look particularly glamorous, and the electronic buttons are just distracting. Both the fashion designer and the magazine are subtly encoding the transparency and integrity demanded by their consumers.

Moving away from the narrow consciousness of glossy magazines, The Gentlewoman is part of a growing number of brands who are building trust with their conscious readers by promoting an open and ethical alternative to the profit-driven companies of the past.

However, the magazine does need to sell advertising space and deliver sophisticated forms of content marketing to brands who wish to target their affluent readers. Stella McCartney, for example, is promoting her own clothing range in exchange for the interview. The jacket, bodysuit, trousers, and sandals are all available to buy from her store. The Adley jacket originally retailed at just over £1,000.

Ramla Ali has sponsorship deals with Nike and Cartier, so it is no surprise to see her wearing these brands in the photoshoot. Scarlett Johansson is pictured wearing a fur-free coat from Stella McCartney, shoes by Jimmy Choo, Manolo Blahnik and Tabitha Simmons, and clothes from the likes of Miu Miu and Norma Kamali. None of these products are cheap either.

Although The Gentlewoman positions itself as modern and progressive, its values are still firmly focused on a culture of consumerism.

The Gentlewoman's Primary Audience

If you are analysing a magazine or newspaper and want to know more about its primary audience, a great place to start your research is their media kit because it should contain key facts and statistics about their readers. Publishers provide these documents to advertising agencies and companies to demonstrate their ability to connect brands to consumers who will engage with their products and services.

The Gentlewoman is represented by Rock Media who have helped compile a detailed media kit to promote the magazine to companies in the European fashion and luxury market. It contains the editorial values, industry accolades, demographic and psychographic information, testimonials, and the important price list for advertising space.

The package describes the target audience as "modern women of style and purpose" who are "confident, independent and stylish". They come from a "strikingly broad range of age groups" with a median age of 32 years.

Using the NRS social grades, 76% of The Gentlewoman's readers are classified as ABC1 which means they are employed in junior to higher managerial or professional positions. They have a substantial average income of £87,255 - that is more than £50,000 compared to the average annual salary in the UK.

The publishers are drawing attention to the significant spending power of its readers who can afford to "enjoy the highest quality fashion, social pursuits and creative happenings". Obviously, this will be very appealing to the high-end fashion houses.

The Magazine Industry

Despite the huge financial risks of publishing a print magazine when more and more readers are relying on digital media to learn about the world, there has been a quiet resurgence of independent titles in the UK. The Gentlewoman is produced by the owners who retain their creative control, so the content is imbued with a passion not really seen in mainstream magazines which often rely on ideas developed from extensive market research.

Rather than simply delivering commentaries and reviews on the fashion industry and inspirational women, the producers are participants in a cultural community shared by their readers. The mode of address is personal and warm.

This relationship with their audience is epitomised by The Gentlewoman Club - an international society of the magazine's "sophisticated" and "fabulous" readers. The publishers deliver an "agenda of cultural happenings" to the "40,000 plus active members", including walking tours, film screenings and card nights.

While other magazines aimed at this creative class of women struggled to survive, such as , The Gentlewoman's innovative approach to creating an intimate connection between the editor and the reader has ensured it has remained a viable enterprise.

The Business Model

The Gentlewoman also offers digital packages to access advertising spaces on their website and they offer "creative collaborations" and "bespoke partnerships", including previous work with brands such as Bottega Veneta and Chanel. Their newsletter contains a "classifieds section of bespoke advertisements" which is "a discerning platform for brands to reach astute consumers, direct to their inbox".

Editorial content will never be free from commercial decisions, but the magazine makes it clear they are adding their opinion and expertise to endorse the designers, giving The Gentlewoman an authentic voice compared to the mainstream publishers. The publishers argue they are acting as curators of fashion rather than simply selling advertising space.

Uses and Gratifications

The magazine obviously appeals to the readers' desire to learn about the latest trends and styles from the world of fashion. The audience could easily satisfy this surveillance motivation by flicking and scrolling through the internet, but The Gentlewoman offers a more tactile experience compared to the instantly disposable images flashing on the screen.

The producers are able to use the spatial relationship between the words and images to shape meaning - something that is lost on smaller viewports, such as mobile devices. Readers can also spend time enjoying the weight, texture, and warmth of the pages. The internet seems like an empty and unfulfilling experience in comparison.

