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Culture strongly shapes what we eat because it determines the traditional foods passed down from generation to generation. For example, in Greece and Turkey, olive oil, vegetables, and legumes are staples because of the Mediterranean tradition. In Slovakia, people often eat more potatoes, dairy, and meats like pork, which come from Central European food culture. These food traditions influence what families cook at home, what is served at school, and even what we consider ‘comfort food.’

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Cultural identity is closely linked to food. People often feel proud of their national dishes and want to keep cooking them. In international school projects, we learn about each other’s food traditions and how they reflect local geography and values.

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Social media can promote both positive and negative dietary behaviors. While it can encourage healthy eating through educational content and recipe sharing, it can also contribute to unrealistic body standards, disordered eating or misinformation about nutrition.

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Tradition plays a huge role in the types of meals we eat during holidays and celebrations. In Greece, dishes like lamb or tsoureki are served during Easter. In Slovakia, traditional Christmas meals include fish and cabbage soup. In Turkey, desserts like baklava are popular during Eid.

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Religious practices affect dietary choices in many ways. In Orthodox Christianity, which is common in Greece and parts of Slovakia, there are specific fasting periods (like Lent) where meat and dairy are avoided. In Islam, followed in Turkey, there are dietary rules such as avoiding pork and fasting during Ramadan. These religious rules influence people’s awareness of food and often bring families together through special meals or customs.

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Family habits that come from culture or religion influence our everyday food choices. If someone grows up in a household where every meal includes soup or a salad before the main course, they are likely to continue that habit. These routines are often rooted in cultural ideas about balance, nutrition, and hospitality.

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Religious beliefs may lead people to avoid certain foods permanently. Some students said their families never eat pork or alcohol due to their faith, while others avoid certain foods on specific days. This teaches discipline and respect for tradition. Even students who don’t follow religious practices strictly often grow up with those habits and continue them out of family respect or familiarity.

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Culture also affects how people think about food waste and sharing. In many homes, especially in rural Greece, Slovakia, or Turkey, people are taught to use leftovers, grow herbs, and value homemade food. These attitudes come from past generations who lived more sustainably, and they affect how we behave today even with modern food options available.

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Some traditions promote healthy eating without people realizing it. For example, in the Mediterranean diet, which is part of Greek and Turkish culture, meals include lots of vegetables, legumes, fruits, and olive oil. These habits are based on history and geography, but they also support good health. In contrast, modernization and global fast food trends sometimes create conflict between traditional and modern eating.

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Webinar: Understanding how and why people make food choices in LMIC

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Assessing gender differences in food preferences and physical activity: a population-based survey

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Food preferences are influenced by various factors, such as culture, age, and gender. The relationship between food tastes, meal preferences, and eating habits has been studied extensively in recent years; however, research on gender differences in…

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Cultural and religious dietary behaviors create a sense of belonging and identity. Whether it’s eating koulouri in Thessaloniki, bryndzove halusky in Slovakia or simit in Istanbul, these foods connect people to their roots.

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My family has the biggest influence on what I eat. Since I was a child, my parents decided what to cook, and I got used to those meals. Now, even if I have access to other food, I still prefer homemade dishes like lentil soup or oven-baked vegetables. I also learned about the importance of balanced meals and portion size from my mother.

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Friends have a strong impact, especially when we eat outside. If all my friends order fast food or soft drinks, I usually follow. It’s hard to be the one who chooses something “healthier” when the group prefers something else. Also, if they bring snacks or energy drinks to school, I’m more likely to try them, even if I don’t usually eat them at home.

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Social media influences me more than I thought. I follow a few fitness influencers and food bloggers who post recipes or “what I eat in a day” videos. Sometimes I try to copy their meals or avoid certain foods they label as ‘bad.’ It can be motivating, but sometimes it also creates pressure to eat in a specific way.

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ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM), Hyderabad, India

Purpose: To determine the factors influencing the dietary habits of the varied groups among adults in India.

Design/approach: Data on food habits such as choice of diet, preference toward meat, spicy food, sugar/calorie etc., were collected from the participants (from several higher education institutions) of different training programmes and events organised at ICAR-NAARM, Hyderabad and its students of Post Graduate Diploma in Agribusiness Management.

