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The history of Spain’s National Anthem: the reason for an anthem without lyrics | Fascinating Spain

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The history of the Spanish anthem dates back to the 18th century, more than 300 years in which it has undergone variations and never had official lyrics.

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Nilüfer Ortak - Nebi Güney Secondary School,Türkiye

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Nilüfer Ortak - Nebi Güney Secondary School,Türkiye

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The Turkish National Anthem

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"İstiklal Marşı" (Independence March) - Türkiye National Anthem [LYRICS]

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Turkish National Anthem's History in Turkish and Engligh

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Turkish National Anthem's History in Turkish and Engligh

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Esma Ayça  Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School Türkiye  

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Esma Ayça  Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School Türkiye  

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Our National Anthem is a poem written by Mehmet Akif Ersoy in Anatolia during the War of Independence. It expresses the poet's belief that the War of Independence will be won, his confidence in the courage and sacrifice of the Turkish soldier, and the Turkish nation's devotion to independence, God, homeland and religion.

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Fratelli d’Italia, l’Italia s’è desta…

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What are the lyrics to Italy’s national anthem, and what do they mean?

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Learn the lyrics, translation and meaning of Italy’s national anthem: inspired by brotherhood and a whole lot of patriotism.

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The monument I saw in Vienna this summer was very beautiful.

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Esma Ayça Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School Türkiye 

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Esma Ayça Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School Türkiye 

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Maria Theresia Heykeli

Bu anıtın yüksekliği yaklaşık 19 metredir. Maria Theresia figürü de yaklaşık 6 metre yüksekliktedir. Anıtta, İmparatoriçenin etrafını saran komutanları, danışmanları ve sanatçıları gibi saltanatını simgeleyen kişiler bulunmaktadır.

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5th grade A.Olivetti primary school IC Ivrea 2

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Fratelli d'Italia | il canto degli italiani | Inno di Mameli | Piccolo coro la Goccia di Vimercate

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The Verona Arena (Italian: Arena di Verona, Italian: [aˈrɛːna di veˈroːna, aˈreːna ] is a Roman amphitheatre in Piazza Bra in Verona, Italy, built in 30 AD. It is still used and serves as a venue for large-scale opera performances.

It is one of the best-preserved ancient structures of its kind. In ancient times, the arena's capacity was nearly 30,000 people. The stage for concerts and opera performances decreases the available capacity to a maximum of 22,000.

Amphitheatre

The Verona Arena's ring remnant that survived the 1117 earthquake

The building itself was built in AD 30 on a site which was then beyond the city walls. The ludi (shows and games) staged there were so famous that spectators came from many other places, often far away, to witness them. The amphitheatre could host more than 30,000 spectators in ancient times. The round facade of the building was originally composed of white and pink limestone from Valpolicella. Still, after a major earthquake in 1117, which almost destroyed the structure's outer ring, except for the so-called "ala" (wing), the stone was quarried for re-use in other buildings. Nevertheless, it impressed medieval visitors to the city, one of whom considered it a labyrinth, without ingress or egress. Ciriaco d'Ancona was filled with admiration for the way it had been built and Giovanni Antonio Panteo's civic panegyric De laudibus veronae, 1483, remarked that it struck the viewer as a construction that was more than human.

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BURCU ORAK ABDÜLHAMİTHAN VOCATİONAL ANATOLİON HİGH SCHOOL GAZİANTEP/TURKEY

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BURCU ORAK ABDÜLHAMİTHAN VOCATİONAL ANATOLİON HİGH SCHOOL GAZİANTEP/TURKEY

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Topkapi Palace, Istanbul Overview

The Topkapi Palace is a majestic building, near Hagia Sophia, which served as the main residence of the Ottoman emperors for nearly 400 years. Today it serves as one of the most important museums in Istanbul. It contains some of the rarest items in the world. Though the complex has several hundred rooms, halls and chambers, only the most significant of them are open to the public.

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Edmondo de Amicis Primary school Cazzano di Tramigna(VR) Where does this title come from ?A famous writer

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Edmondo de Amicis Primary school Cazzano di Tramigna(VR) Where does this title come from ?A famous writer

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HEART / CUORE | Edmondo de Amicis's novel | Full Episode 6 | Cartoon TV Series | English | HD

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🇮🇹 Italy - Prime Minister Addresses United Nations General Debate, 79th Session | #UNGA

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BEST MURAL ARTS OF MILAN ITALY| MURALES | GRAFFITI MILANO

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Nilüfer Ortak - Nebi Güney Secondary School,Türkiye

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Nilüfer Ortak - Nebi Güney Secondary School,Türkiye

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Murals in Turkey

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Buenos Aires Street Art and Graffiti - BA Street Art

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Istanbul street art and graffiti in Turkey - the best murals around the city | BA Street Art

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Guide to the best street art & graffiti in Istanbul with murals by Inti, Aryz, Fintan Magee, Jaz & Highero in neighbourhoods such as Kadikoy & Karakoy.

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Nilüfer Ortak - Nebi Güney Secondary School,Türkiye

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Nilüfer Ortak - Nebi Güney Secondary School,Türkiye

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Hadrian's Gate was built in 130 due to Roman Emperor Hadrianus in Antalya, on Atatürk Street, on the Ancient Port walls. The emperor entered the city through this magnificent gate. The monumental structure has managed to be preserved until today. It is one of the most valuable historical artifacts among the city's symbols. Hadrian's Gate is the most preferred route for entrances to Kaleiçi and is also called 'Three Gates' among the people.

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21st June 2019

A farewell festival from Romanian presidency to the one of Finland.

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Κώστας Ρίπης

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Μια αγκαλιά τραγούδια για την Ευρώπη.

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Constantine P. Cavafy- A famous Greek poet 

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Constantine P. Cavafy- A famous Greek poet 

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αρχείο λήψης

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The Greek National Anthem: An Ode to Freedom | The history behind the music and the lyrics.

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The Greek National Anthem: An Ode to Freedom | The Greek Vibe

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Few people know that the Greek national anthem is the longest in the world with 158 verses and is also a poem.

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Ministry of Culture and Sports | Parthenon

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The Parthenon, dedicated by the Athenians to Athena Parthenos, the patron of their city, is the most magnificent creation of Athenian democracy at the height of its power. It is also the finest monument on the Acropolis in terms of both conception and execution. Built between 447 and 438 BC, as part of the greater Periklean building project, this so-called Periklean Parthenon (Parthenon III) replaced an earlier marble temple (Parthenon II), begun after the victory at the battle of Marathon at approximately 490 BC and destroyed by the Persians in 480 BC. This temple had replaced the very first Parthenon (Parthenon I) of c. 570 BC. The Periklean Parthenon was designed by architects Iktinos and Kallikrates, while the sculptor Pheidias supervised the entire building program and conceived the temple’s sculptural decoration and chryselephantine statue of Athena.

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Knossos is the site of the most important and better known palace of Minoan civilization. According to tradition, it was the seat of the legendary king Minos. The Palace is also connected with thrilling legends, such as the myth of the Labyrinth with the Minotaur, and the story of Daidalos and Icaros.

The site was continuously inhabited from the Neolithic period (7000-3000 B.C.) until Roman times.

Knossos is the site of the most important and better known palace of Minoan civilization. According to tradition, it was the seat of the legendary king Minos. The Palace is also connected with thrilling legends, such as the myth of the Labyrinth with the Minotaur, and the story of Daidalos and Icaros.

The site was continuously inhabited from the Neolithic period (7000-3000 B.C.) until Roman times.

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Ministry of Culture and Sports | Knossos

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Knossos is the site of the most important and better known palace of Minoan civilization. According to tradition, it was the seat of the legendary king Minos. The Palace is also connected with thrilling legends, such as the myth of the Labyrinth with the Minotaur, and the story of Daidalos and Icaros.

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Mural in the throne room of the Palace of Knosos in Crete-Greece. A characteristic one of the Minoan civilization (3.000 B.C.-1.450 B.C.)

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αθήνα γκραφίτι

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murals στην αθήνα

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20 murals που αξίζει να αναζητήσεις στην Αθήνα | LiFO

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Ενώ η δημιουργική street art μικρών διαστάσεων έχει σχεδόν χαθεί από τους δρόμους της Αθήνας και το old school γκράφιτι επιστρέφει, τα μεγάλα έργα είναι πιο δημιουργικά και όμορφα από ποτέ.

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He became President of the Greek Democracy twice( 1980-1985 / 1990-1995). On the 24th July 1967 after the fall of dictatorship in Greece he was called from France where he was living as a self exiled back to Athens in order to restore the Democracy in Greece. He was a European leader who managed to make Greece a complete member of the European Economic Union in 1981.

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Collection of Antiquities of Thera - National Archaeological Museum

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The Thera Room draws the attention of visitors mainly through the celebrated wall paintings, the “Spring Fresco” with the sparrows and the lilies, the “Boxing Children Fresco” and the “Antelope Fresco”.

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The work therefore aims to be an invitation for the new generations to actively participate in the construction of a welcoming Union towards the peoples who have expressed the desire to be part of it. A common European home of around 500 million people, democratic and prosperous, where we can live, study and work in freedom.

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Dopo il successo delle prime due tappe, ad Aielli e a Salerno, la Rappresentanza in Italia della Commissione europea, in collaborazione con il Centro Europe Direct Carnia, ha portato l’iniziativa “EU Street Art” a Tolmezzo (Ud).

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This comprises the tradition of written and oral literature established by the Turks throughout history, and also the products of that tradition. The historical development of Turkish literature is studied under three main categories: pre-Islamic Turkish literature, the Turkish literature that developed under the influence of Islamic civilization, and that which developed under the influence of the West. This classification was made in the light of the characteristic influence of the religious and cultural orbits which the Turks entered.

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Ephesus is discovered in Selcuk, Izmir in western Turkey.
Kusadasi is 19 km. far away from Ephesus and Pamucak beach is 5 km far away from Ephesus. The original site of Ancient Ephesus was…

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PAPILLON ZEUGMA RELAXURY AND MURAL ART IN TURKEY

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PAPILLON ZEUGMA RELAXURY AND MURAL ART IN TURKEY

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Ancient Zeuma City Mural Art Is At Papillon Zeugma Relaxury!

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Discover the magnificent mural art of the Ancient City of Zeuma at Papillon Zeugma Relaxury! Embark on a historical journey, book now!

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He was born in 1924 in İslamköy, Atabey district of Isparta. He completed his primary education in the village where he was born, and middle and high school in Isparta and Afyon. He graduated from Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Civil Engineering in February 1949. He started working at the Electrical Works Research Administration in the same year.

He was sent to the USA to conduct research on irrigation and electricity.

He was appointed to the Directorate of Dams of the State Hydraulic Works in 1954, and to the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works in 1955. He worked as a freelance consultant and engineer between 1960 and 1962. He became a lecturer at the Middle East Technical University.

He began his political career in 1962 as a member of the Justice Party General Administrative Board. After being elected as the party leader on November 28, 1964, he served as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of State in the coalition government he helped establish and which served from February to October 1965.

He entered the Turkish Grand National Assembly as an Isparta MP in the general elections of October 10, 1965 and formed a government as the 12th Prime Minister of Turkey after the Justice Party came to power alone in the elections. After this government that lasted 4 years, Süleyman Demirel formed a government 5 more times in 1969, 1970, 1975, 1977 and 1979.