Fashion is an important aspect of self-expression, but the focus on inspirational women can also help the reader construct their personal identity. There is also an appeal to our need for personal relationships in the magazine's "unique" events and network of like-minded readers. By subscribing to The Gentlewoman Club and newsletter, we will feel a strong sense of belonging to the magazine's community.

Essay Questions

1. "Independent magazines need to subvert the conventions of mainstream products to appeal to their niche audience." To what extent do you agree with this statement?

2. In his analysis of the cultural industries, David Hesmondhalgh argues companies prefer to control the production and distribution of their media texts to minimise the financial risks. With reference to The Gentlewoman, how valid do you find this argument?

3. Hall's theory of encoding and decoding argues producers and audiences needed to have a shared understanding of the signs used in the construction of media texts for the communication to be successful. How valid is Hall's theory in explaining the relationship between the producer and user of independent magazines?

4. To what extent do magazines construct narratives about character and lifestyle to attract their target audience?

5. Evaluate the usefulness of Judith Butler's theories about gender performativity in understanding the independent magazine The Gentlewoman.

6. Explain how intersection of race, gender and class influences your interpretation of The Gentlewoman magazine.

7. To what extent can structuralism help explain the success of The Gentlewoman magazine?

8. Media products are shaped by the economic and political contexts in which they are created. To what extent does an analysis of The Gentlewoman support this view?

9. Independent magazines often challenge the social and cultural contexts in which they are created. To what extent does an analysis The Gentlewoman support this view?

10. Print magazines have little appeal to audiences who consume digital media. To what extent do you agree with this statement?

11. To what extent do publishers target a global audience through the codes and conventions of magazines?

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The Gentlewoman has been appealing to its target audience of "modern women of style and purpose" since its launch in 2010. With a distinctive editorial voice, engaging interviews, long-form profiles of inspirational women, and candid fashion photography, the magazine claims to be "consistently one of the best performing publications on newsstands today".

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A fabulous magazine for modern women of style and purpose.

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A Level Media - The Gentlewoman - Representation

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A Level Media - The Gentlewoman - Industry

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A Level Media - The Gentlewoman - Media Language

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A Level Media - The Gentlewoman - Audience

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A Level Media - GQ Magazine - Media Language

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A Level Media - GQ Magazine - Representation

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Introduction

GQ claims to be "the flagship of men's fashion and style" with a "forward-looking, progressive and cutting-edge" approach to making men "look sharper and live smarter". The lifestyle magazine is an influential mix of award-winning writing and photography aimed at image-conscious young men who are interested in fashion, culture, entertainment, sport, and relationships.

The magazine continues to evolve with an online version at gq.com, a strong social media presence, unique video programming, and tent-pole events, including the iconic British GQ Men of Year Awards which reaches a global audience.

With close analysis of the front cover and a feature from the March 2022 issue, we are going to explore how GQ appeals to the audience and reflects our shifting expectations of masculinity. We will also consider the magazine's function as a form of advertising and issues regarding media ownership.

Semiotic Analysis of GQ Magazine

The conventions of magazine covers are immediately apparent on this issue of GQ. First, the dominant signifier is a celebrity who has the star power to attract the interest of the audience intrigued by his glamorous lifestyle. The actor is known for his smouldering good looks, charm, and his high-profile roles in popular films, such as Edward Cullen in the Twilight franchise and the eponymous hero in .

Notice how the masthead appears behind the actor and the headline is in front of his body. This is another convention of magazine covers. By layering the elements in this way, the designers are trying to imitate a three-dimensional space and ensure the magazine pops out on the shelves.

Commissioned by the publishers in 2000 and developed by Tobias Frere-Jones, the "geometric" design and bold lettering of the title reinforce the brand's confidence and modern style.

Coverlines reassure the reader the magazine is worth purchasing by highlighting the main features, articles, interviews, and exclusive content. The three coverlines on this issue draw attention an iconic fashion designer, an upcoming English actor, and one of the most famous directors in Hollywood cinema.

It is worth noting the reference to the Jonathan Bailey interview is on the British edition of the magazine - the coverline for the American audience is "The 50 Holy Grails of Modern Menswear". The publishers simply adapted the content to appeal to the different markets.

Finally, the layout is easy to navigate with a clear hierarchy of information. There is no doubt the designers have communicated the magazine's brand and content effectively to its target audience.

Genre

In his analysis of popular cinema, Steve Neale defined genre as the "specific variations of the interplay of codes". This definition also works very well for magazines. For instance, the front covers usually repeat the pattern of presentational devices outlined in the previous section.