Findings: Results of the study indicated that the food choice of the respondents is highly influenced by their region, age and gender. Most of the respondents preferred vegetarian food with increasing age. We also noticed that as age of the respondents increased, their preference toward simple & plain food (with less oil/spice) also increased. From the present investigation, it is recommended that the customized food menu should be prepared in every food serving institution based on the region, age and gender of the consumer.

Novelty: Analysis of dietary patterns can be helpful for doctors, dieticians, food policy-making, restaurateurs, youth hostels, food organisations, mega kitchens etc. that would also contribute to responsible food consumption.

1. Introduction

Over the past few decades, people's food preferences and dietary habits have shifted dramatically. People decide what to eat based on various criteria, scientifically defined as a "Diet." The Analysis of dietary habits gives a more comprehensive impression of the food consumption habits within a population ( 1). Dietary pattern analysis, which summarises the entire diet, the foods, food categories, and nutrients contained, their combination and diversity, and the frequency and amount with which they are routinely ingested, has therefore been the focus of modern nutritional epidemiology investigations ( 2). For many individuals, the standard description of a food's "taste" includes the chemical senses of style and olfaction (capacity of smelling) on which a person or group lives ( 3).

It is well known that people from different part of the country have different tastes for food. One of the explanations for various food preferences is that we have different experiences with food as we get older. Except for the formerly mentioned natural factors, most of our food preferences are learned through gests, and there are numerous ways of learning regarding food ( 4). It has been shown that with at first unlikeable food, intermittent exposure to new foods may increase feeling for that individual food ( 5). It is also systematically examined how different sugar statement forms influenced people's perceptions of food categories (i.e., yoghurts, ice creams, cookies, and breakfast cereals) ( 6).

There is a growing interest in the analysis of dietary patterns of people for sustainable environmental development as the food habits of any individual is intrinsically connected to the human-food-environment chain. Good dietary habits may lead to a healthier life and longevity. Otherwise, it leads to unnecessary fat accumulation and severe health issues that negatively impact human health. A study on consent feeding revealed that people with high body fat percentages are highly vulnerable to impulsive dietary choices when compared with people with low body fat percentage people. This also increases the risk of obesity over time ( 7). Therefore, interventions in food taste regulations could help alter peoples' evaluating of their food preferences, ultimately reducing the consumption of unhealthy foods ( 8). Nevertheless, following or adopting plant-based food with minimum consumption of meat products would also help contribute to environmental security through climate mitigation. Minimizing meat consumption and increasing healthy foods like vegetables and seafood helps reduce the Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) emission from the food production process besides meeting people's health needs ( 9). The present work realises its significance because Indian food processing industries account for 32% of the country's food market ( 10). Contrary to this belief, we must realise that 71% of the total Indian population self-identifies as non-vegetarian, though 39% eat non-veg occasionally, and 26% eat at least once a week ( 11). The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) ( 12) report brings out some fantastic facts: (i) The end consumer share of food waste share is about 61%, (ii) about 8-10% of GHGs emissions are associated with food that is not consumed.

Higher education institutions and academies conduct various learning programs and trainings for which participants from different parts of the country are being invited. During the program, different types of food is being served to the participants based on the availability of ingredients in local market. Most of the times, many participants may not like food which is served during their stay at program venues. As a result, there will be huge wastage of food due to the dietary pattern of the participants as their region, age, gender etc. are highly influences the food consumption patterns. Day by day, food wastage reduction is becoming serious challenge for the administrators of the higher educational institutions. Changes in the food consumption pattern and planning the food menu based on the people's preferences would significantly help in minimizing the food wastage. Nevertheless, food wastage is becoming a serious issue in the world. About 1.3 billion tonnes of food waste is produced yearly, approximately 1/3rd of global food production ( 13). As per the data of FAOSTAT, there is about 20.7% per capita food loss ( Figure 1) in Central and South Asia. Therefore, United Nations' sustainable development goal (SDG) 12.3 has set a target to halve the per capita global food waste and reduce food losses by 2030 ( 14). India is also holding many mega kitchens (Ex: Dharmasthala in Karnataka; Shirdi in Maharashtra; Golden Temple in Amritsar; Jagannath Temple in Puri; Kalinga Institute Kitchen Bhubaneswar) which serves the food for large number of people daily and also generates food wastage in large amount. Thus, it is the need of the hour to take appropriate actions toward reducing food wastage. Hence, changing our mindset on food preferences and reducing food waste plays a vital role in food sustainability.