He was removed from office following the military intervention that took place on September 12, 1980 and remained out of politics for seven years under a ban. When the political bans were lifted in a referendum held on September 6, 1987, Süleyman Demirel was elected as the Chairman of the True Path Party on September 24, 1987. He re-entered the Turkish Grand National Assembly as an MP for Isparta in the general elections held on November 29, 1987. Following the general elections held on October 20, 1991, he served as Prime Minister in the 49th Government formed by the True Path Party and the Social Democratic Populist Party.

On May 16, 1993, he was elected as the 9th President of Turkey by the Turkish Grand National Assembly. Demirel completed his term of office on May 16, 2000 and left the presidency.

He married Nazmiye Hanım in 1948.

Süleyman Demirel passed away on June 17, 2015 at the age of 91.

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Ano Mitrousi Primary School, Serres, Greece

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Europe Song - Animated song for kids to help learn all the countries of Europe

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Ano Mitrousi Primary School. Serres. Greece

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Greece National Anthem GreeK  English lyrics

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Top 10 Ancient Greek monuments in Greece - historical sites

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Athens Street Art: Murals that Colour the City

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One of the world’s hottest destinations for graffiti artists, Athens’ stunning street art is now part of the urban fabric. Check out the photos of our favourites.

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History for kids - Free history network for kids

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Greek Wall Paintings

Wall paintings were some of the most famous art works that were done in Ancient Greece.

These paintings were painted as panels and they were hung on walls.

Wall Paintings

Many of the wall paintings would come in more than one panel and would tell a story.

The paintings would show different scenes and people that were known in the town or that were famous because of mythology or some other purpose.

Some of the paintings were self-portraits and would be painted for wealthy people to put them in their homes.

If a wall painting was done that was meant for the public, it would be hung within a government building or in a place where many people could see it.

Materials

The wall paintings were often times painted on wood boards and were painted with wax paints or tempera paints.

Since the materials were not that strong, most of the wall paintings did not survive and many famous works were destroyed or broke.

Wall Paintings that Survived

Some of the wall paintings that did survive was the "Pista panels," the "Tomb of Diver," and some paintings that were found in tombs.
Other surviving wall paintings include:

Alexander Mosaic

Villa Boscoreale

Fayum Mummy

Severan Tondo

Some paintings are found in Pompeii that are thought to be original or copies of wall paintings from Ancient Greece.

Time Period

Wall paintings from Greece go all the way back to the Minoan and Mycenean Bronze Age.

What Were Wall Paintings Used For?

Ancient Greek wall paintings were used mostly for decorations and some of them were even used to decorate tombs and temples.

Many of the paintings were done to celebrate the death of someone famous or someone that was loved.

Architecture

Many of the paintings that were done were found on different architecture throughout Ancient Greece.

These paintings were very colorful but much of it would fade due to the weather and to time.

Painting was a big part of architecture because it would make buildings and homes beautiful.

Some artists would paint in the temples so that they could celebrate and honor the gods and goddesses.

Sculptures

Sculptures were also painted and even though they weren't wall paintings, the same people that did the wall paintings would paint the sculptures.

The sculptures would be painted with bright colors and would help to make the statues look more realistic.

Facts About Ancient Greek Wall Paintings:

Sometimes male skin would be painted brown because it was hard to get skin color correct.

Vase painting is another form of painting that was popular during Ancient Greek times.

Most Greek painting was not found to be important and writers and authors never wrote about it in their stories.

Many of the paintings had patterns and bright colors because patterns were important to philosophy.

The Ancient Greek painters painted so that they could celebrate gods and goddesses and other people.

Some artists were paid good money to paint paintings for the wealthy people and for the temple.

What Did You Learn?

1. What was a wall painting? A wall painting in Ancient Greece was a painting or a group of paintings that were used to show a story or as a self-portrait.

2. Was art important during Ancient Greek times? Art was important during Ancient Greek times and it went hand in hand with philosophy.

3. What other types of paintings were done during Ancient Greek times? Other types of paintings that were done were vase paintings, paintings on architecture and sculpture painting.

4. Were wall paintings artists popular? Painting wall paintings was not considered that important and was never written about by authors.

5. What were wall paintings used for in Ancient Greece? Wall paintings were used as decorations for homes and for tombs. Many paintings were put into temples to celebrate the gods and goddesses.

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Wall paintings were some of the most famous art works that were done in Ancient Greece. These paintings were painted as panels and they were hung on walls. Wall Paintings Many of the wall paintings would come in more than one panel and would tell a story.

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Ancient Greek art stands out among that of other ancient cultures for its development of naturalistic but idealized depictions of the human body, in which largely nude male figures were generally the focus of innovation. The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen in sculpture. There were important innovations in painting, which have to be essentially reconstructed due to the lack of original survivals of quality, other than the distinct field of painted pottery.

Heracles and Athena, black-figure side of a belly amphora by the Andokides Painter, c. 520/510 BC

The Hellenistic Pergamon Altar: l to r Nereus, Doris, a Giant, Oceanus

Hades abducting Persephone, 4th-century BC wall painting in the small Macedonian royal tomb at Vergina

Greek architecture, technically very simple, established a harmonious style with numerous detailed conventions that were largely adopted by Roman architecture and are still followed in some modern buildings. It used a vocabulary of ornament that was shared with pottery, metalwork and other media, and had an enormous influence on Eurasian art, especially after Buddhism carried it beyond the expanded Greek world created by Alexander the Great. The social context of Greek art included radical political developments and a great increase in prosperity; the equally impressive Greek achievements in philosophy, literature and other fields are well known.

The earliest art by Greeks is generally excluded from "ancient Greek art", and instead known as Greek Neolithic art followed by Aegean art; the latter includes Cycladic art and the art of the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures from the Greek Bronze Age.[1] The art of ancient Greece is usually divided stylistically into four periods: the Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. The Geometric age is usually dated from about 1000 BC, although in reality little is known about art in Greece during the preceding 200 years, traditionally known as the Greek Dark Ages. The 7th century BC witnessed the slow development of the Archaic style as exemplified by the black-figure style of vase painting. Around 500 BC, shortly before the onset of the Persian Wars (480 BC to 448 BC), is usually taken as the dividing line between the Archaic and the Classical periods, and the reign of Alexander the Great (336 BC to 323 BC) is taken as separating the Classical from the Hellenistic periods. From some point in the 1st century BC onwards "Greco-Roman" is used, or more local terms for the Eastern Greek world.[2]

In reality, there was no sharp transition from one period to another. Forms of art developed at different speeds in different parts of the Greek world, and as in any age some artists worked in more innovative styles than others. Strong local traditions, and the requirements of local cults, enable historians to locate the origins even of works of art found far from their place of origin. Greek art of various kinds was widely exported. The whole period saw a generally steady increase in prosperity and trading links within the Greek world and with neighbouring cultures.

The survival rate of Greek art differs starkly between media. We have huge quantities of pottery and coins, much stone sculpture, though even more Roman copies, and a few large bronze sculptures. Almost entirely missing are painting, fine metal vessels, and anything in perishable materials including wood. The stone shell of a number of temples and theatres has survived, but little of their extensive decoration.[3]

Detail of a black-figure vase, c. 540. White, which has not worn well, and a different red-purple are also used.[4]

By convention, finely painted vessels of all shapes are called "vases", and there are over 100,000 significantly complete surviving pieces,[5] giving (with the inscriptions that many carry) unparalleled insights into many aspects of Greek life. Sculptural or architectural pottery, also very often painted, are referred to as terracottas, and also survive in large quantities. In much of the literature, "pottery" means only painted vessels, or "vases". Pottery was the main form of grave goods deposited in tombs, often as "funerary urns" containing the cremated ashes, and was widely exported.

Conventionally, the ancient Greeks are said to have made most pottery vessels for everyday use, not for display. Exceptions are the large Archaic monumental vases made as grave-markers, trophies won at games, such as the Panathenaic Amphorae filled with olive oil, and pieces made specifically to be left in graves; some perfume bottles have a money-saving bottom just below the mouth, so a small quantity makes them appear full.[7] In recent decades many scholars have questioned this, seeing much more production than was formerly thought as made to be placed in graves, as a cheaper substitute for metalware in both Greece and Etruria.[8]

Most surviving pottery consists of vessels for storing, serving or drinking liquids such as amphorae, kraters (bowls for mixing wine and water), hydria (water jars), libation bowls, oil and perfume bottles for the toilet, jugs and cups. Painted vessels for serving and eating food are much less common. Painted pottery was affordable even by ordinary people, and a piece "decently decorated with about five or six figures cost about two or three days' wages".[9] Miniatures were also produced in large numbers, mainly for use as offerings at temples.[10] In the Hellenistic period a wider range of pottery was produced, but most of it is of little artistic importance.

White ground, Attic, c. 460, Cylix of Apollo, who pours a libation, detail.[11]

In earlier periods even quite small Greek cities produced pottery for their own locale. These varied widely in style and standards. Distinctive pottery that ranks as art was produced on some of the Aegean islands, in Crete, and in the wealthy Greek colonies of southern Italy and Sicily.[12] By the later Archaic and early Classical period, however, the two great commercial powers, Corinth and Athens, came to dominate. Their pottery was exported all over the Greek world, driving out the local varieties. Pots from Corinth and Athens are found as far afield as Spain and Ukraine, and are so common in Italy that they were first collected in the 18th century as "Etruscan vases".[13] Many of these pots are mass-produced products of low quality. In fact, by the 5th century BC, pottery had become an industry and pottery painting ceased to be an important art form.

The range of colours which could be used on pots was restricted by the technology of firing: black, white, red, and yellow were the most common. In the three earlier periods, the pots were left their natural light colour, and were decorated with slip that turned black in the kiln.[6]

Middle Geometric krater, 99 cm high, Attic, c. 800-775 BC

The history of ancient Greek pottery is divided stylistically into five periods:

the Protogeometric from about 1050 BC

the Geometric from about 900 BC

the Late Geometric or Archaic from about 750 BC

the Black Figure from the early 7th century BC

and the Red Figure from about 530 BC

The fully mature black-figure technique, with added red and white details and incising for outlines and details, originated in Corinth during the early 7th century BC and was introduced into Attica about a generation later; it flourished until the end of the 6th century BC.[17] The red-figure technique, invented in about 530 BC, reversed this tradition, with the pots being painted black and the figures painted in red. Red-figure vases slowly replaced the black-figure style. Sometimes larger vessels were engraved as well as painted. Erotic themes, both heterosexual and male homosexual, became common.[18]

By about 320 BC fine figurative vase-painting had ceased in Athens and other Greek centres, with the polychromatic Kerch style a final flourish; it was probably replaced by metalwork for most of its functions. West Slope Ware, with decorative motifs on a black glazed body, continued for over a century after.[19] Italian red-figure painting ended by about 300, and in the next century the relatively primitive Hadra vases, probably from Crete, Centuripe ware from Sicily, and Panathenaic amphorae, now a frozen tradition, were the only large painted vases still made.[20]

Corinthian orientalising jug, c. 620 BC, Antikensammlungen Munich

Black-figure olpe (wine vessel) by the Amasis Painter, depicting Heracles and Athena, c.  540 BC, Louvre