Inside, readers will expect the fashion magazine to have content devoted to different types of clothing and accessories. Alongside the interview with Jonathan Bailey, the actor poses in some stylish and expensive outfits. If you wanted to recreate the following look, the Louis Vuitton jacket and trousers cost over £3,000. The Hermès belt was available for £850.

The story is written from the perspective of the interviewer, Douglas Greenwood, who arranged his conversation with the actor in Hyde Park into a coherent narrative. We learn some details about Bailey's personal life and his acting career - his thoughts on his "avoidant and toxic" protagonist in Bridgerton are useful if you are analysing the representation of masculinity. In terms of genre, this narrative style is typical of longer form magazine interviews.

The interplay between the arrangement of text into columns and the high-quality photography is another a key feature of the format.

A Structuralist Approach

Rather than simply being determined by the intentions of individual creators, structuralists argue media messages are part of a larger system of social relationships and cultural values. If we analyse the codes and conventions of magazines, we should be able to develop our understanding of these deeper influences behind the text.

For example, fashion magazines always promote the latest trends in the fashion industry, providing narratives which can influence the clothes we buy in the shops. Jonathan Bailey is wearing his expensive outfits in carefully staged settings, encoding a powerful sense of fantasy and aspiration that will appeal to readers with plenty of money in their designer wallets. However, GQ is dependent on the luxury fashion houses for their support and financial sustainability, so they might prioritise certain designers over others to maintain positive relationships with their advertisers.

You also need to consider how Bailey provides his depth and personality to the designer clothes in exchange for publicity for his own work, especially the second season of Bridgerton. The producers obviously believe readers are more likely to connect with the opinion leader compared to an unknown model because we are already familiar with his rakish identity in the television series. This is another reason why structuralists believe we cannot fully appreciate the meaning of media text until we locate the product in its wider context.

Of course, Bailey's poses are effortlessly cool which also reinforces the traditional ideal of beauty.

The Constructionist Theory of Representation

Stuart Hall's work on representation focused on the way meanings are not inherent in language or images, but is constructed through a complex process of selecting, organising, and interpreting information. Emphasising the role of ideology in this process of representation, Hall argued dominant cultural values and beliefs are often naturalised and taken for granted, so we need to resist messages which are hurtful and damaging, especially towards minority and marginalised groups.

Do we just assume Robert Pattinson is a brutish thug because he has a bruised face, spiky hair and wears a heavy chain around his neck? Or that Jonathan Bailey is a suave and sophisticated man ready to make his mark on the world because of his tailored clothes? Perhaps our interpretation of both men depends on our attitudes towards social class.

GQ and Masculinity

In her analysis of feminist discourse, Liesbet van Zoonen (1996) noted masculinity was often defined as individualistic, ruthless, and combative. This gender stereotype was repeated so much in the media it seemed "natural". However, she also argued gender was a construct and roles will depend on the cultural and historical context.

Perhaps GQ's focus on male beauty and grooming routines challenges the traditional stereotypes of masculinity. David Gauntlett (2008) certainly believed there was a fluidity of identity when it came to representations of masculinity in the media, including men's magazines. GQ seems to support his opinion. However, the media theorist also recognised the editors found "excuses to photograph actresses and models in little clothing", epitomised by Jessica Biel on the cover of the July 2007 issue, and the magazine appealed to "a sense of male specialness with expensive cars, meals, hotels, shoes, grooming products, suits and property".

If GQ is ideologically dissident in its assumptions about masculinity, it is limited to what the publisher thinks will be accepted by its target audience.

Gender and Performativity

Fashion and beauty were traditionally encoded in the media as feminine, so advertisers had to find ways to make male audiences interested in grooming products. For example, in 1967, the agency behind the Score Hair Cream appealed to the male gaze - buy the product to conquer the glamorous girls. There is a clear binary opposition between the rugged and adventurous man compared to the passive women who hoist him up on the litter.

Judith Butler (1990) described gender as "stylized repetition of acts". The representation of masculinity and femininity in the Score advertisement is another performance which strengthens the dominant ideology. With its global reach, GQ plays a significant part in this performativity.

Although Edward Pattinson seems unconcerned with his rough appearance on the cover, he is raising questions about common beauty standards and his role as a teenage heartthrob. Jonathan Bailey might be a charming womaniser in Bridgerton, but the actor is content to discuss his homosexuality, saying, "I'd much prefer to hold my boyfriend's hand in public or be able to put my own face picture on Tinder and not be so concerned about that, than get a part." The interviewer concludes Bailey is a "sex symbol to many men and women".