We hypothesized that knowing the preference concerning age, gender, and regional diversity will help develop the most accepted food recipes, reduce food wastage, and improve the nutritional regime. Therefore, the present investigation aimed to determine the factors that impact the dietary habits of the varied groups among the Indian population.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Dietary habits in India, vis-à-vis average around the world

There are some similarities and variations between the diets of Indians when compared with that of the world ( Figure 2). One standout observation is that about a quarter of the Indian and world diet comprises animal produce. Similarly, almost 40% of the diets of the Indians and also the world altogether met from processed foods. Indians eat almost thrice (11%) of nuts and seeds, and the world population's diet solely contains a stripped-down four-dimensional of nuts and seeds. Moreover, 23% of a typical Indian diet comprises vegetables and fruits, 6% less than the average global diet. Based on this assumption, we have conceptualized a framework of customized food planning ( Figure 3) for responsible food consumption by analyzing the food preferences and dietary patterns.

2.2. Preparation of questionnaire and data collection

The data used in this study was collected through a structured questionnaire ( Figure 4) from the Post Graduate Diploma in Agri Business Management (PGD-ABM) students and participants of different training programmes and events during 2018-2020 organised at ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM), Hyderabad, India, which is an organisation under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Govt. of India. The information related to the participants'/respondents' food habits, such as their choice of diet, choice of meat, likeness toward spices, choice of beverages, garlic & ginger, sugar etc., was collected. In addition, respondents' personal information, such as age, gender and their residing region, was also collected. All the variables under the study are categorical except age. The data was collected from 500 participants. The customised meals were served to the participants after administering the questionnaire and analysing the collected data. The food planning chart based on the food choice is depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 4. (A) Questionnaire on Food and Nutrition Survey Schedule. (B) Questionnaire portal.

2.3. Statistical analysis

The influence of factors like age, gender and region of residence on food habits was studied using different appropriate statistical techniques. Since the variables are categorical, multinomial logistic regression was used to see the effect of these personal factors on dietary habits. Multinomial logistic regression is an extension of binary logistic regression, which helps predict when the dependent variable has three or more categories. The independent variables may be continuous or dichotomous (i.e., binary). Like binary logistic regression, multinomial logistic regression assesses the likelihood of categorical membership using maximum likelihood estimation ( 15). Out of 500 observations, 70% of the data was used for model building, and the remaining 30% was used for validating the developed model. Since there were seven predictor variables, each with k different number of classes, multinomial logistic regression equations were developed for each variable and k-1 class. The personal variables such as gender, age and region of residence were considered predictor/independent variables, and the variables representing the dietary habits were considered response/dependent variables. The log odds values obtained from the multinomial logistic regression are presented in Table 2. A log odd values greater than zero indicates a positive association between the predictor variable and the outcome category, while a log odd less than zero indicates a negative association. The significance of the predictor variables is established by checking whether the log odds' confidence interval includes zero. The accuracy percentage of the different multinomial logistic regression models built for training and validating data is presented in Table 3. The normalised chi-square test for association using Monte Carlo simulation of p-values was used to check for any association between response variables.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Basic information about participants

Five hundred participants who responded to this study include students of Post Graduate Diploma in Agribusiness Management (PGD-ABM) of NAARM, probationary scientists and faculty from various higher education institutes in India. The respondents were aged between 19 and 59 years, with an average age of 30. About 60% of the respondents were males. The respondents from north India constituted the highest (about 57%).

3.2. Dietary behaviour and personal factors

Though the data was collected from 500 respondents, subjects with missing elements were ignored to avoid the problems of missing values. Accordingly, 14 records were expelled from the data, and the remaining 486 records were used for further statistical analysis. The different variables related to dietary behaviour and personal factors considered in the study are given in Table 1. The distribution of subjects based on the study variables is also given, along with whether they are used as a predictor or response variables in the multivariate logistic regression analysis. Regarding food likeliness, respondents liked both south and north Indian dishes. Most of the respondents preferred "less oily and less spicy" food, whereas the majority preferred dishes that included garlic and onion. Fifty per cent of the respondents identified themselves as preferring both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food. Among non-vegetarians, chicken was preferred by more respondents, followed by fish and mutton. Among the beverages, tea was preferred by most respondents, followed by lemon tea, coffee and lassi. Most respondents (66%) preferred low sugar in their food. The respondents in this study are well educated and have a good knowledge of food and nutrition that influence the dietary habit of an individual. Indeed, the level of education can influence food consumption patterns during adulthood ( 16).