Interior ( tondo) of a red figure kylix, depicting Heracles and Athena, by Phoinix (potter) and Douris (painter), c. 480-470 BC, Antikensammlungen Munich

Detail of a red-figure amphora depicting a satyr assaulting a maenad, by Pamphaios (potter) and Oltos (painter), c.  520 BC, Louvre

White-ground lekythos with a scene of mourning by the Reed Painter, c.  420-410 BC, British Museum

The Derveni Krater, 4th century BC, with Dionysus and Ariadne seen here.[21]

Fine metalwork was an important art in ancient Greece, but later production is very poorly represented by survivals, most of which come from the edges of the Greek world or beyond, from as far as France or Russia. Vessels and jewellery were produced to high standards, and exported far afield. Objects in silver, at the time worth more relative to gold than it is in modern times, were often inscribed by the maker with their weight, as they were treated largely as stores of value, and likely to be sold or re-melted before very long.[22]

During the Geometric and Archaic phases, the production of large metal vessels was an important expression of Greek creativity, and an important stage in the development of bronzeworking techniques, such as casting and repousse hammering. Early sanctuaries, especially Olympia, yielded many hundreds of tripod-bowl or sacrificial tripod vessels, mostly in bronze, deposited as votives. These had a shallow bowl with two handles raised high on three legs; in later versions the stand and bowl were different pieces. During the Orientalising period, such tripods were frequently decorated with figural protomes, in the shape of griffins, sphinxes and other fantastic creatures.[23]

Swords, the Greek helmet and often body armour such as the muscle cuirass were made of bronze, sometimes decorated in precious metal, as in the 3rd-century Ksour Essef cuirass.[24] Armour and "shield-bands" are two of the contexts for strips of Archaic low relief scenes, which were also attached to various objects in wood; the band on the Vix Krater is a large example.[25] Polished bronze mirrors, initially with decorated backs and kore handles, were another common item; the later "folding mirror" type had hinged cover pieces, often decorated with a relief scene, typically erotic.[26] Coins are described below.

From the late Archaic the best metalworking kept pace with stylistic developments in sculpture and the other arts, and Phidias is among the sculptors known to have practiced it.[27] Hellenistic taste encouraged highly intricate displays of technical virtuousity, tending to "cleverness, whimsy, or excessive elegance".[28] Many or most Greek pottery shapes were taken from shapes first used in metal, and in recent decades there has been an increasing view that much of the finest vase-painting reused designs by silversmiths for vessels with engraving and sections plated in a different metal, working from drawn designs.[29]

Exceptional survivals of what may have been a relatively common class of large bronze vessels are two volute kraters, for mixing wine and water.[30] These are the Vix Krater, c. 530 BC, 1.63m (5'4") high and over 200 kg (450 lbs) in weight, holding some 1,100 litres, and found in the burial of a Celtic woman in modern France,[31] and the 4th-century Derveni Krater, 90.5 cm (35 in.) high.[32] The elites of other neighbours of the Greeks, such as the Thracians and Scythians, were keen consumers of Greek metalwork, and probably served by Greek goldsmiths settled in their territories, who adapted their products to suit local taste and functions. Such hybrid pieces form a large part of survivals, including the Panagyurishte Treasure, Borovo Treasure, and other Thracian treasures, and several Scythian burials, which probably contained work by Greek artists based in the Greek settlements on the Black Sea.[33] As with other luxury arts, the Macedonian royal cemetery at Vergina has produced objects of top quality from the cusp of the Classical and Hellenistic periods.[34]

Jewellery for the Greek market is often of superb quality,[35] with one unusual form being intricate and very delicate gold wreaths imitating plant-forms, worn on the head. These were probably rarely, if ever, worn in life, but were given as votives and worn in death.[36] Many of the Fayum mummy portraits wear them. Some pieces, especially in the Hellenistic period, are large enough to offer scope for figures, as did the Scythian taste for relatively substantial pieces in gold.[37]

Fancy Early Classical bronze mirror with human caryatid handle, c.  460 BC

Silver rhyton for the Thracian market, end 4th century[38]

Fragment of a gold wreath, c. 320-300 BC, from a burial in Crimea

The Greeks decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour.[39] Seeing their gods as having human form, there was little distinction between the sacred and the secular in art-the human body was both secular and sacred. A male nude of Apollo or Heracles had only slight differences in treatment to one of that year's Olympic boxing champion. In the Archaic Period the most important sculptural form was the kouros (plural kouroi), the standing male nude (See for example Biton and Kleobis). The kore (plural korai), or standing clothed female figure, was also common, but since Greek society did not permit the public display of female nudity until the 4th century BC, the kore is considered to be of less importance in the development of sculpture.[40] By the end of the period architectural sculpture on temples was becoming important.

As with pottery, the Greeks did not produce monumental sculpture merely for artistic display. Statues were commissioned either by aristocratic individuals or by the state, and used for public memorials, as offerings to temples, oracles and sanctuaries (as is frequently shown by inscriptions on the statues), or as markers for graves. Statues in the Archaic period were not all intended to represent specific individuals. They were depictions of an ideal-beauty, piety, honor or sacrifice. These were always depictions of young men, ranging in age from adolescence to early maturity, even when placed on the graves of (presumably) elderly citizens. Kouroi were all stylistically similar. Graduations in the social stature of the person commissioning the statue were indicated by size rather than artistic innovations.[41]

Unlike authors, those who practiced the visual arts, including sculpture, initially had a low social status in ancient Greece, though increasingly leading sculptors might become famous and rather wealthy, and often signed their work (often on the plinth, which typically became separated from the statue itself).[42] Plutarch ( Life of Pericles, II) said "we admire the work of art but despise the maker of it"; this was a common view in the ancient world. Ancient Greek sculpture is categorised by the usual stylistic periods of "Archaic", "Classical" and "Hellenistic", augmented with some extra ones mainly applying to sculpture, such as the Orientalizing Daedalic style and the Severe style of early Classical sculpture.[43]

Materials, forms

Kleobis and Biton, kouroi of the Archaic period, c. 580 BC, Delphi Archaeological Museum

Bronze Age Cycladic art, to about 1100 BC, had already shown an unusual focus on the human figure, usually shown in a straightforward frontal standing position with arms folded across the stomach. Among the smaller features only noses, sometimes eyes, and female breasts were carved, though the figures were apparently usually painted and may have originally looked very different.

Inspired by the monumental stone sculpture of Egypt and Mesopotamia, during the Archaic period the Greeks began again to carve in stone: Greek mercenaries and merchants were active abroad, as in Egypt in the service of Pharaoh Psamtik I (664-610 BC), and were exposed to the monumental art of these countries.[48][49] It is generally agreed that "Egyptian statuary of the 2nd millennium BC gave the decisive impulse for the innovation of Greek sculpture in life-size and in hyper formats in the Archaic Period during the late 7th century."[48] Free-standing figures share the solidity and frontal stance characteristic of Eastern models, but their forms are more dynamic than those of Egyptian sculpture, as for example the Lady of Auxerre and Torso of Hera (Early Archaic period, c. 660-580 BC, both in the Louvre, Paris). After about 575 BC, figures, such as these, both male and female, wore the so-called archaic smile. This expression, which has no specific appropriateness to the person or situation depicted, may have been a device to give the figures a distinctive human characteristic.[50]

Three types of figures were used-the standing nude youth (kouros), the standing draped girl (kore) and, less frequently, the seated woman.[51] All emphasize and generalize the essential features of the human figure and show an increasingly accurate comprehension of human anatomy. The youths were either sepulchral or votive statues. Examples are Apollo (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), an early work; the Strangford Apollo from Anafi (British Museum, London), a much later work; and the Anavyssos Kouros ( National Archaeological Museum of Athens). More of the musculature and skeletal structure is visible in this statue than in earlier works. The standing, draped girls have a wide range of expression, as in the sculptures in the Acropolis Museum of Athens. Their drapery is carved and painted with the delicacy and meticulousness common in the details of sculpture of this period.[52]

Archaic reliefs have survived from many tombs, and from larger buildings at Foce del Sele (now in the National Archaeological Museum of Paestum) in Italy, with two groups of metope panels, from about 550 and 510, and the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi, with friezes and a small pediment. Parts, all now in local museums, survive of the large triangular pediment groups from the Temple of Artemis, Corfu ( c. 580), dominated by a huge Gorgon, and the Old Temple of Athena in Athens ( c. 530-500).[53]

Dipylon Kouros, c. 600 BC, Athens, Kerameikos Museum

The Moschophoros or calf-bearer, c. 570 BC, Athens, Acropolis Museum

The Strangford Apollo, 500-490, one of the last kouroi

The Sabouroff head, an important example of Late Archaic Greek marble sculpture, c.  550-525 BCE.

The Perserschutt, or "Persian rubble", dating from the destruction of Athens in 480/479 BC during the Second Persian invasion of Greece offer a clear datation marker for Archaic statuary.

The Artemision Bronze, either Poseidon or Zeus, c. 460 BC, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. This masterpiece of classical sculpture was found by fishermen off Cape Artemisium in 1928. It is more than 2 m in height.

In the Classical period there was a revolution in Greek statuary, usually associated with the introduction of democracy and the end of the aristocratic culture associated with the kouroi. The Classical period saw changes in the style and function of sculpture. Poses became more naturalistic (see the Charioteer of Delphi for an example of the transition to more naturalistic sculpture), and the technical skill of Greek sculptors in depicting the human form in a variety of poses greatly increased. From about 500 BC statues began to depict real people. The statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton set up in Athens to mark the overthrow of the tyranny were said to be the first public monuments to actual people.[54]

"The first true portrait of an individual European":[55] Roman-era copy of a lost 470 BC bust of Themistocles in Severe style.[56]

Funeral statuary evolved during this period from the rigid and impersonal kouros of the Archaic period to the highly personal family groups of the Classical period. These monuments are commonly found in the suburbs of Athens, which in ancient times were cemeteries on the outskirts of the city. Although some of them depict "ideal" types-the mourning mother, the dutiful son-they increasingly depicted real people, typically showing the departed taking his dignified leave from his family. They are among the most intimate and affecting remains of the ancient Greeks.[58]

The Venus de Milo, discovered at the Greek island of Milos, 130-100 BC, Louvre

The transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic period occurred during the 4th century BC. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great (336 BC to 323 BC), Greek culture spread as far as India, as revealed by the excavations of Ai-Khanoum in eastern Afghanistan, and the civilization of the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greeks. Greco-Buddhist art represented a syncretism between Greek art and the visual expression of Buddhism. Thus Greek art became more diverse and more influenced by the cultures of the peoples drawn into the Greek orbit.[61]

In the view of some art historians, it also declined in quality and originality. This, however, is a judgement which artists and art-lovers of the time would not have shared. Indeed, many sculptures previously considered as classical masterpieces are now recognised as being Hellenistic. The technical ability of Hellenistic sculptors is clearly in evidence in such major works as the Winged Victory of Samothrace, and the Pergamon Altar. New centres of Greek culture, particularly in sculpture, developed in Alexandria, Antioch, Pergamum, and other cities, where the new monarchies were lavish patrons.[62] By the 2nd century the rising power of Rome had also absorbed much of the Greek tradition-and an increasing proportion of its products as well.[63]

During this period sculpture became more naturalistic, and also expressive; the interest in depicting extremes of emotion being sometimes pushed to extremes. Genre subjects of common people, women, children, animals and domestic scenes became acceptable subjects for sculpture, which was commissioned by wealthy families for the adornment of their homes and gardens; the Boy with Thorn is an example. Realistic portraits of men and women of all ages were produced, and sculptors no longer felt obliged to depict people as ideals of beauty or physical perfection.[64]

The world of Dionysus, a pastoral idyll populated by satyrs, maenads, nymphs and sileni, had been often depicted in earlier vase painting and figurines, but rarely in full-size sculpture. Now such works were made, surviving in copies including the Barberini Faun, the Belvedere Torso, and the Resting Satyr; the Furietti Centaurs and Sleeping Hermaphroditus reflect related themes.[65] At the same time, the new Hellenistic cities springing up all over Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia required statues depicting the gods and heroes of Greece for their temples and public places. This made sculpture, like pottery, an industry, with the consequent standardisation and some lowering of quality. For these reasons many more Hellenistic statues have survived than is the case with the Classical period.