Rather than sparking any gender trouble, the representation of Bailey offers a broader vision of masculinity beyond the old heteronormative values. GQ wants to position itself as part of this evolution of masculinity. You should read Wikipedia's entry on metrosexuality for more information on the representation of masculinity in GQ magazine and other media texts.

GQ and the Magazine Industry

GQ is published by Condé Nast - a mass media company with a global reach. Founded in 1909, they now own some of "the world's most iconic brands", including Glamour, Vanity Fair, The New Yorker, and Vogue. You can read our analysis of Teen Vogue to explore how they target a younger demographic with their digital output.

Condé Nast aims to "entertain, surprise, and empower". Of course, David Hesmondhalgh (2018) emphasises companies in the cultural industries are driven by profit. Magazines are expensive to produce so mergers are inevitable as the publishers continue to lower their costs and maximise revenue.

In fact, Condé Nast had already been acquired by Advance Publications in 1959 before they took control of GQ in 1979. After a century of investment and acquisitions, Advance's portfolio also includes shares in Reddit and the media conglomerate Warner Bros. Discovery.

Curran and Seaton (2013) noted this concentration of power in news and information markets has always been a feature of the industry. They are concerned this pattern of ownership enables a few wealthy individuals and families, such as the Newhouse family, to distort the media landscape with their incredible political and economic influence. Another good example of a powerful media family are the Harmsworths who control DMGT and publish The Daily Mail.

However, some critics argue the media moguls do not stifle creativity because they can spread the financial risk and enable producers to develop texts which will satisfy different audiences. This is particularly important with the increasingly intense competition for advertising revenue as more and more consumers get their news and information from online sources.

According to the Audit Bureau of Circulations, the average circulation per issue in the UK was 89,072 in 2021 - down from 110,063 in 2018. Without the efficiencies which come from the larger publishing group, GQ might struggle to reach the shelves in your local retailer.

How Does GQ Make Money?

As you can see from the circulation analysis, GQ generates some revenue through single-copy sales and subscriptions. However, the publishers make the magazine available for free because they rely heavily on advertising for revenue, selling space to a wide range of companies eager to target a large and engaged readership.

If you want to raise awareness of your fashion label or grooming brand, an advertisement on the back cover of the magazine costs over £24,000. A double page spread will set you back around £40,000.

GQ's website also has plenty of room for Google Ads. Scroll down a page about motoring and you will probably see ads for cars loading between the paragraphs and in the sidebar. However, if a company wants to work directly with the magazine, a billboard digital ad costs over £44 CPM (cost per mille). This is the amount the advertising agency pays GQ per one thousand visitors who see the advertisement.

Another important revenue stream is affiliate marketing. The editors select lots of products to review. When you click the retail link and buy something, such as a new pair of shoes or an electric shaver, the magazine will earn a commission.

Finally, GQ also collaborates with retailers and manufacturers to create advertising features which are designed and presented in the magazine's house style. This advertorial for an anti-ageing product is a good example of this type of partnership. Native articles cost at least £20,000.

Since GQ receives some sort of payment from a brand or retailer for the advertorials, the publisher is required to identify the posts as sponsored. This regulation is overseen by the Advertising Standards Authority who applies its codes across all media to protect consumers from deceptive marketing and help us recognise what is and what isn't advertising.

Are editorial decisions influenced by the dependence on advertising revenue to offset the costs of producing and distributing the magazine? Is the publisher really acting in the best interests of its audience? Or are the readers actually the product being sold by advertiser-supported media?

GQ's Target Audience

According to GQ's media pack, the magazine's UK audience has a substantial average household income of £138k and, on average, spends £7.7k on fashion and £1.2k on beauty each year. It is no surprise 61% of its readers are classified as ABC1 with junior to higher managerial and professional positions because this demographic tends to have higher disposable incomes.

If you wanted a psychographic label for the target audience, you could describe GQ readers as "activators" from the UK's Consumer Groups because they have a strong sense of personal identity and are at the forefront of consumer activity. In the cross-cultural consumer categorisation, better known as the 4Cs, the "aspirer" group describes the target audience effectively - materialistic and fashion-conscious with a core need in life for status.

GQ uses the data about its primary audience to demonstrate the magazine isa viable option for advertisers looking to target affluent men interested in travel, technology, grooming, fitness, and fashion.