3.3. Food likeness

The multinomial logistic regression results presented in Table 2 show that the food likeness is influenced by age and the region of residence. As the age increases, it is observed that the preference changes from their regional dishes toward both. In fact, from an early age itself, taste and familiarity influence food preference. However, the preferences for tasty foods develop through experiences and are highly influenced by an individual's attitude, beliefs and expectations ( 17). Regionality is also found to have a significant influence on food likeness. Log odds of likeness toward north Indian food (with reference class "both") decreases by 2.54 if the respondent belongs to the southern region. Food intake habits and diet patterns will be significantly influenced by one's culture and lifestyle ( 18, 19). One's culture can strongly influence their dietary habit because of the peculiarity of different cultures' food and cuisine ( 20). However, likeness toward south Indian food (with reference class "both") increases by 3.13 log odds when the respondents belong to the southern region. This indicated that food choice is highly influenced by regionality. Gender was found not to influence food likeness. However, one of the studies conducted by Soam ( 21) on the organoleptic study of Hyderabadi Haleem (a type of food that made by cooking meat, wheat, barley or lentil in liquid for a long time) revealed that gender, regional and product familiarity influenced the acceptability of Haleem.

3.4. Choice of spice

The choice of spice in food was found to be influenced by regionality. For example, if the respondents belonged to south India, the preference toward "simple & plain" food or "less oily and spicy" food (with reference class "oily & spicy") increased by 2.21 and 1.62 log odds, respectively. Also, as the age of the respondents increased, their preference toward simple & plain food (with reference class "oily & spicy") significantly increased by 0.06 log odds. In one of the studies, it is observed that youngsters are more likely to eat spicy food ( 22).

3.5. Level of sugar

The level of sugar was found to be influenced by the age of the respondents. As the age increased by one year, log odds of the preference toward no sugar (with reference class low calorie) increased by 0.12. Similar findings were reported by many other authors ( 23- 25) and stated that high intake of free sugar is associated with poor diet, obesity and risk of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes and heart disease. Hence, it is advised that free sugar consumption should be reduced. Furthermore, people tend to avoid high-calorie foods which are high in sugar and salt as they age. For instance, one study showed that the elderly tend to restrict fast and nutrient-dense foods and adopt high-fibre and nutritious foods like fruits, vegetables and grains ( 26). Regionality was found to have no significant influence on the level of sugar.

3.6. With or without onion/garlic

Any of the determinant variables did not influence preference toward food with or without onion/garlic. This could be because many Indian traditions and Ayurveda suggest avoiding garlic and ginger as age increases. This is because it is believed that food, including garlic, meat, liquor and spices, brings out human behaviour's lowest, crass qualities. In Indian culture, these items are considered Tamasika foods ( 27). However, recent research has demonstrated the benefits of garlic/onion and its extracts in various applications. This research suggested that the medicinal benefits of garlic and onions for several disorders may be returning. Garlic and onions include a variety of chemicals that are believed to lower the risk of cardiovascular disease, have anti-tumour and anti-microbial properties, and have benefits for high blood sugar levels ( 28). Therefore, eating garlic and onions should not be avoided.

3.7. Food category

Preference toward vegetarianism or non-vegetarianism was influenced by gender and regionality. If the respondent is male, the eggetarian decreased by 1.02 log odds (with reference class "all"). On the other hand, if the respondent belongs to the south Indian region, log the odds of preference toward pure vegetarian by 1.16 (with reference class "all"). The study conducted by Green et al. ( 29) showed that the intake of numerous food groups varied between studies in various parts of India. Dietary patterns from the east and south were also more likely to be characterised by meat or fish-eating than those from the north and west. They added that vegetarian diets are still typical in India and are associated with lower blood pressure. On the other hand, fruit, dairy products, and snacks were associated in a way that was favourably correlated with hypertension.