Some of the best known Hellenistic sculptures are the Winged Victory of Samothrace (2nd or 1st century BC),[66] the statue of Aphrodite from the island of Melos known as the Venus de Milo (mid-2nd century BC), the Dying Gaul (about 230 BC), and the monumental group Laocoön and His Sons (late 1st century BC). All these statues depict Classical themes, but their treatment is far more sensuous and emotional than the austere taste of the Classical period would have allowed or its technical skills permitted.

The multi-figure group of statues was a Hellenistic innovation, probably of the 3rd century, taking the epic battles of earlier temple pediment reliefs off their walls, and placing them as life-size groups of statues. Their style is often called " baroque", with extravagantly contorted body poses, and intense expressions in the faces. The reliefs on the Pergamon Altar are the nearest original survivals, but several well known works are believed to be Roman copies of Hellenistic originals. These include the Dying Gaul and Ludovisi Gaul, as well as a less well known Kneeling Gaul and others, all believed to copy Pergamene commissions by Attalus I to commemorate his victory around 241 over the Gauls of Galatia, probably comprising two groups.[67]

The Laocoön Group, the Farnese Bull, Menelaus supporting the body of Patroclus ("Pasquino group"), Arrotino, and the Sperlonga sculptures, are other examples.[68] From the 2nd century the Neo-Attic or Neo-Classical style is seen by different scholars as either a reaction to baroque excesses, returning to a version of Classical style, or as a continuation of the traditional style for cult statues.[69] Workshops in the style became mainly producers of copies for the Roman market, which preferred copies of Classical rather than Hellenistic pieces.[70]

Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century surrounding the (now submerged) ancient Egyptian city of Heracleum include a 4th-century BC, unusually sensual, detailed and feministic (as opposed to deified) depiction of Isis, marking a combination of Egyptian and Hellenistic forms beginning around the time of Egypt's conquest by Alexander the Great. However this was untypical of Ptolemaic court sculpture, which generally avoided mixing Egyptian styles with its fairly conventional Hellenistic style,[71] while temples in the rest of the country continued using late versions of traditional Egyptian formulae.[72] Scholars have proposed an "Alexandrian style" in Hellenistic sculpture, but there is in fact little to connect it with Alexandria.[73]

Hellenistic sculpture was also marked by an increase in scale, which culminated in the Colossus of Rhodes (late 3rd century), which was the same size as the Statue of Liberty. The combined effect of earthquakes and looting have destroyed this as well as other very large works of this period.

Pottery vessel in the shape of Aphrodite inside a shell; from Attica, Classical Greece, discovered in the Phanagoria cemetery, Taman Peninsula (Bosporan Kingdom, southern Russia), 1st quarter of 4th century BC, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg.

Clay is a material frequently used for the making of votive statuettes or idols, even before the Minoan civilization and continuing until the Roman period. During the 8th century BC tombs in Boeotia often contain "bell idols", female statuettes with mobile legs: the head, small compared to the remainder of the body, is perched at the end of a long neck, while the body is very full, in the shape of a bell.[74] Archaic heroon tombs, for local heroes, might receive large numbers of crudely-shaped figurines, with rudimentary figuration, generally representing characters with raised arms.

For painted architectural terracottas, see Architecture below.

Architecture (meaning buildings executed to an aesthetically considered design) ceased in Greece from the end of the Mycenaean period (about 1200 BC) until the 7th century, when urban life and prosperity recovered to a point where public building could be undertaken. Since most Greek buildings in the Archaic and Early Classical periods were made of wood or mudbrick, nothing remains of them except a few ground-plans, and there are almost no written sources on early architecture or descriptions of buildings. Most of our knowledge of Greek architecture comes from the surviving buildings of the Late Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods (since ancient Roman architecture heavily used Greek styles), and from late written sources such as Vitruvius (1st century BC). This means that there is a strong bias towards temples, the most common major buildings to survive. Here the squared blocks of stone used for walls were useful for later buildings, and so often all that survives are parts of columns and metopes that were harder to recycle.

For most of the period a strict stone post and lintel system of construction was used, held in place only by gravity. Corbelling was known in Mycenean Greece, and the arch was known from the 5th century at the latest, but hardly any use was made of these techniques until the Roman period. Wood was only used for ceilings and roof timbers in prestigious stone buildings. The use of large terracotta roof tiles, only held in place by grooving, meant that roofs needed to have a low pitch.

Until Hellenistic times only public buildings were built using the formal stone style; these included above all temples, and the smaller treasury buildings which often accompanied them, and were built at Delphi by many cities. Other building types, often not roofed, were the central agora, often with one or more colonnaded stoa around it, theatres, the gymnasium and palaestra or wrestling-school, the ekklesiasterion or bouleuterion for assemblies, and the propylaea or monumental gateways. Round buildings for various functions were called a tholos, and the largest stone structures were often defensive city walls.

Tombs were for most of the period only made as elaborate mausolea around the edges of the Greek world, especially in Anatolia. Private houses were built around a courtyard where funds allowed, and showed blank walls to the street. They sometimes had a second story, but very rarely basements. They were usually built of rubble at best, and relatively little is known about them; at least for males, much of life was spent outside them. A few palaces from the Hellenistic period have been excavated.

Temples and some other buildings such as the treasuries at Delphi were planned as either a cube or, more often, a rectangle made from limestone, of which Greece has an abundance, and which was cut into large blocks and dressed. This was supplemented by columns, at least on the entrance front, and often on all sides. Other buildings were more flexible in plan, and even the wealthiest houses seem to have lacked much external ornament. Marble was an expensive building material in Greece: high quality marble came only from Mt Pentelus in Attica and from a few islands such as Paros, and its transportation in large blocks was difficult. It was used mainly for sculptural decoration, not structurally, except in the very grandest buildings of the Classical period such as the Parthenon in Athens.

There were two main classical orders of Greek architecture, the Doric and the Ionic, with the Corinthian order only appearing in the Classical period, and not becoming dominant until the Roman period. The most obvious features of the three orders are the capitals of the columns, but there are significant differences in other points of design and decoration between the orders. These names were used by the Greeks themselves, and reflected their belief that the styles descended from the Dorian and Ionian Greeks of the Dark Ages, but this is unlikely to be true. The Doric was the earliest, probably first appearing in stone in the earlier 7th century, having developed (though perhaps not very directly) from predecessors in wood. It was used in mainland Greece and the Greek colonies in Italy. The Ionic style was first used in the cities of Ionia (now the west coast of Turkey) and some of the Aegean islands, probably beginning in the 6th century. The Doric style was more formal and austere, the Ionic more relaxed and decorative. The more ornate Corinthian order was a later development of the Ionic, initially apparently only used inside buildings, and using Ionic forms for everything except the capitals. The famous and well-preserved Choragic Monument of Lysicrates near the Acropolis of Athens (335/334) is the first known use of the Corinthian order on the exterior of a building.

Most of the best known surviving Greek buildings, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, are Doric. The Erechtheum, next to the Parthenon, however, is Ionic. The Ionic order became dominant in the Hellenistic period, since its more decorative style suited the aesthetic of the period better than the more restrained Doric. Some of the best surviving Hellenistic buildings, such as the Library of Celsus, can be seen in Turkey, at cities such as Ephesus and Pergamum. But in the greatest of Hellenistic cities, Alexandria in Egypt, almost nothing survives.

Athenian tetradrachm with head of Athena and owl, after 449 BC. The most acceptable coin in the Mediterranean world.

Gold 20-stater of Eucratides of Bactria c. 150 BC, the largest gold coin of antiquity. 169.2 grams, diameter 58 mm.

Coins were (probably) invented in Lydia in the 7th century BC, but they were first extensively used by the Greeks,[93] and the Greeks set the canon of coin design which has been followed ever since. Coin design today still recognisably follows patterns descended from ancient Greece. The Greeks did not see coin design as a major art form, although some were expensively designed by leading goldsmiths, especially outside Greece itself, among the Central Asian kingdoms and in Sicilian cities keen to promote themselves. Nevertheless, the durability and abundance of coins have made them one of the most important sources of knowledge about Greek aesthetics.[94] Greek coins are the only art form from the ancient Greek world which can still be bought and owned by private collectors of modest means.

The most widespread coins, used far beyond their native territories and copied and forged by others, were the Athenian tetradrachm, issued from c. 510 to c. 38 BC, and in the Hellenistic age the Macedonian tetradrachm, both silver.[95] These both kept the same familiar design for long periods.[96] Greek designers began the practice of putting a profile portrait on the obverse of coins. This was initially a symbolic portrait of the patron god or goddess of the city issuing the coin: Athena for Athens, Apollo at Corinth, Demeter at Thebes and so on. Later, heads of heroes of Greek mythology were used, such as Heracles on the coins of Alexander the Great.

The first human portraits on coins were those of Achaemenid Empire Satraps in Asia Minor, starting with the exiled Athenian general Themistocles who became a Satrap of Magnesia c. 450 BC, and continuing especially with the dynasts of Lycia towards the end of the 5th century.[97] Greek cities in Italy such as Syracuse began to put the heads of real people on coins in the 4th century BC, as did the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great in Egypt, Syria and elsewhere.[98] On the reverse of their coins the Greek cities often put a symbol of the city: an owl for Athens, a dolphin for Syracuse and so on. The placing of inscriptions on coins also began in Greek times. All these customs were later continued by the Romans.[94]

The most artistically ambitious coins, designed by goldsmiths or gem-engravers, were often from the edges of the Greek world, from new colonies in the early period and new kingdoms later, as a form of marketing their "brands" in modern terms.[99] Of the larger cities, Corinth and Syracuse also issued consistently attractive coins. Some of the Greco-Bactrian coins are considered the finest examples of Greek coins with large portraits with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by Eucratides (reigned 171-145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king Amyntas Nikator (reigned c. 95-90 BC). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West".[100]

The Greeks seem to have valued painting above even sculpture, and by the Hellenistic period the informed appreciation and even the practice of painting were components in a gentlemanly education. The ekphrasis was a literary form consisting of a description of a work of art, and we have a considerable body of literature on Greek painting and painters, with further additions in Latin, though none of the treatises by artists that are mentioned have survived.[101] We have hardly any of the most prestigious sort of paintings, on wood panel or in fresco, that this literature was concerned with, and very few of the copies that undoubtedly existed, equivalent to those which give us most of our knowledge of Greek sculpture.