The Active Audience

Instead of being passive consumers of the media, the Uses and Gratifications Theory proposes audiences are actively engaged in a process of selecting products to satisfy our personal needs and ambitions. According to this model, readers are motivated to purchase GQ magazine to keep up to date about current fashion trends and significant cultural events so they can reinforce their personal identity. The articles might also provide a welcome distraction from their daily lives.

Readers will also interpret the magazine's content according to their own frameworks of knowledge. Some people will accept the preferred reading and appreciate the "unparalleled coverage of style, culture, and beyond". Others might take a negotiated position, such as the ignoring the publisher's liberal stance on many political issues to focus more on the sartorial choices of the politicians. Of course, you might see the £850 price tag for a leather belt and completely reject the magazine's consumerist message. Stuart Hall called this theoretical decoding position the oppositional reading.

Essay Questions

1. To what extent does the representation of gender in magazines embody the dominant values and ideologies in society?

2. Explain how the magazine's emphasis on male beauty and grooming challenges some conventions of traditional stereotypes of masculinity.

3. "GQ is a magazine for posh blokes". Evaluate the usefulness of bell hooks' concept of intersectionality in understanding the audience's use of the Close Study Product GQ.

4. Albert Bandura suggests audiences develop behaviours and attitudes through modelling by the media. Explore this idea in relation to the Close Study Product GQ.

5. Explore how magazines use genre to attract audiences. You should refer to the Close Study Product to support your answer.

6. To what extent are editorial decisions influenced by the magazine's relationship with advertisers?

7. How useful are Tzvetan Todorov's concepts of equilibrium and repair in understanding the narratives in this magazine?

8. Explore how GQ continues to engage audiences despite competition from new digital technologies.

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GQ claims to be "the flagship of men's fashion and style" with a "forward-looking, progressive and cutting-edge" approach to making men "look sharper and live smarter". The lifestyle magazine is an influential mix of award-winning writing and photography aimed at image-conscious young men who are interested in fashion, culture, entertainment, sport, and relationships.

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For more than 50 years, GQ has been the premier men’s magazine, providing definitive coverage of style, culture, politics and more. In that tradition, GQ’s video channel covers every part of a man’s life, from entertainment and sports to fashion and grooming advice. Welcome to the modern man’s guide to style advice, dating tips, celebrity videos, music, sports and more.

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Sophie Cockett, Jessie Atkinson, Heidi Quill and Daphne Bugler

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Robert Leedham, Owen Gough and Esat Dedezade

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British GQ - Men's Style & Fashion, Grooming, Culture, Watches and Fitness

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Men's fashion & style brought to you by industry experts at British GQ. GQ magazine provides entertainment, sport and culture news, reviews and comment.

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The Sims: FreePlay - Gameplay Walkthrough Part 1 (iOS, Android)

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A-Level Media - SIMS Freeplay - Industry

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A-Level Media - SIMS Freeplay - Audience

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A-Level Media - SIMS Freeplay - Representation

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Simsfreeplay March Update Official Trailer New Enhanced Lighting | Trailer of March 2025 Update

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A Level Media - Horizon Forbidden West - Representation

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A Level Media - Horizon Forbidden West - Audience

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A Level Media - Horizon Forbidden West - Industry

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A Level Media - Horizon Forbidden West - Media Language

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Horizon Forbidden West (Video Game 2022) ⭐ 8.9 | Action, Adventure, Sci-Fi

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Sony Interactive Entertainment

Why you should play Horizon Forbidden West
"The follow-up to Guerrilla's break-out sci-fiction hit Horizon Zero Dawn, Horizon Forbidden West expands upon nearly every facet of the original's winning formula, delivering a spectacular open-world adventure that marries breathtaking visuals, a high-concept narrative, and intense, varied combat. Brought to life with an eclectic cast of characters and outstanding technical artistry, Horizon Forbidden West shows the power of the gaming medium to deliver outstanding entertainment, emotive storytelling and compelling artistic vision." - PlayStation.com Editorial Team

Platform:

PS4, PS5

Release:

18/2/2022

Publisher:

Sony Interactive Entertainment Europe

Genre:

PS5 Voice:

Arabic, English, French (France), German, Italian, Polish, Portuguese (Portugal), Russian, Spanish

PS5 Screen Languages:

Arabic, Chinese (Simplified), Chinese (Traditional), Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French (France), German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese (Brazil), Portuguese (Portugal), Russian, Spanish, Spanish (Mexico), Swedish, Turkish

PS4 Voice:

Arabic, English, French (France), German, Italian, Polish, Portuguese (Portugal), Russian, Spanish

PS4 Screen Languages:

Arabic, Chinese (Simplified), Chinese (Traditional), Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French (France), German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese (Brazil), Portuguese (Portugal), Russian, Spanish, Spanish (Mexico), Swedish, Thai, Turkish

To play this game on PS5, your system may need to be updated to the latest system software. Although this game is playable on PS5, some features available on PS4 may be absent. See PlayStation.com/bc for more details.