3.8. Choice of meat

The choice of meat was influenced by gender, age and regionality. For male respondents, log odds of the preference for mutton increased by 0.84, whereas the preference for vegetarian food decreased by 0.63 (with reference class "chicken"). As the age increased by one year, log odds of the preference toward fish and vegetarian food increased by 0.04 (with reference class "chicken"). This may be because as age increases, the efficiency of Gastro Intestinal System reduces to digest complex food like meat ( 30). Thus, aged respondents preferred vegetarian food and fish. Usually, red meat is rich in protein and filled with dense nutrients, and the gastrointestinal system plays a crucial role in digesting the same. Many studies reported that risk factors for chronic disease have shown that vegetarians have lower serum cholesterol concentrations, lower body mass indices, lower incidence of diabetes and possibly lower blood pressure than comparable non-vegetarians ( 31). Region-wise, log odds of the preference toward vegetarian food decreased by 1.16 if the respondent belonged to the South Indian region (with reference class "chicken"). Similar results were obtained by Green et al. ( 29), who, in their study, separated the models by region, year, age and sex in order to determine whether they showed a relationship with the specific food groups found in Indian dietary patterns. The consumption of many food groups varied across the studies from different regions. Sweets and snacks were more likely to characterise diets in the East and South, whereas fruit, vegetables, rice and pulses were more likely to characterise diets in the north and west. Dietary patterns from the East and South were also more likely to be defined by meat or fish consumption than those from the north and west.

3.9. Choice of beverages

The choice of beverages was found to be influenced by regionality. For respondents belonging to South India, coffee was most preferred. The log odds of preference toward Lassi and Tea decreased by 1.44 and 0.72 log odds (with reference to class "coffee") for the respondents from south India. However, the model seems insufficient, indicating the influence of other factors not captured in the model ( Table 3).

3.10. Association between response variables

The chi-square test was performed to check the association between different predictor variables in the study. The test's null hypothesis is that there is no association between the two variables under consideration. The results of the chi-square test are given in Table 4. The results show a significant association at 1% level of confidence was found between food likeness and choice of spice; food likeness and category; food likeness and choice of beverage; choice of spice and choice of meat; and onion/garlic with category. At a 5% level of confidence, a significant association was observed between the choice of spice and onion/garlic; choice of spice and choice of beverages; onion/garlic and choice of meat; choice of meat and choice of beverage; choice of meat and level of sugar; and choice of beverage and level of sugar. All other variable combinations showed no significant association at 1 and 5% significance levels.

3.11. Contribution to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and sustainable development goal

In this study, it is evident that as age increases, the consumption of meat-based foods decreases, and the preference toward vegetarian food has increased. Additionally, the respondents of higher education institutes were greatly concerned about healthy diets as their age increased. These kinds of healthy diet patterns among people significantly reduce food wastage and contribute to reducing greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions. Therefore, food planning can be done considering the factors influencing food intake, which can help reduce food wastage. Reducing food wastage would directly reduce excess food production (that consumes more energy and releases more GHG to atmosphere), which minimises GHG emissions. In addition, minimizing meat consumption, adjusting the diet structure, and increasing the low carbon healthy foods like vegetables and seafood helps reducing the GHGs emission from the food production process besides meeting people's health needs ( 9). They also revealed in their study that a plant-based diet could significantly reduce total GHG emissions by 41%. Usually, the meat production process releases large amounts of GHGs into the atmosphere. When the demand for meat production increases, the production process will gradually increase that results in emitting enormous concentrations of GHGs. A study conducted by Clune et al. ( 32) revealed that the production of beef per kilogram emits approximately 28.73 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO ₂-eq), which is ten times more than that of rice production. This indicates that meat production releases more GHGs than that of plant production. Therefore, promoting low-carbon life by changing one's diet structure would possibly reduce the GHG emissions that contribute to "SDG-13: Climate Action ". About 8-10% of GHGs are associated with food not being consumed, while target 12.3 of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) aims to reduce food wastage.

The EAT-LANCET commission paper published by Willett et al. ( 33) on healthy diets from sustainable food systems suggested the universally appropriate healthy diet, i.e., inclusion of legumes, nuts, unsaturated oils, whole grains, and fruits in the daily diet. Regarding non-vegetarian preferences, low to moderate seafood and poultry consumption was suggested. The study also addressed strictly lowering the consumption of red meat, processed meat and added sugar. Adopting this dietary plan in the individual's lifestyle would help feed the global population of about 10 billion people a healthy diet within food production boundaries by 2050, besides achieving the SDG and Paris agreement.