The contrast with vase-painting is total. There are no mentions of that in literature at all, but over 100,000 surviving examples, giving many individual painters a respectable surviving oeuvre.[102] Our idea of what the best Greek painting was like must be drawn from a careful consideration of parallels in vase-painting, late Greco-Roman copies in mosaic and fresco, some very late examples of actual painting in the Greek tradition, and the ancient literature.[103]

There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Early painting seems to have developed along similar lines to vase-painting, heavily reliant on outline and flat areas of colour, but then flowered and developed at the time that vase-painting went into decline. By the end of the Hellenistic period, technical developments included modelling to indicate contours in forms, shadows, foreshortening, some probably imprecise form of perspective, interior and landscape backgrounds, and the use of changing colours to suggest distance in landscapes, so that "Greek artists had all the technical devices needed for fully illusionistic painting".[104]

The most common and respected form of art, according to authors like Pliny or Pausanias, were panel paintings, individual, portable paintings on wood boards. The techniques used were encaustic (wax) painting and tempera. Such paintings normally depicted figural scenes, including portraits and still-lifes; we have descriptions of many compositions. They were collected and often displayed in public spaces. Pausanias describes such exhibitions at Athens and Delphi. We know the names of many famous painters, mainly of the Classical and Hellenistic periods, from literature (see expandable list to the right). The most famous of all ancient Greek painters was Apelles of Kos, whom Pliny the Elder lauded as having "surpassed all the other painters who either preceded or succeeded him."[105][106]

Due to the perishable nature of the materials used and the major upheavals at the end of antiquity, not one of the famous works of Greek panel painting has survived. We have slightly more significant survivals of mural compositions. The most important surviving Greek examples from before the Roman period are the fairly low-quality Pitsa panels from c. 530 BC,[107] the Tomb of the Diver from Paestum, and various paintings from the royal tombs at Vergina. More numerous paintings in Etruscan and Campanian tombs are based on Greek styles. In the Roman period, there are a number of wall paintings in Pompeii and the surrounding area, as well as in Rome itself, some of which are thought to be copies of specific earlier masterpieces.[108]

In particular copies of specific wall-paintings have been confidently identified in the Alexander Mosaic and Villa Boscoreale.[109] There is a large group of much later Greco-Roman archaeological survivals from the dry conditions of Egypt, the Fayum mummy portraits, together with the similar Severan Tondo, and a small group of painted portrait miniatures in gold glass.[110] Byzantine icons are also derived from the encaustic panel painting tradition, and Byzantine illuminated manuscripts sometimes continued a Greek illusionistic style for centuries.

Symposium scene in the Tomb of the Diver at Paestum, c. 480 BC

The tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos, Tiryns and Mycenae. It is not clear, whether there is any continuity between these antecedents and later Greek wall paintings.

Wall paintings are frequently described in Pausanias, and many appear to have been produced in the Classical and Hellenistic periods. Due to the lack of architecture surviving intact, not many are preserved. The most notable examples are a monumental Archaic 7th-century BC scene of hoplite combat from inside a temple at Kalapodi (near Thebes), and the elaborate frescoes from the 4th-century "Grave of Phillipp" and the "Tomb of Persephone" at Vergina in Macedonia, or the tomb at Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, which are sometimes suggested to be closely linked to the high-quality panel paintings mentioned above. The unusual survival of the Tomb of the Palmettes (3rd-century BC, excavated in 1971) with painting in good condition includes portraits of the couple buried inside on the tympanum.

Greek wall painting tradition is also reflected in contemporary grave decorations in the Greek colonies in Italy, e.g. the famous Tomb of the Diver at Paestum. Scholars believe that the celebrated Roman frescoes at sites like Pompeii are descendants of the Greek tradition, and some copy particular famous panel paintings. These Roman copies are all loose adaptations, however, with extra figures added, poses altered, and colouring changed.

A stele of Dioskourides, dated 2nd century BC, showing a Ptolemaic thyreophoros soldier, a characteristic example of the " Romanization" of the Ptolemaic army

A banquet scene from a Macedonian tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki, 4th century BC; six men are shown reclining on couches, with food arranged on nearby tables, a male servant in attendance, and female musicians providing entertainment.[111]

Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (thorakitai) wearing chainmail armor and bearing a thureos shield, 3rd century BC

The Sampul tapestry, a woollen wall hanging from Lop County, Hotan Prefecture, Xinjiang, China, showing a possibly Greek soldier from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250-125 BC), with blue eyes, wielding a spear, and wearing what appears to be a diadem headband; depicted above him is a centaur, from Greek mythology, a common motif in Hellenistic art;[112] Xinjiang Region Museum.

Polychromy: painting on statuary and architecture

Traces of paint depicting embroidered patterns on the peplos of an Archaic kore, Acropolis Museum

Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome (from Greek πολυχρωμία, πολύ = many and χρώμα = colour). Due to intensive weathering, polychromy on sculpture and architecture has substantially or totally faded in most cases.

Although the word polychrome is created from the combining of two Greek words, it was not used in ancient Greece. The term was coined in the early nineteenth century by Antoine Chrysostôme Quatremère de Quincy.[113]

Architecture

Sculpture

Most Greek sculptures were painted in strong and bright colors; this is called " polychromy". The paint was frequently limited to parts depicting clothing, hair, and so on, with the skin left in the natural color of the stone or bronze, but it could also cover sculptures in their totality; female skin in marble tended to be uncoloured, while male skin might be a light brown. The painting of Greek sculpture should not merely be seen as an enhancement of their sculpted form, but has the characteristics of a distinct style of art.[115]

The most copious evidence of ancient Greek painting survives in the form of vase paintings. These are described in the " pottery" section above. They give at least some sense of the aesthetics of Greek painting. The techniques involved, however, were very different from those used in large-format painting. The same probably applies to the subject matter depicted. Vase painters appear to have usually been specialists within a pottery workshop, neither painters in other media nor potters. It should also be kept in mind that vase painting, albeit by far the most conspicuous surviving source on ancient Greek painting, was not held in the highest regard in antiquity, and is never mentioned in Classical literature.[116]

The Stag Hunt Mosaic, late 4th century BC, from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions.[117]

Unswept Floor, Roman copy of the mosaic by Sosus of Pergamon

A domestic floor mosaic depicting Athena, from the "Jewellery Quarter" of Delos, Greece, late 2nd or early 1st century BC

Mosaics were initially made with rounded pebbles, and later glass with tesserae which gave more colour and a flat surface. They were popular in the Hellenistic period, at first as decoration for the floors of palaces, but eventually for private homes.[118] Often a central emblema picture in a central panel was completed in much finer work than the surrounding decoration.[119] Xenia motifs, where a house showed examples of the variety of foods guests might expect to enjoy, provide most of the surviving specimens of Greek still-life. In general mosaic must be considered as a secondary medium copying painting, often very directly, as in the Alexander Mosaic.[120]

The Unswept Floor by Sosus of Pergamon ( c. 200 BC) was an original and famous trompe-l'œil piece, known from many Greco-Roman copies. According to John Boardman, Sosus is the only mosaic artist whose name has survived; his Doves are also mentioned in literature and copied.[121] However, Katherine M. D. Dunbabin asserts that two different mosaic artists left their signatures on mosaics of Delos.[122] The artist of the 4th-century BC Stag Hunt Mosaic perhaps also left his signature as Gnosis, although this word may be a reference to the abstract concept of knowledge.[123]

Mosaics are a significant element of surviving Macedonian art, with a large number of examples preserved in the ruins of Pella, the ancient Macedonian capital, in today's Central Macedonia.[124] Mosaics such as the "Stag Hunt Mosaic and Lion Hunt" mosaic demonstrate illusionist and three dimensional qualities generally found in Hellenistic paintings, although the rustic Macedonian pursuit of hunting is markedly more pronounced than other themes.[125] The 2nd-century-BC mosaics of Delos, Greece were judged by François Chamoux as representing the pinnacle of Hellenistic mosaic art, with similar styles that continued throughout the Roman period and perhaps laid the foundations for the widespread use of mosaics in the Western world through to the Middle Ages.[118]

The engraved gem was a luxury art with high prestige; Pompey and Julius Caesar were among later collectors. The technique has an ancient tradition in the Near East, and cylinder seals, whose design only appears when rolled over damp clay, from which the flat ring type developed, spread to the Minoan world, including parts of Greece and Cyprus. The Greek tradition emerged under Minoan influence on mainland Helladic culture, and reached an apogee of subtlety and refinement in the Hellenistic period.

Round or oval Greek gems (along with similar objects in bone and ivory) are found from the 8th and 7th centuries BC, usually with animals in energetic geometric poses, often with a border marked by dots or a rim. Early examples are mostly in softer stones. Gems of the 6th century are more often oval, with a scarab back (in the past this type was called a "scarabaeus"), and human or divine figures as well as animals; the scarab form was apparently adopted from Phoenicia.

The forms are sophisticated for the period, despite the usually small size of the gems. In the 5th century gems became somewhat larger, but still only 2-3 centimetres tall. Despite this, very fine detail is shown, including the eyelashes on one male head, perhaps a portrait. Four gems signed by Dexamenos of Chios are the finest of the period, two showing herons.

Relief carving became common in 5th century BC Greece, and gradually most of the spectacular carved gems were in relief. Generally a relief image is more impressive than an intaglio one; in the earlier form the recipient of a document saw this in the impressed sealing wax, while in the later reliefs it was the owner of the seal who kept it for himself, probably marking the emergence of gems meant to be collected or worn as jewellery pendants in necklaces and the like, rather than used as seals - later ones are sometimes rather large to use to seal letters. However inscriptions are usually still in reverse ("mirror-writing") so they only read correctly on impressions (or by viewing from behind with transparent stones). This aspect also partly explains the collecting of impressions in plaster or wax from gems, which may be easier to appreciate than the original.

Larger hardstone carvings and cameos, which are rare in intaglio form, seem to have reached Greece around the 3rd century; the Farnese Tazza is the only major surviving Hellenistic example (depending on the dates assigned to the Gonzaga Cameo and the Cup of the Ptolemies), but other glass-paste imitations with portraits suggest that gem-type cameos were made in this period. The conquests of Alexander had opened up new trade routes to the Greek world and increased the range of gemstones available.

A typical variety of ornamental motifs on an Attic vase of c. 530.

The synthesis in the Archaic period of the native repertoire of simple geometric motifs with imported, mostly plant-based, motifs from further east created a sizeable vocabulary of ornament, which artists and craftsmen used with confidence and fluency.[136] Today this vocabulary is seen above all in the large corpus of painted pottery, as well as in architectural remains, but it would have originally been used in a wide range of media, as a later version of it is used in European Neoclassicism.

Elements in this vocabulary include the geometrical meander or "Greek key", egg-and-dart, bead and reel, Vitruvian scroll, guilloche, and from the plant world the stylized acanthus leaves, volute, palmette and half-palmette, plant scrolls of various kinds, rosette, lotus flower, and papyrus flower. Originally used prominently on Archaic vases, as figurative painting developed these were usually relegated to serve as borders demarcating edges of the vase or different zones of decoration.[137] Greek architecture was notable for developing sophisticated conventions for using mouldings and other architectural ornamental elements, which used these motifs in a harmoniously integrated whole.

Even before the Classical period, this vocabulary had influenced Celtic art, and the expansion of the Greek world after Alexander, and the export of Greek objects still further afield, exposed much of Eurasia to it, including the regions in the north of the Indian subcontinent where Buddhism was expanding, and creating Greco-Buddhist art. As Buddhism spread across Central Asia to China and the rest of East Asia, in a form that made great use of religious art, versions of this vocabulary were taken with it and used to surround images of buddhas and other religious images, often with a size and emphasis that would have seemed excessive to the ancient Greeks. The vocabulary was absorbed into the ornament of India, China, Persia and other Asian countries, as well as developing further in Byzantine art.[138] The Romans took over the vocabulary more or less in its entirety, and although much altered, it can be traced throughout European medieval art, especially in plant-based ornament.

Islamic art, where ornament largely replaces figuration, developed the Byzantine plant scroll into the full, endless arabesque, and especially from the Mongol conquests of the 14th century received new influences from China, including the descendants of the Greek vocabulary.[139] From the Renaissance onwards, several of these Asian styles were represented on textiles, porcelain and other goods imported into Europe, and influenced ornament there, a process that still continues.

Although glass was made in Cyprus by the 9th century BC, and was considerably developed by the end of the period, there are only a few survivals of glasswork from before the Greco-Roman period that show the artistic quality of the best work. Most survivals are small perfume bottles, in fancy coloured "feathered" styles similar to other Mediterranean glass. Hellenistic glass became cheaper and accessible to a wider population.

No Greek furniture has survived, but there are many images of it on vases and memorial reliefs, for example that to Hegeso. It was evidently often very elegant, as were the styles derived from it from the 18th century onwards. Some pieces of carved ivory that were used as inlays have survived, as at Vergina, and a few ivory carvings; this was a luxury art that could be of very fine quality.

It is clear from vase paintings that the Greeks often wore elaborately patterned clothes, and skill at weaving was the mark of the respectable woman. Two luxurious pieces of cloth survive, from the tomb of Philip of Macedon. There are numerous references to decorative hangings for both homes and temples, but none of these have survived.

Greco-Buddhist frieze of Gandhara with devotees, holding plantain leaves, in Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, 1st-2nd century AD, Buner, Swat, Pakistan, Victoria and Albert Museum

Hypnos and Thanatos carrying the body of Sarpedon from the battlefield of Troy; detail from an Attic white-ground lekythos, c. 440 BC.

Ancient Greek art has exercised considerable influence on the culture of many countries all over the world, above all in its treatment of the human figure. In the West Greek architecture was also hugely influential, and in both East and West the influence of Greek decoration can be traced to the modern day. Etruscan and Roman art were largely and directly derived from Greek models,[144] and Greek objects and influence reached into Celtic art north of the Alps,[145] as well as all around the Mediterranean world and into Persia.[146]

The Hellenized Roman upper classes of the Late Republic and Early Empire generally accepted Greek superiority in the arts without many quibbles, though the praise of Pliny for the sculpture and painting of pre-Hellenistic artists may be based on earlier Greek writings rather than much personal knowledge. Pliny and other classical authors were known in the Renaissance, and this assumption of Greek superiority was again generally accepted. However critics in the Renaissance and much later were unclear which works were actually Greek.

As a part of the Ottoman Empire, Greece itself could only be reached by a very few western Europeans until the mid-18th century. Not only the Greek vases found in the Etruscan cemeteries, but also (more controversially) the Greek temples of Paestum were taken to be Etruscan, or otherwise Italic, until the late 18th century and beyond, a misconception prolonged by Italian nationalist sentiment.

The writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, especially his books Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1750) and Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("History of Ancient Art", 1764) were the first to distinguish sharply between ancient Greek, Etruscan, and Roman art, and define periods within Greek art, tracing a trajectory from growth to maturity and then imitation or decadence that continues to have influence to the present day.

The full disentangling of Greek statues from their later Roman copies, and a better understanding of the balance between Greekness and Roman-ness in Greco-Roman art was to take much longer, and perhaps still continues. Greek art, especially sculpture, continued to enjoy an enormous reputation, and studying and copying it was a large part of the training of artists, until the downfall of Academic art in the late 19th century. During this period, the actual known corpus of Greek art, and to a lesser extent architecture, has greatly expanded. The study of vases developed an enormous literature in the late 19th and 20th centuries, much based on the identification of the hands of individual artists, with Sir John Beazley the leading figure. This literature generally assumed that vase-painting represented the development of an independent medium, only in general terms drawing from stylistic development in other artistic media. This assumption has been increasingly challenged in recent decades, and some scholars now see it as a secondary medium, largely representing cheap copies of now lost metalwork, and much of it made, not for ordinary use, but to deposit in burials.

1. ^ Home page Archived 2019-05-18 at the Wayback Machine of the Corpus vasorum antiquorum, accessed 16 May 2016

2. Preface to ^ Ancient Greek Pottery (Ashmolean Handbooks) by Michael Vickers (1991)

3. ^ Trendall, Arthur D. (April 1989). Red Figure Vases of South Italy: A Handbook. Thames and Hudson. p. 17. ISBN 978-0500202258.

4. Kenneth D. S. Lapatin. ^ Chryselephantine Statuary in the Ancient Mediterranean World. Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-19-815311-2

5. Connor, Simon (1 January 2019). "Ashmawy, Aiman, Simon Connor, and Dietrich Raue 2019. Psamtik I in Heliopolis. Egyptian Archaeology 55, 34-39". Egyptian Archaeology: 38-39.

6. ^ CAHN, HERBERT A.; GERIN, DOMINIQUE (1988). "Themistocles at Magnesia". The Numismatic Chronicle. 148: 19. JSTOR 42668124.

7. Leonard Whibley, ^ A Companion to Greek Studies 3rd ed. 1916, p. 329.

8. ^ Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012). Mair, Victor H. (ed.). "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC - 1398 AD)" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers (230). University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations: 15-16. ISSN 2157-9687.

9. ^ Sabatini, Paolo (2 May 2012). "Antoine Chrysostôme Quatremère de Quincy (1755-1849) and the Rediscovery of Polychromy in Grecian Architecture: Colour Techniques and Archaeological Research in the Pages of "Olympian Zeus."" (PDF).

10. ^ Palagia, Olga (2000). "Hephaestion's Pyre and the Royal Hunt of Alexander". In Bosworth, A.B.; Baynham, E.J. (eds.). Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction. Oxford University Press. p. 185. ISBN 9780198152873.

11. Fletcher, Joann (2008). ^ Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend. New York: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-058558-7, image plates and captions between pp. 246-247.

12. for Caesar: ^ De Vita Caesarum, Divus Iulius, (The Lives of the Caesars, The Deified Julius), Fordham online text; for Pompey: Chapters 4-6 of Book 37 of the Natural History of Pliny the Elder give a summary art history of the Greek and Roman tradition, and of Roman collecting

13. See ^ Classical Art from Greece to Rome by John Henderson and Mary Beard, 2001), ISBN 0-19-284237-4; Honour, 45-46

14. See Rasmussen, "Adopting an Approach", by Martin Robertson and ^ Mary Beard, also the preface to Ancient Greek Pottery (Ashmolean Handbooks) by Michael Vickers (1991)

"Beazley" The Classical Art Research Centre, Oxford University. Beazley Archive Archived 2010-08-19 at the Wayback Machine - Extensive website on classical gems; page titles used as references

Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art, Oxford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0198143869

Cook, R.M., Greek Art, Penguin, 1986 (reprint of 1972), ISBN 0140218661

Dunbabin, Katherine, M. D., Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0521002303

Honour, Hugh, Neo-classicism. Style and Civilisation 1968 (reprinted 1977), Penguin

Rasmussen, Tom, Spivey, Nigel, eds., Looking at Greek Vases, 1991, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521376792, google books

Rawson, Jessica, Chinese Ornament: The Lotus and the Dragon, 1984, British Museum Publications, ISBN 0714114316

Greece: From Mycenae to the Parthenon, Henri Stierlin, TASCHEN, 2004

Shanks, Michael (1999). Art and the Greek City State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56117-5.

Betancourt, Philip P. Introduction to Aegean Art. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press, 2007.

Burn, Lucilla. Hellenistic Art: From Alexander the Great to Augustus. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2004.

Coldstream, J. N. Geometric Greece: 900-700 BC. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2003.

Jenkins, Ian, Celeste Farge, and Victoria Turner. Defining Beauty: The Body In Ancient Greek Art. London: British Museum, 2015.

Langdon, Susan Helen. Art and Identity In Dark Age Greece, 1100--700 B.C.E. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

Ling, Roger. Making Classical Art: Process & Practice. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2000.

Moon, Warren G. Ancient Greek Art and Iconography. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.

Pedley, John Griffiths. Greek Art and Archaeology. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2012.

Plantzos, Dimitris. Hellenistic Engraved Gems. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999.

Pollitt, J. J. Art In the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

--. Art and Experience In Classical Greece. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972.

Smith, Tyler Jo, and Dimitris Plantzos. A Companion to Greek Art. Somerset: Wiley, 2012.

Stewart, Andrew F. Classical Greece and the Birth of Western Art. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

Yatromanolakis, Dimitrios. Epigraphy of Art: Ancient Greek Vase-Inscriptions and Vase-Paintings. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2016.

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Ancient Greek art stands out among that of other ancient cultures for its development of naturalistic but idealized depictions of the human body, in which largely nude male figures were generally the focus of innovation. The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen in sculpture.

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Eleftherios Venizelos Greek Statesman and Political Leader

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İstiklal Marşı Presidential Symphony Orchestra

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Turkish National Anthem (İstiklâl Marşı)

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Turkish National Anthem (İstiklâl Marşı)

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https://youtu.be/fZik_-R24CY?si=wuczktk1LaRRQXm2

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ATATÜRK, FOUNDER AND FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF TÜRKİYE

https://www.ktb.gov.tr/TR-96300/ataturk39un-hayati.html

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ATATÜRK IS THE FOUNDER AND FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF TÜRKİYE

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İznik tiles are important in history as they reflect the characteristics of Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk and Ottoman art.

http://www.bursa.gov.tr/iznik-cinisi

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Blue-Eyed Giant, master poet Nazım Hikmet, one of the greatest poets of the 20th century from world literature, who made her mark in the history of Turkish literature with her love and longing for her country and her philosophical perspective.

Some of his poems are famous songs composed.

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Nâzım Hikmet’in bestelenmiş 7 şiiri - KÜLTÜR.İSTANBUL

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Nazım Hikmet’in ölüm yıl dönümü nedeniyle şairin ünlü sanatçılar tarafından bestelenmiş şiirlerini ve dile gelen o muhteşem şarkıları sizin için derledik.

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Hagia Sophia temple, which is an important building in terms of world history; first MS. It was built as a basilica during the Byzantine Period on the Gymnasium built by the Romans in the 7th century.

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Dünya tarihi açısından önemli bir yapı olan Ayasofya mabedi; ilk olarak MS. 7'nci yüzyılda Romalılar tarafından inşa edilen Gymnasium üzerine Bizans Dönemi'nde bazilika olarak inşa edilmiştir. 11'inci yüzyı

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Dalia Grybauskaitė is a Lithuanian politician who served as the 8th president of Lithuania from 2009 to 2019. She is the first and so far only woman to hold the position and in 2014 she became the first President of Lithuania to be reelected for a second consecutive term.

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Trakai Island Castle is an island castle located in Trakai, Lithuania, on an island in Lake Galvė. The construction of the stone castle was begun in the 14th century by Kęstutis, and around 1409 major works were completed by his son Vytautas the Great, who died in this castle in 1430.

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Esma Ayça Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School 3rd grade Türkiye 

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Esma Ayça Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School 3rd grade Türkiye 

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One of the most talked about works of Mural Istanbul, which is being held for the 7th time this year, belongs to Brazilian artist Arlin Graff. Located very close to the Ayrılıkçeşmesi Train Station, this painting draws attention with its use of geometric lines and neon colors. Arlin Graff is also known for his frequent use of graphic animal figures, as in this work.

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The ancient beauty of Burdur: Sagalassos Ancient City

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Esma Ayça Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School 3rd grade Türkiye 

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Esma Ayça Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School 3rd grade Türkiye 

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BURDUR TÜRKİYE

Sagalassos was one of the most important cities of Pisidia during the Roman Imperial Period.

The name Sagalassos first entered history in 334 BC when Alexander the Great occupied the city. Later, the city, which was under the rule of the Seleucid Kingdom centered in Syria, came under the rule of the Pergamon Kingdom in 189 BC. The city, which dates back to just before the Roman Imperial Period, has a Heroon, Bouleuterion, a temple in the Doric order and a monumental fountain. Many monumental structures such as the Antonine Fountain, Bath, Theater, Neon Library, Macellum and the Temple of Antoninus Pius were built in the city, which was the imperial cult center of the Pisidia province during the Roman period.

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Yunus Emre, Mevlana,

A Turkish poet and mystic who grew up in Anatolia. Yunus Emre, a Turkmen dervish who lived in the last half of the 13th century and the beginning of the 14th century, was the pioneer of Turkish poetry in Anatolia.

Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi was an Islamic scholar who lived between 1207-1273. He became famous as a mystic poet. The main subject of his works is to give meaning to human life through divine love.

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Esma Ayça Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School 3rd grade Türkiye 

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Esma Ayça Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School 3rd grade Türkiye 

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In this video we will take a journey across the ocean to discover some of the most remarkable and unique furry, feathered or scaly friends of Europe. We will explore each country and identify some of the most common animals.

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Get To Know European Animals And Their Fun Facts #animalnames #europe #kiddizoo

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"Our Fatherland" is the national anthem of Armenia. It was arranged by Parsegh Ganatchian; the lyrics were written by Mikayel Nalbandian. First adopted in 1918 as the anthem of the short-lived First Republic of Armenia, it was subsequently banned after the country was invaded by then incorporated into the Soviet Union. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the restoration of sovereignty in 1991, the song was re-adopted as the national anthem, albeit with slightly modified lyrics.

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Khachkars in Europe

Khachkars—Armenian cross-stones—stand in cities like Lyon, Brussels, and Vienna as memorials to the Armenian Genocide. These sacred carvings honor Armenian heritage and remind Europe of the importance of memory, justice, and cultural identity.

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Ursula von der Leyen

Ursula von der Leyen is the President of the European Commission since 2019 and the first woman to hold the role. A former German defence minister, she leads EU policy on climate, digital innovation, and international affairs. She played a key role in the EU’s COVID-19 response and support for Ukraine.

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Headed by chief designer of Yerevan Gaga Amatuni talented artists and designers began to paint the arches, improving the appearance of the city and delighting locals. As the saying goes, creativity always unites, and the local residents were happy to support the artists, bringing them food and coffee while working.

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The "Valentin" u-boat bunker in Bremen, Germany. A gigantic armaments project by the National Socialists. Built by more than 10,000 forced laborers from all over the world, destroyed before its completion. To this day, the monstrous ruins testify to the horrors of war. From here, a special appeal for peace is going out into the world: With the "Song for Europe", 70 choir singers from Bremen are raising their voices against the madness of annihilation and destruction – in Europe and wherever armed conflicts are taking place.

Song for Europe (Music: JULIO FERNÁNDEZ / Lyrics: ANNETTE FREUDLING)

Bleak tearful days

In spring of `22

News hovering like giant birds of prey Reality – a picture out of true Europe,

this song is for you Pace, vrede, Frieden, paz Hush

the noise of firing lines we hear Pace, pokój, myr, mir

Let us pretend

We knew the secret chord

Music powerful enough to make wars end Let us pretend that vocals break the sword Europe, this song is for you Pace, vrede, Frieden, paz* Hush the noise of firing lines we hear Pace, pokój, myr, mir

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We like so much Marcovaldo by Calvino, a book.

Marcovaldo, or the Seasons in the City" by Italo Calvino is a collection of short stories that follow the life of a poor, rural man named Marcovaldo as he navigates the struggles of urban life in northern Italy. The stories, written in a blend of comic and melancholy tones, explore Marcovaldo's attempts to reconcile his rural upbringing and his natural affinity for the countryside with the realities of city life.

A.Olivetti primary school students, Ivrea, Torino, Italy

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"Italo Calvino: The Master of Literary Imagination and Metafiction."  | Biography

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Mole Antonelliana, cinema Museum, Tourin

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Mole Antonelliana, cinema Museum, Tourin

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An architectural landmark of the city of Turin, it was initially conceived as a synagogue, before being bought by the Municipality of Turin and made into a monument to national unity. Planned and begun by architect Alessandro Antonelli in 1863, it was only completed in 1889. With a height of 167.5 metres, it was the tallest brick building in Europe at the time. The panoramic lift was inaugurated in 1961, during the celebrations for the centenary of the Italian Unification and it was renovated in 1999. Today it still allows visitors to go up to the panoramic terrace which is 85 metres high and take in the amazing views of the city and the surrounding Alps. Visitors can also climb on foot along the cavity of the dome stairs, up to the panoramic terrace.

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Places to see in ( Turin - Italy ) Mole Antonelliana

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David Sassoli was born in Florence on May 30, 1956.

He started working as a journalist at small newspapers and news agencies, before moving to the editorial office of Il Giorno in Rome, where he worked for seven years. In 1992, he began working as a television news reporter and correspondent for TG3.

Subsequently he worked on news programmes on Rai Uno and Rai Due, before joining the editorial staff of TG1 in 1999 as a special correspondent. Over the next 10 years, he was responsible for managing prime time news broadcasts, and covering major national and international events. In 2007, he became Deputy Director of TG1 and responsible for in-depth programmes TV7 and TG1 Special.

Since a young age, he was involved in educational associations, such as the Scouts and Catholic youth movements.

When the Partito Democratico (PD) was formed in 2007, he considered it the right place for his political commitment. On 7 June 2009, he was elected to the European Parliament as a member for central Italy. In the 2009-2014 legislature, he was head of delegation of the Partito Democratico in the European Parliament.

In 2014, he was re-elected as an MEP and was elected Vice-President of the European Parliament, with responsibility for Mediterranean Policy, the budget, and buildings. He was a member of the Committee for Transport and Tourism, and led on European railway reform (4th Railway Package), and the Single European Sky.

In May 2019, he began his third term as an MEP for central Italy and on 3 July, he was elected President of the European Parliament. (https://www.europarl.europa.eu/former_ep_presidents/president-sassoli/en/the-presidency.html)

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Italian MEP David Sassoli elected as European Parliament President

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Esma Ayça Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School 3rd grade Türkiye 

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Esma Ayça Özel Yeşilyurt Delta Primary School 3rd grade Türkiye 

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Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's greatest ideal was to create a civilized society united by a sense of national unity within our national borders. Mustafa Kemal, who saved the homeland and realized the ideal of a free and independent Turkey, modernized the new Türkiye by directing it towards the ideal of contemporary civilization. For this reason, he is an important leader in Europe and the World.

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Özge Uygungül Yılmaz/Gülnaz Gülenoğlu Primary School/Seyhan-Adana

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Dragon Dee - Nursery Rhymes & Kids Songs

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Countries of the World Song - Europe 🌏 |  Sing & Learn with Dragon Dee | Nursery Rhyme & Kids Song

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The life of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey, the great leader of the Turkish War of Independence and the Turkish Revolutions, who fought for the independence of the Turkish homeland and carried out revolutions to bring the Turkish nation to the level of contemporary civilization, lasted 57 years and the Great Leader passed away on November 10, 1938.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is a great leader who made Türkiye a member of contemporary civilization with all its institutions and who has become a part of human history. The idea of ​​building a mausoleum that would represent his greatness in every aspect and reflect his principles and revolutions and his thoughts on modernization emerged as a common desire of the Turkish nation, which was deeply saddened by the loss of Atatürk, and its construction was decided.

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Kadıköy’ün Çehresini Değiştiren Şahane Duvar Resimleri

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İstanbul Anadolu yakasının en büyük semtlerinden Kadıköy’ün son yıllarda geçirdiği değişimi fark etmemek imkansız. Sokak kültürünün, gece hayatının; tasarımın ve özgür sanatın merkezi haline gelen Kadıköy aynı zamanda İstanbul’daki mural yani sokak sanatının da kalbinin attığı yer haline geldi. Özellikle de Kadıköy’ün

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Nilüfer Ortak - Nebi Güney Secondary School,Türkiye

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Nilüfer Ortak - Nebi Güney Secondary School,Türkiye

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Europe Song

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Europe Song - Animated song for kids to help learn all the countries of Europe.

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Andreas Papandreou was a Greek politician

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The Polish National Anthem

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National Anthem: Poland - Mazurek Dąbrowskiego [REMASTERED]

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How 5 English Poets Became Revered Across Europe | Literary Classics: The Romantics

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Which of these 10 Sights Have you Visited? European Bucket List

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Ursula von der Leyen, née Ursula Albrecht, (born October 8, 1958, Brussels, Belgium), Belgian-born German politician who was the first woman to serve as Germany's minister of defense (2013-19). In July 2019 she became the first woman to be elected president of the European Commission.

Early life and education

Ursula was the daughter of German politician Ernst Albrecht, who had served as chief of cabinet at the Commission of the European Economic Community. She studied economics (1977-80) at the Universities of Göttingen and Münster as well as at the London School of Economics but never graduated. Instead, she went into medicine and graduated (1987) from Hanover (Germany) Medical School (MHH). She worked as an assistant physician (1988-92) at the MHH's gynecological clinic and in 1991 was awarded a doctorate in medicine. She lived (1992-96) in the United States while her husband, Heiko von der Leyen, was on the faculty at Stanford University. After her return to Germany, she served as a faculty member (1998-2002) at the MHH's department of epidemiology, social medicine, and health systems research. In addition, she earned a master's degree (2001) in public health.

Ursula von der Leyen, who had joined the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) in 1990, became involved in 1996 in the politics of Lower Saxony-the federal state her father had governed (1976-90). She held a series of local and state offices prior to her election in 2004 as a member of the CDU's leadership committee. After the CDU won the federal elections in 2005, she was appointed minister of family affairs, senior citizens, women, and youth in Chancellor Angela Merkel's first cabinet. Among von der Leyen's measures to address Germany's low birth rate were the implementation of paid parental leave from work following the birth of a child and a massive expansion of child care facilities. In 2009 she was elected a member of the Bundestag (parliament) and became minister of labour and social affairs. While she held that post, the ongoing financial crisis compelled her to make cuts to welfare spending. In late 2010 von der Leyen was elected deputy chairman of the CDU.

Tenure as defense minister

In December 2013 von der Leyen-seen by some as a possible successor to Merkel-became the first woman to hold the defense portfolio. In that post she endeavoured to reform the Bundeswehr (federal armed forces) while dealing with a number of challenges. In March 2014 Crimea, which was part of Ukraine, was annexed by Russia. The crisis sparked new concerns about NATO's capabilities, especially after an independent review of Germany's defense ministry, released in October 2014, uncovered scores of "problems and risks" in its procurement process. Doubts that the country could fulfill its military commitment to NATO, owing to a lack of battle-ready equipment, led some allies to pressure Germany to increase its military spending.

Von der Leyen publicly called for her country to assume a greater role in Europe's defense, and she later helped secure funds for military equipment. Another crisis developed in 2015 as a wave of refugees arrived in Europe, with many seeking asylum in Germany. The situation strained resources and led to anti-immigration efforts. Von der Leyen urged restraint, arguing that it was a mistake to equate refugees with terrorists. Her position, however, drew increasing pushback following terrorist attacks in Paris (2015) and Brussels (2016).

In February 2018 a survey of German military equipment found that only a fraction of key weapons systems were combat ready. Fewer than one-third of Germany's combat aircraft, fewer than half of its tanks, and just three of its heavy transport aircraft were available for deployment. Von der Leyen reacted to the findings by saying that it would take time to make up for decades of spending shortfalls, and Merkel's government committed to a significant increase in its defense budget. The defense spending target of 1.5 percent of GDP by 2024 remained short of the 2.0 percent agreed upon by NATO leaders in 2014, however, and the Bundeswehr struggled to reach expanded manpower goals. Von der Leyen proposed extending recruiting efforts to foreign European Union (EU) nationals who had been long-term residents of Germany, but other EU leaders expressed concerns about how such efforts might affect their own military readiness.

Road to the European Commission presidency

In October 2018, after a poor showing by the CDU in regional elections, Merkel announced that she would not seek another term as party leader. Von der Leyen declined to campaign for the position, which was eventually filled by Merkel protégé Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer. That von der Leyen, who had once been regarded as Merkel's heir apparent, did not even present herself as a candidate was seen by some as evidence that the defense portfolio continued to be a poisoned chalice. With her domestic political career apparently stalled and parliament probing irregularities and possible nepotism within the defense department procurement process, von der Leyen's deliverance would come from an unexpected source.

The term of European Commission president Jean-Claude Juncker was scheduled to end in November 2019, and his replacement was to be selected by the European Council-the heads of government of the 28 member countries of the EU. Final approval would rest with the European Parliament, but that process was complicated by the results of elections in May 2019, which saw the centrist ruling coalition lose its long-held majority. When closed-door negotiations began in June 2019, EU leaders struggled to find a compromise candidate who would be acceptable to the centre-right and centre-left blocs while garnering support from enough Green, liberal, and Euroskeptic members of the European Parliament to win confirmation.

After a fruitless summit resulted in little more than the elimination of the three leading candidates, European Council Pres. Donald Tusk shepherded a package deal that filled the EU's top roles with a quartet of western Europeans. Belgian Prime Minister Charles Michel was nominated to succeed Tusk, Spanish Foreign Minister Josep Borrell was tapped to inherit the foreign policy portfolio from Federica Mogherini, and International Monetary Fund chief Christine Lagarde was selected to follow Mario Draghi at the head of the European Central Bank. Most surprising, however, was the nomination of von der Leyen to succeed Juncker as president of the European Commission. Although she was the daughter of an esteemed European Community official, von der Leyen herself was seen as something of an outsider to the Brussels establishment, and, despite the fact that she had received the endorsement of the centrist and liberal parliamentary blocs, there remained doubts about the likelihood of her confirmation.

On July 16, 2019, von der Leyen was narrowly confirmed, receiving 383 of 747 votes (with 374 needed). The following day she resigned as Germany's defense minister and was succeeded by Kramp-Karrenbauer. Von der Leyen was due to replace Juncker on November 1, but disagreements over the makeup of her cabinet delayed the transfer of power by one month. On December 1 she became the first woman to serve as president of the European Commission.
Nicki Peter Petrikowski The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

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Ursula von der Leyen | Facts & Biography

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Ursula von der Leyen, Belgian-born German politician who was the first woman to serve as Germany's minister of defense (2013-19). She was initially seen as a possible successor to German chancellor Angela Merkel. In July 2019 she became the first woman to be elected president of the European Commission.

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Ursula von der Leyen, née Ursula Albrecht, (born October 8, 1958, Brussels, Belgium), Belgian-born German politician who was the first woman to serve as Germany's minister of defense (2013-19). In July 2019 she became the first woman to be elected president of the European Commission.

Early life and education

Ursula was the daughter of German politician Ernst Albrecht, who had served as chief of cabinet at the Commission of the European Economic Community. She studied economics (1977-80) at the Universities of Göttingen and Münster as well as at the London School of Economics but never graduated. Instead, she went into medicine and graduated (1987) from Hanover (Germany) Medical School (MHH). She worked as an assistant physician (1988-92) at the MHH's gynecological clinic and in 1991 was awarded a doctorate in medicine. She lived (1992-96) in the United States while her husband, Heiko von der Leyen, was on the faculty at Stanford University. After her return to Germany, she served as a faculty member (1998-2002) at the MHH's department of epidemiology, social medicine, and health systems research. In addition, she earned a master's degree (2001) in public health.

Ursula von der Leyen, who had joined the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) in 1990, became involved in 1996 in the politics of Lower Saxony-the federal state her father had governed (1976-90). She held a series of local and state offices prior to her election in 2004 as a member of the CDU's leadership committee. After the CDU won the federal elections in 2005, she was appointed minister of family affairs, senior citizens, women, and youth in Chancellor Angela Merkel's first cabinet. Among von der Leyen's measures to address Germany's low birth rate were the implementation of paid parental leave from work following the birth of a child and a massive expansion of child care facilities. In 2009 she was elected a member of the Bundestag (parliament) and became minister of labour and social affairs. While she held that post, the ongoing financial crisis compelled her to make cuts to welfare spending. In late 2010 von der Leyen was elected deputy chairman of the CDU.

Tenure as defense minister

In December 2013 von der Leyen-seen by some as a possible successor to Merkel-became the first woman to hold the defense portfolio. In that post she endeavoured to reform the Bundeswehr (federal armed forces) while dealing with a number of challenges. In March 2014 Crimea, which was part of Ukraine, was annexed by Russia. The crisis sparked new concerns about NATO's capabilities, especially after an independent review of Germany's defense ministry, released in October 2014, uncovered scores of "problems and risks" in its procurement process. Doubts that the country could fulfill its military commitment to NATO, owing to a lack of battle-ready equipment, led some allies to pressure Germany to increase its military spending.

Von der Leyen publicly called for her country to assume a greater role in Europe's defense, and she later helped secure funds for military equipment. Another crisis developed in 2015 as a wave of refugees arrived in Europe, with many seeking asylum in Germany. The situation strained resources and led to anti-immigration efforts. Von der Leyen urged restraint, arguing that it was a mistake to equate refugees with terrorists. Her position, however, drew increasing pushback following terrorist attacks in Paris (2015) and Brussels (2016).

In February 2018 a survey of German military equipment found that only a fraction of key weapons systems were combat ready. Fewer than one-third of Germany's combat aircraft, fewer than half of its tanks, and just three of its heavy transport aircraft were available for deployment. Von der Leyen reacted to the findings by saying that it would take time to make up for decades of spending shortfalls, and Merkel's government committed to a significant increase in its defense budget. The defense spending target of 1.5 percent of GDP by 2024 remained short of the 2.0 percent agreed upon by NATO leaders in 2014, however, and the Bundeswehr struggled to reach expanded manpower goals. Von der Leyen proposed extending recruiting efforts to foreign European Union (EU) nationals who had been long-term residents of Germany, but other EU leaders expressed concerns about how such efforts might affect their own military readiness.

Road to the European Commission presidency

In October 2018, after a poor showing by the CDU in regional elections, Merkel announced that she would not seek another term as party leader. Von der Leyen declined to campaign for the position, which was eventually filled by Merkel protégé Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer. That von der Leyen, who had once been regarded as Merkel's heir apparent, did not even present herself as a candidate was seen by some as evidence that the defense portfolio continued to be a poisoned chalice. With her domestic political career apparently stalled and parliament probing irregularities and possible nepotism within the defense department procurement process, von der Leyen's deliverance would come from an unexpected source.

The term of European Commission president Jean-Claude Juncker was scheduled to end in November 2019, and his replacement was to be selected by the European Council-the heads of government of the 28 member countries of the EU. Final approval would rest with the European Parliament, but that process was complicated by the results of elections in May 2019, which saw the centrist ruling coalition lose its long-held majority. When closed-door negotiations began in June 2019, EU leaders struggled to find a compromise candidate who would be acceptable to the centre-right and centre-left blocs while garnering support from enough Green, liberal, and Euroskeptic members of the European Parliament to win confirmation.

After a fruitless summit resulted in little more than the elimination of the three leading candidates, European Council Pres. Donald Tusk shepherded a package deal that filled the EU's top roles with a quartet of western Europeans. Belgian Prime Minister Charles Michel was nominated to succeed Tusk, Spanish Foreign Minister Josep Borrell was tapped to inherit the foreign policy portfolio from Federica Mogherini, and International Monetary Fund chief Christine Lagarde was selected to follow Mario Draghi at the head of the European Central Bank. Most surprising, however, was the nomination of von der Leyen to succeed Juncker as president of the European Commission. Although she was the daughter of an esteemed European Community official, von der Leyen herself was seen as something of an outsider to the Brussels establishment, and, despite the fact that she had received the endorsement of the centrist and liberal parliamentary blocs, there remained doubts about the likelihood of her confirmation.

On July 16, 2019, von der Leyen was narrowly confirmed, receiving 383 of 747 votes (with 374 needed). The following day she resigned as Germany's defense minister and was succeeded by Kramp-Karrenbauer. Von der Leyen was due to replace Juncker on November 1, but disagreements over the makeup of her cabinet delayed the transfer of power by one month. On December 1 she became the first woman to serve as president of the European Commission.
Nicki Peter Petrikowski The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Learn More in these related Britannica articles:

Germany, country of north-central Europe, traversing the continent's main physical divisions, from the outer ranges of the Alps northward across the varied landscape of the Central German Uplands and then across the North German Plain....

European Commission (EC), an institution of the European Union (EU) and its constituent entities that makes up the organization's executive arm. The EC also has legislative functions, such as proposing new laws for the European Parliament, and judicial functions, such as finding legal solutions to business and trade issues between countries...

London School of Economics and Political Science

London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), institution of higher learning in the City of Westminster, London, England. It is one of the world's leading institutions devoted to the social sciences. A pioneer institution in the study of sociology and international relations, it offers bachelor's, master's, and doctorate degree...

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Ursula von der Leyen | Facts & Biography

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Ursula von der Leyen, Belgian-born German politician who was the first woman to serve as Germany's minister of defense (2013-19). She was initially seen as a possible successor to German chancellor Angela Merkel. In July 2019 she became the first woman to be elected president of the European Commission.

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Nerija Piliukaitienė

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