Download of this product is subject to the PlayStation Network Terms of Service and our Software Usage Terms plus any specific additional conditions applying to this product. If you do not wish to accept these terms, do not download this product. See Terms of Service for more important information.

You can download and play this content on the main PS5 console associated with your account (through the "Console Sharing and Offline Play" setting) and on any other PS5 consoles when you login with your same account.

See Health Warnings for important health information before using this product.

Library programs ©Sony Interactive Entertainment Inc. exclusively licensed to Sony Interactive Entertainment Europe. Software Usage Terms apply, See eu.playstation.com/legal for full usage rights.

Horizon Forbidden West™ ©2022 Sony Interactive Entertainment Europe. Published by Sony Interactive Entertainment Europe Ltd. Developed by Guerrilla. "Horizon Forbidden West" is a trademark of Sony Interactive Entertainment Europe. All rights reserved.

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Horizon Forbidden West - Exclusive PS4 & PS5 Games | PlayStation

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Get Horizon Forbidden West on PS4 and PS5. See the latest news, trailers, screenshots and more. Join Aloy as she braves the Forbidden West, a majestic but dangerous frontier that conceals mysterious new threats.

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Horizon Forbidden West - Story Trailer | PS5, PS4

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Horizon Forbidden West - State of Play Gameplay Reveal | PS5

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Horizon Forbidden West - Announcement Trailer | PS5

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The Voice - Britain’s favourite Black newspaper - Google Arts & Culture

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As The Voice newspaper approaches its 40th anniversary, let us take a peek into its rich archives to celebrate the personal achievements of Black British personalities

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The Voice Newspaper brings you video covering news, sports, entertainment, business, events and a whole lot more ... Download our app today and Follow us across all of our social networks…

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Taylor Swift | Music Artist, Actress, Composer

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Known for: Taylor Swift: The Eras Tour, Taylor Swift: Bad Blood, The Lorax

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Watch Miss Americana | Netflix Official Site

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In this revealing documentary, Taylor Swift embraces her role as a songwriter and performer — and as a woman harnessing the full power of her voice.

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MISS AMERICANA | Official Trailer | Netflix

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GCSE & A Level Media - Taylor Swift Online Media - Representation

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GCSE & A Level Media - Taylor Swift Online Media - Audience

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Watch Lupin - Part 1 with a subscription on Netflix.

Critics Consensus

Omar Sy effortlessly hits every mark in Lupin, an engrossing espionage thriller that lives up to its source material and then some.

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Lupin: Season 1 Trailer (French) Lupin: Season 1 Trailer (French) 2:21 Lupin: Season 1 Trailer Lupin: Season 1 Trailer 2:21 Lupin: Season 1 Teaser Lupin: Season 1 Teaser 1:01 View more videos

Lupin Lupin Lupin View more photos

Creator

George Kay, Francois Uzan

Executive Producer

Martin Jaubert

Screenwriter

George Kay, Maurice Leblanc, Francois Uzan

Genre

Mystery & Thriller, Action, Adventure

Original Language

French (France)

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A retelling of the classic French story about Arsène Lupin, the world-famous gentleman thief and master of disguise.

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Inspired by the adventures of Arsène Lupin, gentleman thief Assane Diop sets out to avenge his father for an injustice inflicted by a wealthy family. Watch trailers & learn more.

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Go behind the scenes of The Responder Series 2 with writer Tony Schumacher | BAFTA

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The Responder: Season 1 - Official Trailer (2021) Martin Freeman, CChristine Tremarco

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Under pressure, fraying at the edges. In relentless night-time Liverpool, copper Chris is paired with a rookie. Will they save or destroy each other? Starring Martin Freeman.

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The Responder: Season 1 | Rotten Tomatoes

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Discover reviews, ratings, and trailers for The Responder: Season 1 on Rotten Tomatoes. Stay updated with critic and audience scores today!

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The Responder (TV Series 2022–2024) ⭐ 7.4 | Crime, Drama, Thriller