3.12. Strengths and weakness of the study

The present study on the analysis of dietary trends is a novel approach to contribute immensely toward food menu planning in higher educational institutions. Indeed, the outcomes from the present investigation would be helpful for doctors, dieticians, food policy-makers, restaurateurs, mega kitchens, youth hostels, food organisations etc. For instance, the Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology of Bhubaneshwar, the world's largest tribal school, provides food to 25,000 students daily. It holds a mega kitchen, serves over 50,000 meals daily, and contributes to SDG #3 & #2 besides mitigating Global Hunger Index (GHI) through food planning. Thus, the present conceptualisation will help mega kitchens achieve the SDGs and GHI through proper food planning considering dietary preferences based on regionality, age and other choices.

However, to further improve the evaluation pattern of dietary-related studies, considering food wastage estimation, large-scale planning and analysis, increased sample size and inclusion of samples from multiple regions are crucial. In the present research, scientific food wastage estimations were not carried out because the customised meals were served after administering the questionnaire and analysing the collected data. As a result, there was no wastage observed.

4. Conclusion

In summary, our investigation revealed that the respondents of higher education institutes had a higher preference for a healthy diet with increasing age. Their preference for different food items was influenced by their regional differences, age, gender and other choices. We noticed that respondents from the south India region preferred simple and healthy food, while the north Indian respondents preferred both the south and north Indian dishes. The present study also reported that most respondents preferred vegetarian food with increasing age. In addition, most respondents preferred low-sugar food, indicating that knowledge of food and nutrition influence the dietary habit of an individual. The study also suggested proper food planning is required for higher educational institutions and mega kitchens where participants and stakeholders are from multiple regions. The present research findings can be helpful for menu planners at different institutes and programmes, including doctors, dieticians and researchers.

Conclusively, our research demonstrated that the food menu should be prepared based on the region, age, and gender of the consumer in any food-serving institution. So that zero-food wastage can be achieved through customised meal serving. In addition, appropriate food planning and management in higher educational institutions would immensely contribute to SDG and GHI, which helps reduce food wastage in India.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

SS performed the conceptualization, methodology, and supervision. SR and RB performed data collection. BY, RB, and RS performed the data curation. BY and RB performed software validation and formal analysis. SR, RB, SS, and BY performed writing-original draft. BY, RB, SR, TD, and BM carried out the literature survey and materials collection. SS, BY, TD, BM, SR, and RB carried out the review and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript and contributed to the study's conception and design.

Funding

The National Agricultural Higher Education Project funded this study.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to Dr. Ch. Srinivasa Rao, Director, NAARM, for the motivation and support during the study. The authors are also thankful to all Co-Principal Investigators of NAHEP Component 2, ICAR-NAARM for their support during the study. Assistance provided during survey from Mrs. Savithri Murali, Technical Officer, NAARM, Ms. Sweety Sharma, Research Associate, NAHEP Component 2, and Dr. Manju Yadav, Research Staff at NAARM, is thankfully acknowledged.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

References

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Frontiers | Factors influencing dietary patterns among the youth from higher educational institutions in India

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PurposeTo determine the factors influencing the dietary habits of the varied groups among adults in India Design/approachData on food habits such as choice o...

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Family plays a fundamental role in shaping dietary behavior from an early age. The types of meals prepared at home, cultural food traditions, and parental attitudes toward nutrition significantly influence children’s eating habits, preferences, and understanding of healthy versus unhealthy food.

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Friends affect food choices through shared meals, social gatherings, and peer behavior. In group settings, individuals often conform to the eating habits of their peers, which can either support healthy behaviors or promote the consumption of processed snacks, fast food or sugary drinks.

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Social media is a powerful force in influencing dietary decisions, especially among adolescents. Platforms like Instagram, TikTok and YouTube expose users to food trends, diet challenges, influencer recommendations and visually appealing meals that can shape food preferences and encourage experimentation.

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Food choices are often shaped by family routines and norms, such as eating dinner together, celebrating with specific traditional dishes or avoiding certain foods due to religious or ethical beliefs. These habits form a framework for long-term eating patterns.

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Peer influence can impact both the quantity and quality of food intake. For example, adolescents may skip meals, follow fad diets, or overconsume certain foods depending on the norms established in their social circles or due to a desire to fit in.

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Combined, family, friends and digital media create a complex social environment that shapes dietary behavior. Understanding these influences is essential in designing effective health education programs that support informed and sustainable food choices.

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People with lower income often choose cheaper foods that are more filling but less nutritious, such as processed snacks or fast food. Healthy options like fresh fruits, fish, or organic products may be too expensive or unavailable, which limits their choices.

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Tradition plays a huge role in the types of meals we eat during holidays and celebrations. In Greece, dishes like lamb or tsoureki are served during Easter. In Slovakia, traditional Christmas meals include fish and cabbage soup. In Turkey, desserts like baklava are popular during Eid. These foods are more than nutrition—they carry cultural meaning, bring back memories, and are shared with family and friends.

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Food prices strongly affect what people buy. When the prices of fruits, vegetables, or olive oil go up, many families reduce how often they buy them. On the other hand, if unhealthy products like sugary drinks are on sale, people might buy them more often just because they are affordable.

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Availability of food differs between urban and rural areas. In cities, there are more supermarkets and options, while in smaller towns or villages, people may have limited access to fresh or diverse foods, especially if they don’t grow their own.

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Economic inflation and rising living costs lead families to prioritize quantity over quality in their meals. This often results in meals high in calories but low in nutrients, which may affect long-term health.

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Limited income can make people rely on seasonal or locally grown foods, which are often cheaper. While this can be good for sustainability, it also means their diet changes depending on what's available at the time.

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People with higher income can afford a wider variety of foods, including special dietary products (like gluten-free or vegan items), high-quality protein sources and imported goods, giving them more freedom to follow specific health or cultural diets.

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School meals and food aid programs can help reduce the effect of low income by providing children with at least one nutritious meal a day. In some countries, these programs are essential for dietary balance.

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Economic challenges can cause stress, leading to emotional eating or irregular meals. People under financial pressure may skip meals, overeat when food is available, or turn to cheaper comfort foods instead of planning balanced meals.

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Health and Social Behaviour: Social, behavioural and other determinants of the choice of diet

Diet choice is a complex area because there are a number of factors that affect the population's and an individual's choice of food. These have been divided into 6 key determinants:

1. Biological determinants such as hunger, appetite, and taste

2. Economic determinants such as cost and income

3. Physical determinants such as access, education, skills and time

4. Social determinants such as class, culture, and social context

5. Psychological determinants such as mood, stress and guilt

6. Attitudes, beliefs and knowledge about food.

1. Biological determinants such as hunger, appetite, and taste Hunger and satiety
Humans need energy and nutrients in order to survive ( see 'Principles of nutrition') and will respond to feelings of hunger and satiety. Different macronutrients have different effects on satiety. For example, fat is the
least satiating, followed by carbohydrates then protein. In addition, low energy density diets have greater satiety than high energy density (e.g. high fat and/or high sugar) diets.
Taste/Palatability
Palatability increases as the pleasure an individual experiences from eating a food increases. The taste, smell, texture and appearance of a food all impact on the palatability of a food. For example, sweet foods have a high sensory appeal and
have higher palatability meaning that the food may be consumed for pleasure rather than as a source of energy and nutrients. It is reported that the higher the palatability of a food, the higher the consumption.

There is some evidence so show that preferences for flavours can be acquired through breast milk as flavours from maternal diets pass into breast milk.
2. Economic determinants such as cost and income Cost and income
The cost of food and the ability of an individual to afford specific foods (related to income) are primary determinants of food choice. Low-income groups are reported to consume unbalanced diets and low intakes of fruit and vegetables. Increasing
the amount of available income for food choices, however, does not necessarily mean that individuals will consume a more balanced and healthy diet. In addition, individuals may resist buying new foods for fear that the food made be wasted as the
family may reject the food.
3. Physical determinants such as access, education, skills and time Accessibility and availability
Accessibility to shops and the availability of foods within shops influence food choice. This is associated with transport links and geographical locations. For example, 'food deserts' are areas of resistance with few or no shopping
facilities. Improving access does not necessarily mean that individuals will change their food choice.
Education and knowledge, and skills
Individuals that are educated and knowledgeable about 'healthy eating' are more likely to opt for healthy dietary choices. This, however, depends on whether the individual is able to apply their knowledge. Educating the population requires
accurate and consistent messages. Education on how to increase fruit and vegetable consumption in an affordable way such that no further expense, in money or effort, is incurred may be beneficial for influencing food choices. In addition, a lack of
knowledge and the loss of cooking skills can also inhibit buying and preparing meals from basic ingredients.
Time constraints
Time constraints will prevent individuals from adopting healthy choices especially the young and those that live alone who choose convenience foods. The demand has been met with the introduction of more ready-to-cook meals and pre-packed fruits
and vegetables (instead of loose). Although the convenience foods are more expensive, customers are willing to pay for them.
4. Social determinants such as social class, culture, and social context Social class/socioeconomic
There are differences in food choices in different social classes which lead to both under- and over-nutrition. For example, people within the higher social class groups tend to have healthier diets (e.g. higher intakes of fruit, lean meat, oily
fish, wholemeal products, and raw vegetables) compared with manual workers. It is thought that higher socioeconomic groups have healthier diets because they may have higher educational levels and may be more health conscious and have healthier
lifestyles. Social class differences in diet are of particular concern with respect to health inequalities.
Cultural influences
Cultural influences impact on diet choices and food preparation - evidence has shown that traditions, beliefs and values are among the main factors influencing preference, mode of food preparation, and nutritional status. Cultural habits,
however, have been shown to change, for example, when individuals move to a new country and adopt the food habits of the local culture. For example, South Asian females migrating to Scotland showed increased fat intakes and this was associated
with an increased body mass index, and incidence of heart disease and type 2 diabetes.
Social Context
Social context includes both the people who have an impact on an individual's eating behaviour and the setting in which an individual consumes their dietary choice. People influence an individual's food choices directly and indirectly: buying
food on behalf of an individual is a direct impact whilst learning from a peer's behaviour (conscious or subconscious) has an indirect impact. Social support (e.g. families) can have a beneficial effect on individual's food choice by encouraging
and supporting healthy eating practices. The setting for food consumption (e.g. home, school, work, and restaurants) will affect food choice by the availability of food options.
5. Psychological determinants such as mood, stress and guilt
The evidence supporting psychological determinants and food choice is limited and proposed mechanisms for the relationship are complex.
Stress
Stress can trigger changes in human behaviours that affect health; the effect of stress on food choice is complex and individualistic: some people consume more food and make unhealthy food choices and others consume less food. It is believed that
stress induced changes may be due to changes in motivation (e.g. reduced concern for weight control), physiological (reduced appetite), changes in eating opportunities, food availability and meal preparation.
Mood
Food can change an individual's temperament and mood and influences food choice. Individuals report food cravings (especially among women during the premenstrual phase) and the relationship with food for dieters mean that people may feel guilty
after indulging in food or attempting to restrict food and increasing the desire for the food.
6. Attitudes, beliefs and knowledge about food, and optimistic bias Attitudes and beliefs
Consumer attitudes and beliefs vary by individual, within groups of a population and across countries. The Pan-European Survey of Consumer Attitudes to Food, Nutrition and Health found that the top five influences on food choice were 'quality/freshness'
(74%), 'price' (43%), 'taste' (38%), 'trying to eat healthy' (32%) and 'what my family wants to eat' (29%). These were average figures for 15 countries but results differed significantly between countries. Females, older subjects, and
more educated subjects considered 'health aspects' more important than other factors whilst males rated 'taste' and 'habit' as the main determinants of food choice.
Optimistic bias
There are a high percentage of individuals who perceive their diets to be healthy and do not believe that they need to make dietary changes. People therefore believe that they are at less risk from a hazard compared to others e.g. people
overestimate their consumption of fruit and vegetables. An individual who considers their diet to already be healthy is less likely to adopt additional healthy eating practices.
References

Shepherd R. (1999). Social determinants of food choice. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 58: 807-812

Gibney M.J., Margetts B.M., Kearney J.M. and Arab L. Public Health Nutrition. The Nutrition Society.

© Hannah Pheasant 2008

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Social, behavioural and other determinants of the choice of diet

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Health and Social Behaviour: Social, behavioural and other determinants of the choice of diet Diet choice is a complex area because there are a number of factors that affect the population's and an individual's choice of food. These have been divided into 6 key determinants: