# data[].attributes.body
A term that is used to describe the Nazi Regime under Adolf Hitler between the years 1933-1945. This was when the country turned to dictatorship. The term commonly used to describe the Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler between the years 1933-1945 is "Third Reich." The Third Reich refers to the period in German history when Hitler's National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), or Nazi Party, held political power and transformed Germany into a totalitarian dictatorship.
"Third Reich." Britannica, accessed 24 May 2023, https://www.britannica.com/place/Third-Reich.

# data[].attributes.body
Liberation is the act of setting one free from imprisonment or slavery. Liberation, in its most fundamental sense, refers to the act of setting someone free from imprisonment or slavery. It represents the release from physical, mental, or emotional bondage, granting individuals the opportunity to regain their autonomy, rights, and dignity. The concept of liberation holds significant historical and philosophical importance, as it has been central to movements for human rights, social justice, and freedom throughout history.
Liberation, in the context of Nazi liberation, refers to the act of setting individuals free from the imprisonment, persecution, and systematic oppression inflicted upon them by the Nazi regime during World War II.

# data[].attributes.body
Auschwitz, located in occupied Poland, was the largest Nazi concentration and extermination camp. It was liberated by Soviet forces on January 27, 1945. The liberators were shocked by the scale of the atrocities they uncovered. The world became aware of the horrors of Auschwitz after the liberation, as survivors shared their testimonies and evidence of mass killings, gas chambers, and crematoria. The liberation of Auschwitz remains a significant symbol of Nazi crimes against humanity.
"Auschwitz Liberation: Soviets Invade Death Camp." History.com, A&E Television Networks, 29 Jan. 2020, www.history.com/news/auschwitz-liberation-soviets-holocaust.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Shocking Liberation of Auschwitz: Soviets ‘Knew Nothing’ as They Approached | HISTORY

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
While some had been driven from the camp, thousands of emaciated prisoners had been left behind to die.

# data[].attributes.headline
Difference between Labor and Concentration Camps

# data[].attributes.subject
Difference between Labor and Concentration Camps

# data[].attributes.body
An extermination camp, also known as a death camp or killing center, was a type of concentration camp specifically designed and operated by Nazi Germany during World War II with the sole purpose of mass murdering individuals, primarily targeting Jews and other targeted groups. These camps were set up with efficient systems to exterminate people on a large scale, primarily through the use of gas chambers. The most infamous extermination camps were Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, and Sobibor. The main objective of extermination camps was the systematic and industrialized genocide of millions of people. On the other hand, a labor camp, also referred to as a concentration camp or work camp, was a type of camp where prisoners were subjected to forced labor under harsh and often brutal conditions. The primary purpose of labor camps was to exploit the captive workforce for economic gain. These camps were established to support Nazi Germany's war effort, and the prisoners were used as a source of cheap labor in various industries such as construction, mining, factories, and agriculture.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of Auschwitz-Birkenau, often referred to as Auschwitz II, was to serve as an extermination camp during World War II. It was specifically designed by Nazi Germany for the systematic genocide of Jews and other targeted groups. The living conditions in the camp were appalling. Prisoners were crammed into overcrowded and unsanitary barracks, lacking proper bedding and hygiene. Malnutrition was rampant. The daily routine of prisoners involved grueling forced labor, followed by selections and exterminations. They had limited access to food and were constantly under surveillance. The camp was under the control of the SS, led by Heinrich Himmler. SS officers and guards enforced strict discipline and carried out the extermination operations. The life expectancy of prisoners in extermination camps like Auschwitz-Birkenau was extremely low, with most being killed upon arrival in gas chambers.
"Auschwitz II." Auschwitz Memorial, accessed 24 May 2023, https://www.auschwitz.org/en/history/auschwitz-ii/.

# data[].attributes.body
Mauthausen-Gusen was mainly a labor camp made to exploit prisoners' forced labor for the production of granite and other materials. The living conditions were horrid. Prisoners were housed in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions, with limited access to food, inadequate clothing, and poor hygiene facilities. The daily routine involved intense physical labor in quarries, tunnels, and other industries. Prisoners faced grueling work conditions, harsh treatment, and high mortality rates resulting from exhaustion, malnutrition, and physical abuse. The camp was under the control of the SS, led by Franz Ziereis, who enforced discipline, carried out punishments, and oversaw camp operations. The life expectancy in Mauthausen-Gusen was relatively low due to the harsh labor conditions, brutal treatment, and high mortality rates.
“MAUTHAUSEN.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2019, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/mauthausen.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Establishment of the Mauthausen Camp

Nazi Germany incorporated Austria in the Anschluss of March 11-13, 1938. Shortly thereafter, Reichsführer-SS (SS chief) Heinrich Himmler, SS General Oswald Pohl, the chief of the SS Administration and Business Offices, and SS General Theodor Eicke, the Inspector of Concentration Camps, inspected a site they thought suitable for the establishment of a concentration camp to incarcerate, as Upper Austrian Nazi Party district leader August Eigruber put it, "traitors to the people from all over Austria." The site was on the bank of the Danube River, near the "Wiener Graben" stone quarry, which was owned by the city of Vienna. It was located about three miles from the town of Mauthausen in Upper Austria, 12.5 miles southeast of Linz.

At the end of April 1938, the SS founded a company, German Earth and Stone Works Inc. ( Deutsche Erd- und Steinwerke, GmbH-DESt), to exploit the granite which they intended to extract with concentration camp labor. In August 1938, the Inspectorate of Concentration Camps transferred approximately 300 prisoners, mostly Austrians and virtually all convicted repeat offenders or persons whom the Nazi regime classified as "asocials" from Dachau concentration camp to the Mauthausen site in order to begin construction of the new camp. By the end of 1938, Mauthausen held nearly 1,000 prisoners, still virtually all convicted criminals and asocials.

Prisoners in the Camp

Three months into World War II in December 1939, the number had increased to over 2,600 prisoners, primarily convicted criminals, "asocials," political opponents, and religious conscientious objectors, such as Jehovah's Witnesses.

After the Nazi regime initiated World War II, the number of prisoners arriving in Mauthausen increased dramatically and broadened in diversity. After the fall of France in June 1940, Vichy French authorities turned over to the German SS and police thousands of Spanish refugees, virtually all of whom had fought against General Francisco Franco's rebel troops during the Spanish Civil War, and who had fled to France after Franco overthrew the Spanish Republic in 1939. The SS and police incarcerated the overwhelming majority of the Spanish Republicans, more than 7,000, in Mauthausen in 1940 and 1941; individual members of the anti-Franco forces continued to trickle in to the camp until the last weeks of the war. Also incarcerated at Mauthausen were members of the International Brigades, most of them Communists of various nationalities, who had fought the Franco forces in Spain.

An estimated 197,464 prisoners passed through the Mauthausen camp system between August 1938 and May 1945. At least 95,000 died there. More than 14,000 were Jewish.

SS Staff and SS Guard Detachment

Mauthausen's first commandant was SS Captain Albert Sauer, who presided over the establishment of the camp on August 1, 1938 and remained commandant until February 17, 1939. SS Colonel Franz Ziereis replaced Sauer and remained the commandant of Mauthausen until May 1945.

After March 1940, SS Captain Georg Bachmayer was 1st Protective Detention Camp commandant, with responsibility for the prisoners while they were inside the camp. In 1938-1939, the 4th Regiment ("Ostmark") of the SS Death's-Head Units ( SS-Totenkopfverbände) guarded the perimeter of the Mauthausen concentration camp as well as prisoner work detachments deployed outside the camp. In 1940-1941, the guard unit, renamed SS Death's-Head Battalion ( SS-Totenkopf-Sturmbann) and upgraded in strength to battalion size, was administratively subordinated to the Waffen SS, though the camp commandant still issued all operational orders to the battalion.

Beginning in 1942, the SS authorities deployed an increasing number of ethnic German Waffen SS recruits from Slovakia, Romania, Hungary, and Croatia to serve in the Death's-Head Battalions at all concentration camps, including Mauthausen. In 1944 and 1945, Trawniki-trained guards (some of them veterans of Operation Reinhard deportation operations or killing centers), air force, and naval as well as other military personnel, and, later, municipal police ( Schutzpolizei) personnel and firefighters, served in the SS Death's-Head Battalion at Mauthausen and its subcamps.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Nazi Germany incorporated Austria in the Anschluss of March 11-13, 1938. Shortly thereafter, Reichsführer-SS (SS chief) Heinrich Himmler, SS General Oswald Pohl, the chief of the SS Administration and Business Offices, and SS General Theodor Eicke, the Inspector of Concentration Camps, inspected a site they thought suitable for the establishment of a concentration camp to incarcerate, as Upper Austrian Nazi Party district leader August Eigruber put it, "traitors to the people from all over Austria."

# data[].attributes.body
Westerbork served as a transit camp where Jews, Roma, and others were initially held before deportation to extermination or labor camps. The living conditions in Westerbork varied over time. At certain periods, prisoners lived in relatively better conditions compared to other camps, with limited access to educational and cultural activities. The daily routine initially involved various activities such as schools, workshops, and cultural events. However, as deportations increased, the routine shifted toward organizing transports. The camp was jointly managed by the SS and Dutch officials. Albert Konrad Gemmeker, a German SS officer, was one of the notable commandants. The life expectancy at Westerbork varied depending on the period. Initially, prisoners had a relatively higher chance of survival, but as deportations escalated, the life expectancy diminished as many were sent to extermination camps.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC. “WESTERBORK.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 11 Apr. 2021, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/westerbork.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From 1942 to 1945, Westerbork was a transit camp ( ) located in the Durchgangslager German-occupied Netherlands. As a transit camp, Westerbork served as a temporary collection point for Jews in the Netherlands prior to their deportation by the Germans to killing centers and concentration camps in the east.

For Dutch Jews, Westerbork was a key location in their experience of the Holocaust. More than 100,000 Jews spent time in the Westerbork transit camp prior to their deportation. Most were sent to killing centers at Auschwitz-Birkenau or Sobibor. Only 5,000 Jews who passed through Westerbork survived.

The Westerbork camp was located in the Dutch countryside in the northeastern part of the Netherlands. It was in the Dutch province of Drenthe, near the towns of Westerbork and Assen. This location was noteworthy because it was near the German-Dutch border and far from the major cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and The Hague.

Westerbork as Refugee Camp Administered by the Dutch, 1939-1942

The Dutch government established a camp at Westerbork ( Centraal Vluchtelingenkamp Westerbork ) in 1939 to intern Jewish refugees, mostly from Germany. The first refugees arrived in Westerbork in October of that year. In April 1940, there were approximately 750 Jewish refugees housed in the camp. Some of them were German Jews who had been passengers on the ship.

In May 1940, Nazi Germany invaded and occupied the Netherlands. In the first two years after the invasion, Westerbork continued to function as a refugee camp. From May 1940 to July 1942, the camp remained under Dutch administration. Under the Dutch, conditions were fairly good.

The German Transformation and Administration of Westerbork

In early 1942, the Germans began preparations to deport Dutch Jews to killing centers in the east. At this time, they required all Dutch Jews to be concentrated in Amsterdam. They also decided to intern all non-Dutch Jews in Westerbork. There were approximately 20,000 non-Dutch Jews residing in the Netherlands, most of them refugees from Germany.

In July 1942, the Germans took over the administration of Westerbork and transformed it into a transit camp called Police Transit Camp Westerbork ( Polizeiliches Durchgangslager Westerbork ) . It was under the supervision of the Commander of the Security Police and SD for the Netherlands ( Befehlshaber der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD Niederlande ). The Germans built more barracks and expanded the camp, so that it could hold more people. They also built a barbed wire fence around the camp and enforced much stricter rules.

The camp administration was headed by a German commandant. Westerbork had three commandants, all of whom were SS officers: Erich Deppner (July 1942 - September 1942); Josef Hugo Dischner (September - October 1942); and Albert Konrad Gemmeker (October 1942 - April 1945). German Ordedienst or the OD) kept order in the camp. SS men and a rotating group of Dutch civilian and military police guarded the camp. In addition to the German and Dutch personnel, a Jewish police force (called the

Westerbork as Transit Camp, 1942 - 1945

In July 1942, the Germans began operating Westerbork as a Jewish transit camp ( Judendurchgangslager ). Transit camps functioned as temporary holding facilities for Jews awaiting deportation. These camps were usually the last stop before deportation to a killing center.

From 1942 to 1944, the majority of Jews in the Netherlands were sent to Westerbork before they were deported to killing centers in German-occupied Poland. Most Jews stayed in the camp for only a short period of time.

At first, deportations left twice a week. But beginning in 1943, deportation transports left every Tuesday. The decisions about the timing and destination of these transports were made in Berlin. However, the Westerbork commandant decided who would be deported.

In some cases, the transports left Westerbork on passenger rail cars. At other times they left on cattle cars.

Deportation Transports from Westerbork

The first deportation transport left Westerbork on July 15, 1942, for Auschwitz-Birkenau. This first transport was followed by more than 90 subsequent transports to Auschwitz-Birkenau, Sobibor, Theresienstadt, and Bergen-Belsen. Most of those people deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau and Sobibor were killed upon arrival.

From July 15, 1942 until September 13, 1944, the Germans deported approximately 100,000 Jews from the Netherlands via Westerbork.

More than 55,000 Jews and 245 Roma were deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau;

34,313 Jews were deported to the Sobibor killing center;

4,000 - 5,000 Jews were deported to Theresienstadt;

more than 3,500 Jews were deported to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp.

There were also several small deportation transports to the Ravensbrück and Buchenwald concentration camps.

Transports were a traumatic experience for Jews in Westerbork. Witness testimonies mention confusion, distress, and brutality. For example, Dutch-Jewish journalist Philip Mechanicus, who kept a diary of life in Westerbork, described a transport that took place on June 1, 1943. He wrote:

The transports are as nauseating as ever.... Men, quiet, stone-faced; women, often in tears. The elderly: stumbling, faltering under their burden, tripping on the bad road sometimes into pools of mud.... Whoever hesitates, whoever dawdles, is being assisted; sometimes herded, sometimes shoved, sometimes beaten, sometimes punched, sometimes persuaded by a boot, quickly shoved aboard the train.... When the cars are full, the prescribed number of deportees having been loaded, the cars are sealed.... The commandant signals the departure: a wave of the hand. The whistle sounds ... a heart-rending sound is heard by everyone in the camp. The grungy snake, now fully loaded, crawls away.

The transport Mechanicus describes included 3,006 people. It arrived at the Sobibor killing center on June 3, 1943. Jules Schelvis, who had spent six days in Westerbork prior to deportation, was the only known survivor of this transport.

The best known person to pass through Westerbork was Anne Frank. After the Franks' hiding place was discovered on August 4, 1944, the Franks and the other occupants of the Secret Annex, where the Frank family spent two years in hiding, were sent to Westerbork. They were then deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau on September 3, 1944, in a transport with 1,019 deportees.

The Long Term Residents of Westerbork

Because Westerbork's primary role was as a transit camp, most Jews only spent a short period of time there. However, there was also a long-term camp population of approximately 2,000 people. The longer term camp prisoners were mostly German Jews, Jewish council members, camp employees, and certain other categories of persons exempt from deportation. The Germans encouraged camp activities by this group, including metalwork, health services work, and cultural activities. In the end, however, most of these inmates were also sent to the concentration camps and killing centers.

Michael Fink and his parents Manfred and Herta were three of these long-term Westerbork residents. The Finks had fled Nazi Germany on the St. Louis in May 1939. When the ship returned to Europe, the Finks were sent to the Netherlands. At first they lived in Rotterdam. But after the German invasion of the Netherlands in 1940, the family was interned in the Westerbork refugee camp. Michael attended school in Westerbork and his father managed the camp's laundry facility. The Finks remained in Westerbork until spring 1944, when they were deported to Theresienstadt. Michael and his mother survived and were liberated in Theresienstadt, but Michael's father Manfred died after being deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau and other concentration camps.

Liberation of Westerbork

In early April 1945, as Allied troops approached the camp, the Germans abandoned Westerbork. Westerbork was liberated on April 12, 1945, by Canadian forces who found 876 inmates there.

Last Edited: Apr 11, 2021

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From 1942 to 1945, Westerbork was a transit camp ( ) located in the Durchgangslager German-occupied Netherlands. As a transit camp, Westerbork served as a temporary collection point for Jews in the Netherlands prior to their deportation by the Germans to killing centers and concentration camps in the east.

# data[].attributes.body
Treblinka operated as an extermination camp during World War II, primarily targeting Jews. Its purpose was the mass murder and disposal of victims' bodies. The living conditions in Treblinka were horrific. Prisoners were confined in cramped and filthy barracks, lacking basic sanitation, and subjected to extreme overcrowding. Malnutrition and diseases were rampant. The daily routine revolved around extermination. Upon arrival, prisoners were transported to gas chambers for immediate killing. A small number of inmates were assigned to various forced labor tasks within the camp. The camp was under the command of SS officers such as Franz Stangl and Kurt Franz, who oversaw the extermination process and supervised camp operations. The life expectancy in Treblinka was extremely low, with most victims being killed within hours of arrival. Very few prisoners survived due to the camp's primary function of mass murder. Average life expectancy was 84.8 years.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 3 Mar. 2021, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/treblinka.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Treblinka became one of three killing centers created as part of Operation Reinhard (also known as Aktion Reinhard or Einsatz Reinhard). It was first established as a forced-labor camp.

In November 1941, under the auspices of the SS and Police Leader for the Warsaw District in the General Government, SS and police authorities established a forced-labor camp for Jews, known as Treblinka. This camp was later referred to as Treblinka I. It also served the SS and police authorities as a labor education camp for non-Jewish Poles whom the Germans perceived to have violated labor discipline. Both Polish and Jewish inmates, imprisoned in separate compounds, were deployed as forced labor. The majority of the forced laborers worked in a nearby gravel pit.

In July 1942, the authorities of Operation Reinhard completed the construction of a killing center, referred to as Treblinka II. Treblinka II was intended for the extermination of Warsaw's Jews and located in the Warsaw District of the General Government. However, because it was part of Operation Reinhard, it was administered by Odilo Globocnik. Globocnik was the SS and Police Leader of the Lublin District.

When Treblinka II commenced operations, the two other Operation Reinhard killing centers, were already in operation. These killing centers were Belzec and Sobibor.

The Location and Topography of Treblinka II

Treblinka labor camp and killing center were established during the German occupation of Poland in World War II. They were located in the Warsaw District of the General Government ( Generalgouvernement).

The labor camp was known as Treblinka I. It was constructed around a gravel pit that had been worked before the war and was located about 3.5 miles from the Treblinka village railway station. While this was a sparsely populated area, it was in close proximity to an important railway junction in a larger village called Malkinia Gorna. The Malkinia Gorna railway junction was located about mid-way on the approximately 100-mile rail line between Warsaw and Bialystok. Its location provided good rail connections between districts of the General Government and the cities of Warsaw, Lublin, Radom, and Bialystok.

Operation Reinhard authorities chose the site for the Treblinka killing center in this remote area. Treblinka II was opened approximately a mile south of the labor camp. It was located near the village of Wolka Okraglik along another railway line, the Malkinia-Siedlce connection. The Germans improved the rail connections between these various points by building a rail spur that led from the labor camp to the killing center and that also connected to the Malkinia station.

The site of the killing center was heavily wooded and hidden from view. It was laid out in a trapezoid covering an area of 1,312 by 1,968 feet (an area equivalent to almost 34 soccer fields). Pine branches woven into the eight-foot tall barbed-wire fence and trees planted around the perimeter served as camouflage, blocking any view into the camp from the outside. Watchtowers 26 feet high (almost 2.5 stories) were placed along the fence and at each of the four corners.

The killing center was divided into three parts: the reception area, the living area, and the killing area. The living area contained housing for German staff and the guard unit. It also contained administrative offices, a clinic, storerooms, and workshops. One section contained barracks that housed those Jewish prisoners selected from incoming transports to provide forced labor. This forced labor was intended to support the camp's function: mass murder.

Deportations to Treblinka

Deportations to Treblinka came mainly from the ghettos of the Warsaw and Radom districts in the General Government. Between late July and September 1942, the Germans deported around 265,000 Jews from the Warsaw ghetto to Treblinka. Between August and November 1942, SS and police authorities deported around 346,000 Jews to Treblinka II from the Radom District. From October 1942 until February 1943, the Germans deported to the Treblinka killing center more than 110,000 Jews from the Bialystok District, a section of German-occupied Poland that was attached administratively to German East Prussia. Treblinka also received transports of at least 33,300 Jews from the Lublin District.

German SS and police authorities deported Jews to Treblinka from the Bulgarian-occupied zones in Thrace and Macedonia. They also deported some 8,000 Jews from Theresienstadt in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Other small groups of Jews of undetermined numbers were killed at Treblinka II. The Germans deported these groups from Germany, Austria, France, and Slovakia via various transit locations in the General Government. In addition, an undetermined number of Roma (Gypsies) and Poles were killed at Treblinka II.

Deportations to Treblinka continued until the spring of 1943. Most prominent among the deportations were the approximately 7,000 Jews transported from the Warsaw ghetto after its liquidation following the Warsaw ghetto uprising. A few isolated transports arrived after May 1943.

The Staff of Treblinka I and II

The authorities at the killing center, Treblinka II, consisted of a staff of between 25 and 35 German SS and police officials. As with the other Operation Reinhard killing centers, the majority of German camp officials belonged to the T4 ("euthanasia") organization.

The first commandant of Treblinka II was Dr. Irmfried Eberl, a physician. Eberl had gassed patients as medical director of the Brandenburg and Bernburg "euthanasia" facilities. However, his poor management of Treblinka led to his dismissal on August 26, 1942, just six weeks after he arrived. His replacement, SS Captain Franz Stangl, was transferred from the Sobibor killing center. Stangl was a former policeman in the Criminal Police (Kripo). He had previously served as deputy office manager at the Hartheim and Bernburg "euthanasia" killing centers. On August 23, 1943, following the prisoner revolt at Treblinka, Kurt Franz succeeded Stangl as commandant. Franz was previously a cook at the Hartheim, Brandenburg, Grafeneck, and Sonnenstein "euthanasia" centers, as well as at the Belzec killing center. He remained commandant at Treblinka II until its liquidation in November 1943.

SS Captain Theodor van Eupen was the commandant of Treblinka I, the labor camp, from 1941 through 1944. Unlike Treblinka II, which was part of Operation Reinhard, the commandant of Treblinka I did not report to the Operation Reinhard and T4 authorities. Rather, Treblinka I's commandant was subordinate to the SS and Police Leader in Warsaw. Under the leadership of German authorities stood a police auxiliary guard unit of between 90 and 150 men. All of these men were either former Soviet prisoners of war (POWs) of various nationalities or Ukrainian civilians selected or recruited for this purpose. Members of the guard unit were trained at a special facility of the SS and Police Leader in Lublin, the Trawniki training camp.

Mass Murder

Incoming trains of about 50 or 60 cars bound for the killing center first stopped at the Malkinia railway station. Twenty cars at a time were detached from the train and brought into the killing center. The guards ordered the victims to disembark in the reception area, which contained the railway siding and platform. One building erected on the platform was disguised as a small railway station, complete with a wooden clock and fictive rail terminal signs and railway schedules.

German SS and police personnel announced that the deportees had arrived at a transit camp. Deportees were required to hand over all valuables. The reception area contained a fenced-in "deportation square" with two barracks in which deportees-with men separated from women and children-had to undress. It also contained large storerooms. This is where the possessions relinquished by victims were sorted and stored. Next, the goods were shipped to Germany via Lublin.

A camouflaged, fenced-in path led from the reception area to the gas chamber entrance, located in the killing area. This was known as the "tube" [" Schlauch "]. Victims were forced to run naked along this path to the gas chambers, deceptively labeled as showers. Once the chamber doors were sealed, a large diesel engine installed outside the building pumped in carbon monoxide exhaust. All those inside were killed.

Sonderkommando at Treblinka II

The Sonderkommando (special detachment) was a group of Jewish prisoners selected to remain alive as forced laborers. Members of this group worked in the killing area. They removed bodies from the gas chambers and initially buried them in mass graves. In October 1942, camp personnel deployed Jewish forced laborers to exhume these mass graves. The forced laborers were ordered to burn the bodies on open-air "ovens" made from rail track. This was in keeping with the efforts of the Sonderkommando 1005, tasked with excavating and destroying evidence of Nazi mass murder in the German-occupied east. German personnel and the Trawniki-trained auxiliaries periodically murdered the members of detachments of Jewish laborers and replaced them with persons from newly arriving transports.

Sonderkommando prisoners selected as forced laborers worked in the administration-reception area of the camp. They were tasked with forcing the new arrivals to detrain, disrobe, and relinquish their valuables. They were also forced to drive their fellow Jews into the "tube" which led to the gas chambers. Prisoners then sorted the victims' possessions in preparation for transport to Germany. In addition, they cleaned out freight cars for the next deportation. Victims who were too weak or ill to reach the gas chambers on their own were told they would receive medical attention. Members of the Sonderkommando carried them to a camouflaged area, which was disguised as a small clinic using a Red Cross flag. There, SS Corporal Willi Mentz shot the victims in an open pit. Previously, Mentz had performed agricultural work at the Grafeneck and Hadamar "euthanasia" facilities.

Resistance and Revolt in Treblinka

Jewish inmates organized a resistance group in early 1943. When camp operations neared completion, the prisoners feared they would be killed and the camp dismantled. During the late spring and summer of 1943, the resistance leaders decided to revolt. On August 2, 1943, prisoners quietly seized weapons from the camp armory. However, they were discovered before they could take over the camp. Hundreds of prisoners stormed the main gate in an attempt to escape. Many were killed by machine-gun fire. More than 300 did escape-though two-thirds of them were eventually tracked down and killed by German SS and police, as well as by military units. Surviving prisoners were forced to dismantle the camp. They were supervised by German SS and police personnel, who were acting upon orders from Odilo Globocnik. After completion of this job, the German SS and police authorities shot the prisoners.

The End of the Treblinka Camps

German officials ordered that Treblinka II be dismantled in the fall of 1943.

From late July 1942 through September 1943, the camp personnel murdered an estimated 925,000 Jews at the Treblinka killing center. They also killed an unknown number of Poles, Roma, and Soviet POWs. Treblinka I, the forced-labor camp, operated until late July 1944. While the killing center was in operation, some of the arriving Jews were selected and transferred to Treblinka I. Those Jews too weak to work at Treblinka I were periodically sent to Treblinka II to be killed.

During late July 1944, with Soviet troops moving into the area, camp authorities and Trawniki guards shot the 300-700 remaining Jewish prisoners. The camp was hastily dismantled and evacuated. All traces of it were destroyed. Lupine flowers were sown on the grounds, and an ethnic German farmer was installed on the property to camouflage the reality of what had occurred at this site.

Soviet Red Army troops overran the site of both labor camp and killing center during the last week of July 1944.

Last Edited: Mar 3, 2021

Author(s): United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Treblinka was one of three killing centers in Operation Reinhard, the SS plan to murder almost two million Jews living in the German-administered territory of occupied Poland.

# data[].attributes.body
Władysław Szpilman was a Polish Jewish pianist born in 1911 in Warsaw, Poland. He began his musical journey at an early age and became a renowned pianist in the 1930s. When World War II broke out, Szpilman and his family faced persecution under the Nazis. He witnessed the Warsaw Ghetto uprising in 1943 and managed to escape the deportation that followed.
Szpilman went into hiding, moving from one hiding place to another, relying on the help of friends and strangers who sympathized with his plight. He faced constant danger, as the Nazis intensified their efforts to capture and exterminate Jews. During his time in hiding, Szpilman experienced the horrors of the war and the devastation it brought upon his city. He witnessed the destruction of Warsaw during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. In 1945, as the war came to an end, Szpilman was discovered by a German officer named Wilm Hosenfeld, who was sympathetic to his situation. Hosenfeld provided him with food and kept him hidden until the arrival of Soviet forces.
After the war, Szpilman returned to his passion for music. He worked as a pianist for Polish Radio and continued to perform in concerts and compose music. In 1946, Szpilman testified as a witness during the Nuremberg Trials, providing valuable firsthand accounts of Nazi atrocities. Szpilman's remarkable story of survival and resilience was chronicled in his memoir, "The Pianist," which was published in 1946. The book became internationally acclaimed and was adapted into a film by Roman Polanski in 2002, bringing Szpilman's story to a wider audience. Szpilman received numerous awards and honors for his contributions to music and his bravery during the war. He dedicated his life to promoting peace and understanding, using his platform to advocate for tolerance and justice.

Goldfarb, Kara. “How a Jewish Pianist Played His Way through the Holocaust and Survived.” All That’s Interesting, 10 Nov. 2021, allthatsinteresting.com/wladyslaw-szpilman.

# data[].attributes.body
Branko Lustig, a Holocaust survivor and acclaimed film producer, endured unimaginable suffering during the Holocaust. As a young boy, he was imprisoned in Auschwitz concentration camp, witnessing the dehumanizing treatment, constant fear, and loss of countless lives, including his family members. Following the camp's liberation, Lustig returned to Croatia to discover that his mother, sister, and others had perished. These experiences shaped his life, fueling his determination to preserve the memory of the Holocaust. Lustig became an advocate for Holocaust education, sharing his story and participating in commemorative events. He also actively fought against discrimination, promoted tolerance, and worked to prevent genocide. Lustig's success in the film industry allowed him to use the medium to tell stories reflecting the resilience of the human spirit and to shed light on the atrocities of the Holocaust. His achievements as a producer included collaborating with renowned filmmakers and producing critically acclaimed films such as "Schindler's List" and "Gladiator." Despite his accomplishments, Lustig's legacy lies not only in the world of cinema but also in his dedication to Holocaust remembrance and promoting a more compassionate and understanding world.
Sandomir, Richard. “Branko Lustig, 87, Dies; Holocaust Survivor Turned Film Producer.” The New York Times, 21 Nov. 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/11/21/movies/branko-lustig-dead.html.

# data[].attributes.body
Elie Wiesel was a Holocaust survivor and renowned author born in 1928 in Sighet, Romania. In 1944, at the age of 15, he and his family were deported to Auschwitz concentration camp. They were later transferred to Buchenwald, where Wiesel's mother and younger sister perished. Wiesel and his father endured unimaginable suffering, witnessing the horrors of the Holocaust. After the camp's liberation, Wiesel discovered his father had succumbed to illness and exhaustion. Wiesel's haunting memoir, "Night," published in 1955, recounts his experiences during the Holocaust and became a seminal work on the subject. Throughout his life, Wiesel dedicated himself to promoting peace, human rights, and remembering the victims of the Holocaust, earning him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986.

Wiesel, Ellie. “About Elie Wiesel.” The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity, 16 Nov. 2022, eliewieselfoundation.org/about-elie-wiesel/.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230330-greece-broadens-investigation-into-alleged-plot-to-carry-out-anti-semitic-attacks

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Greece is questioning eight additional suspects from Pakistan over an alleged plot to carry out anti-Semitic attacks in Athens, a police source said Thursday.

"The investigation to determine if additional persons are involved is ongoing," the police source told AFP.

The eight Pakistani men were detained for illegal entry into Greece, the official added.

Greek police said Tuesday they had arrested two Pakistanis of Iranian origin who were planning attacks on areas frequented by Israelis in central Athens.

The source said the men had targeted a building which houses a Jewish restaurant and a prayer centre.

Police spokeswoman Constantia Dimoglidou told AFP the "mastermind" of the cell is "a Pakistani who lives outside Europe".

A police source, speaking on condition of anonymity, said the person lived in Iran.

State news agency ANA late Wednesday said the eight men being questioned were "in close contact" with the two original suspects.

Israel accused Tehran of being behind the plot and said its Mossad intelligence agency had helped avert an attack.

Greece was included on a list of countries with travel warnings issued by Israel's National Security Council ahead of the Jewish holiday of Passover in early April.

Iran's embassy in Greece on Wednesday denied any connection to the alleged plot.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Greece broadens investigation into alleged anti-Semitic attacks plot

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Greece is questioning eight additional suspects from Pakistan over an alleged plot to carry out anti-Semitic attacks in Athens, a police source said Thursday. "The investigation to determine if additional persons are involved is ongoing," the police source told AFP. The eight Pakistani men were detained for illegal entry into Greece, the official added.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.timesofisrael.com/burning-judas-deriding-jews-antisemitic-easter-traditions-persist-in-europe/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
At a festive procession in Pruchnik, a small town in southeastern Poland, townsmen watch the ceremonial burning of a kippah-wearing effigy they've named Judas as part of a Christian event. In a small Dutch municipality, dozens of men wearing matching attire march through their city's streets singing of the Jews' murder of Jesus Christ.

These medieval-sounding scenes aren't anecdotes from Europe's rich history of antisemitism: Both are contemporary, yearly Easter events.

A testament to the deep, abiding roots of Jew-hatred on the continent, the events held last week are among several traditions that persist in 21st-century Europe, despite repeated protests by Jewish and other critics.

The effigy on display in Pruchnik is part of an annual march in which locals play out a trial for Judas Iscariot, who according to the canonical gospels of Christianity betrayed Jesus, leading to his execution. The locals beat the effigy and set it on fire.

The anti-Jewish caroling in the Netherlands' eastern town of Ootmarsum sees singers in matching outfits denounce "the Jews who with their false council sacrificed Jesus on the cross."

The character of Judas is also represented in that Dutch Easter tradition: Some of the men caroling through Ootmarsum smoke a cigar throughout the ceremony. In local lore, the smokers are known as "Judas."

Amichai Chikli, Israel's minister for Diaspora affairs and combating antisemitism, protested the effigy burning in Poland, The Jerusalem Post first reported. Such events "have led throughout history to blood libels, discrimination and pogroms against innocent Jewish people and other bystanders," Chikli wrote in a letter earlier this week to the Polish ambassador in Israel.

Chikli also wrote to the Greek ambassador to complain about the alleged burning of an Israeli flag on April 11 at a Basketball Champions League game in Athens, and to the Ukrainian ambassador to protest the Kyiv municipality's inclusion of a Nazi collaborator on a list of people in consideration for having a street named after them.

In the Netherlands, the Easter caroling at Ootmarsum has come under criticism, including by influential Dutch Rabbi Lody van der Kamp.

The rabbi, who was born in the east of the Netherlands, last year called the tradition "unfathomable" in an interview.

"It is beyond me how the residents of Ootmarsum can sing along to this knowing the history of their city," he added, noting that four Jews were gunned down there during the Holocaust.

The rebuke appears to be leading to some change: Last year, the procession's organizing committee introduced alternative lyrics for the carol about the Jews, titled "Christ Is Resurrected." The new version replaces "Jews" with "people."

But not all carolers are onboard, according to the Tubantia local newspaper. Many participants in the annual event, which ends with a large bonfire, are sticking with the lyrics accusing the Jews of deicide.

Lars Telgenhof, a participant in the procession, told Tubantia that some of the marchers "take issue with how this beautiful tradition is coming under external pressure."

A visitor from a nearby town, who is among the hundreds of tourists who come to Ootmarsum annually to watch the Easter caroling procession, defended the original lyrics to Tubantia.

"Why should I get involved," demanded Jaap Meerkerk. "Let the incessant complainers find some other target than this beautiful tradition. No one here came to offend anyone," Meerkerk said.

John Joosten, the mayor of the municipality of Dinkellan that comprises Ootmarsum, last month penned an op-ed titled: " Our Community Does Not Tolerate Discrimination " in which he recommended welcoming in refugees. It did not mention the procession. His office did not immediately reply to The Times of Israel's request for his reaction to the caroling.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Burning Judas, deriding Jews: Antisemitic Easter traditions persist in Europe

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
At a festive procession in Pruchnik, a small town in southeastern Poland, townsmen watch the ceremonial burning of a kippah-wearing effigy they've named Judas as part of a Christian event. In a small Dutch municipality, dozens of men wearing matching attire march through their city's streets singing of the Jews' murder of Jesus Christ.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.deseret.com/sports/2023/5/8/23715707/dutch-soccer-fans-arrested-antisemitism

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
More than 150 soccer fans were arrested Saturday in Amsterdam for singing antisemitic chants together as they made their way to a game, according to The New York Times.

The fans continued singing even after they were told to stop, the article said, noting that they were ultimately charged with "insulting a group of people because of their race, religion or conviction," among other crimes.

The incident occurred ahead of a match between AZ Alkmaar and Ajax, which are both part of the top tier of soccer clubs in the Netherlands.

Ajax is associated with Jewish culture because it has roots "in a historically Jewish area of the city," The New York Times reported.

"Though Ajax doesn't currently have Jewish players, and it was not founded as a Jewish club, emblems of Jewish identity have long been associated with the Amsterdam team. ... Die-hard fans - even those who aren't Jewish - wear Star of David necklaces in support of the club," the article said.

AZ Alkmaar issued a statement Saturday condemning its own fans' behavior.

"The club strongly condemns inflammatory behavior and discrimination and emphatically distances itself from those who made themselves guilty of it," AZ Alkmaar said.

Antisemitism is becoming more common

One Dutch expert on antisemitism told The New York Times that Saturday's incident is part of a broader wave of anti-Jewish sentiment sweeping across The Netherlands.

"People's awareness continues to decline," said Naomi Mestrum, the director of the Center for Information and Documentation Israel in the Netherlands. "I'm especially worried about a lack of historical awareness and the seriousness of antisemitism."

Recent research has shown that antisemitic remarks and behaviors have become fairly common in the country, including in schools.

"According to a recent survey, 40% of Dutch school teachers report witnessing at least one antisemitic incident in the past year," Mosaic magazine reported earlier this year.

Antisemitism in Europe

The Netherlands is not the only country in Europe deal with a surge in antisemitism. The U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom highlighted a widespread rise in religion-related violence and discrimination on the continent in its latest report, as the Deseret News reported last week.

"We've seen social intolerance that's causing some religious communities to leave some European countries," said Imam Mohamed Magid, a member of the commission, during a May 1 event tied to the new report.

In the Netherlands, officials have committed to combatting anti-Jewish violence.

"In December 2022, the Dutch government announced a plan to combat antisemitism in the Netherlands to show that the country takes the problem seriously," The New York Times reported.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
154 soccer fans were arrested Saturday for singing antisemitic chants

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
More than 150 soccer fans were arrested Saturday in Amsterdam for singing antisemitic chants together as they made their way to a game, according to The New York Times. The fans continued singing even after they were told to stop, the article said, noting that they were ultimately charged with "insulting a group of people because of their race, religion or conviction," among other crimes.

# data[].attributes.body
Historically, a ghetto is the Jewish quarter of a city where Jews were held before being sent to camps. During the Holocaust, the term "ghetto" took on a much darker connotation. Under Nazi occupation, ghettos became instruments of persecution and a precursor to the mass murder of Jews in extermination camps. The Nazis implemented a policy of ghettoization in many cities across occupied Europe, forcibly relocating Jewish populations into designated areas. These ghettos were overcrowded, unsanitary, and subjected to extreme deprivation and harsh conditions. The inhabitants were subjected to forced labor, systematic starvation, and rampant disease.

# data[].attributes.body
Warsaw, capital of modern-day Poland since its resurrection in 1919. Prior to the war, about 30 precent of Warsaw's population was Jewish, which was about 350,000 people. Following Germany's invasion in 1939, Warsaw suffered major damages due to air attacks. Warsaw's ghetto was formed in October of 1940. People living in the ghetto suffered from starvation, diseases, and exposure. In 1941, the average calorie intake was only 1,125 calories. The picture is taken during the Warsaw Ghetto uprising.
"Warsaw." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia, accessed 24 May 2023, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/warsaw.

# data[].attributes.body
Prior to WWII, 200,000 Jews lived in Budapest and was known as a safe haven for Jews. Germany occupied Hungary in March of 1944. Originally, Jews weren't sent to camps, and instead 2,000 Jews got specified housing in apartment buildings around the city. But then came the Arrow Cross Party, who shot hundreds of Jews and some were sent to horrid labor camps. In November, 70,000 Jews were concentrated in Obuda, and told to march to Austria, where they would be sent to concentration camps there. The remaining Jews in Budapest got their own ghetto, where the living conditions were bad. The Arrow Cross pulled out more than 20,000 Jews to shoot along the river banks. Around 100,000 Jews were in city by the time the city was liberated.
"Budapest." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia, accessed 24 May 2023, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/budapest.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Nazi Germany occupied Hungary in March 1944. Learn about the experiences and fate of Jews in Budapest, Hungary’s capital, before and after the occupation.

# data[].attributes.body
In May of 1940, Germans already began sending Jews to the neighboring countryside away from the city. By March of the following year, 55,000 Jews had been expelled. 15,000 remained in Krakow, which led to the Germans ordering for a ghetto in Podgorze, south of Krakow. Germans enclosed the Jews with barbed-wire and tall stone walls. Police began sending Jews to Belzec by March of 1942. Here is a picture of some of the Jews being transported.
"Kraków (Cracow)." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia, accessed 24 May 2023, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/krakow-cracow.

# data[].attributes.body
"Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities" (International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance).
"Working Definition of Antisemitism." International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, www.holocaustremembrance.com/resources/working-definitions-charters/working-definition-antisemitism. Accessed 21 May 2023.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The IHRA is the only intergovernmental organization mandated to focus solely on Holocaust-related issues, so with evidence that the scourge of antisemitism is once again on the rise, we resolved to take a leading role in combating it. But to begin to address the problem of antisemitism, there must be clarity about what antisemitism is.

The experts in the IHRA 's Committee on Antisemitism and Holocaust Denial built international consensus around a non-legally binding working definition of antisemitism, which was then adopted by the Plenary. By doing so, the IHRA set an example of responsible conduct for other international fora and provided an important practical tool for its Member Countries.

The working definition has empowered many to address this rise in hate and discrimination at their national levels. Information on endorsement and adoption of the IHRA working definition of antisemitism can be found here.

Countering antisemitism today also means countering Holocaust distortion. Explore the IHRA's Toolkit Against Holocaust Distortion to learn more and to find ways to get involved.

The working definition of antisemitism

In the spirit of the Stockholm Declaration that states: "With humanity still scarred by ...antisemitism and xenophobia the international community shares a solemn responsibility to fight those evils" the committee on Antisemitism and Holocaust Denial called the IHRA Plenary in Budapest 2015 to adopt the following working definition of antisemitism.

On 26 May 2016, the Plenary in Bucharest decided to:

Adopt the following non-legally binding working definition of antisemitism:

"Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities."

To guide IHRA in its work, the following examples may serve as illustrations:

Manifestations might include the targeting of the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity. However, criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic. Antisemitism frequently charges Jews with conspiring to harm humanity, and it is often used to blame Jews for "why things go wrong." It is expressed in speech, writing, visual forms and action, and employs sinister stereotypes and negative character traits.

Contemporary examples of antisemitism in public life, the media, schools, the workplace, and in the religious sphere could, taking into account the overall context, include, but are not limited to:

Calling for, aiding, or justifying the killing or harming of Jews in the name of a radical ideology or an extremist view of religion.

Making mendacious, dehumanizing, demonizing, or stereotypical allegations about Jews as such or the power of Jews as collective - such as, especially but not exclusively, the myth about a world Jewish conspiracy or of Jews controlling the media, economy, government or other societal institutions.

Accusing Jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single Jewish person or group, or even for acts committed by non-Jews.

Denying the fact, scope, mechanisms (e.g. gas chambers) or intentionality of the genocide of the Jewish people at the hands of National Socialist Germany and its supporters and accomplices during World War II (the Holocaust).

Accusing the Jews as a people, or Israel as a state, of inventing or exaggerating the Holocaust.

Accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations.

Denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g., by claiming that the existence of a State of Israel is a racist endeavor.

Applying double standards by requiring of it a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation.

Using the symbols and images associated with classic antisemitism (e.g., claims of Jews killing Jesus or blood libel) to characterize Israel or Israelis.

Drawing comparisons of contemporary Israeli policy to that of the Nazis.

Holding Jews collectively responsible for actions of the state of Israel.

Antisemitic acts are criminal when they are so defined by law (for example, denial of the Holocaust or distribution of antisemitic materials in some countries).

Criminal acts are antisemitic when the targets of attacks, whether they are people or property - such as buildings, schools, places of worship and cemeteries - are selected because they are, or are perceived to be, Jewish or linked to Jews.

Antisemitic discrimination is the denial to Jews of opportunities or services available to others and is illegal in many countries.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
About the IHRA non-legally binding working definition of antisemitism The IHRA is the only intergovernmental organization mandated to focus solely on Holocaust-related issues, so with evidence that the scourge of antisemitism is once again on the rise, we resolved to take a leading role in combating it.

# data[].attributes.body
"I know that you are descendants of Abraham; yet you seek to kill me, because my word finds no place in you ... You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him" (John 8:37–39, 44–47, RSV).

# data[].attributes.body
In 1144, a young English boy by the name of William was found deceased with full body wounds. His uncle was a priest. He blamed the Jews and this led to rumor that Jews sacrificed a Christian every single year during Passover. This was an example of a blood libel. A blood libel is a Jewish accusation of a Christian death during the time of Passover.
"William of Norwich." Britannica, www.britannica.com/biography/William-of-Norwich. Accessed 24 May 2023.

# data[].attributes.body
In 1095, it all started with Pope Urban II trying to make Jerusalem exclusive to Christians, driving out the Muslims that had been there for centuries. This led to Christians having their own crusades, where they looked to "destroy" all non-Christians.
"The Crusades." The Holocaust Explained, www.theholocaustexplained.org/anti-semitism/medieval-antisemitism/the-crusades/. Accessed 24 May 2023.

# data[].attributes.body
Belzec, Sobidor, and Treblinka were the three centers where Jews who were in German-occupied Poland, were killed. 1.7 million people were killed. Operation Reinhard camps used diesel exhaust to form carbon monoxide to kill Jews. The picture is of 3 year-old Henoch Kornfeld of Poland, who was gassed at the Belzec killing center. He was 3-and-a-half when he was killed.
"Killing Centers: An Overview." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/killing-centers-an-overview. Accessed 23 May 2023.

# data[].attributes.body
Buchenwald, located in central Germany, was one of the first major concentration camps established by the Nazis. It was liberated by American forces on April 11, 1945. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the future President of the United States, personally visited Buchenwald shortly after its liberation. He was deeply affected by the horrific conditions and ordered that as many photographs and films as possible be taken to document the atrocities committed by the Nazis. Eisenhower recognized the importance of preserving evidence of the camps to ensure the world would never forget the extent of Nazi brutality.
"US Forces Liberate Buchenwald." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia, accessed 24 May 2023, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/timeline-event/holocaust/1942-1945/us-forces-liberate-buchenwald.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In early April 1945, as US forces approached, the Germans began to evacuate some 28,000 prisoners from the Buchenwald main camp and an additional several thousand prisoners from the subcamps of Buchenwald. About a third of these prisoners died from exhaustion en route or shortly after arrival, or were shot by the SS. The underground resistance organization in Buchenwald, whose members held key administrative posts in the camp, saved many lives. They obstructed Nazi orders and delayed the evacuation.

On April 11, 1945, in expectation of liberation, prisoners took control of the camp. Later that afternoon, US forces entered Buchenwald. Soldiers from the 6th Armored Division, part of the Third Army, found more than 21,000 people in the camp.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
April 11, 1945. On this date, Buchenwald prisoners stormed the watchtower and seized control of the camp. US forces liberated the camp the same day.

# data[].attributes.body
Following the end of World War 1 and Germany's loss, Jews and communists were accused of stabbing the Germans in the back and working as internal traitors, even though German-Jews worked in the army with honor and grace.
"Antisemitism in History: World War I." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia, encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-world-war-i. Accessed 23 May 2023.

# data[].attributes.body
This a picture of Jews being round up in an eastern European forest by Nazis. The four men and young boy were waiting for their evident execution. The perpetrators were directing them towards the man-made pit. These Jews were thrown into death pit that they made themselves. About 3,000 Jews were killed with the use of Death Pits.
"The Title of the Article." The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2004/jan/27/photography.museums#:~:text=Between%20September%20and%20December%2C%20hundreds,the%20war%20in%20the%20east.. Accessed 24 May 2023.

# data[].attributes.body
Dachau was a labor camp that served as a model for subsequent camps during the war. It primarily held political prisoners, social outcasts, and later, prisoners of war. The living conditions in Dachau were harsh. Prisoners lived in overcrowded barracks with minimal space, poor sanitation, and limited access to basic necessities. Malnutrition and disease were widespread. The daily routine involved forced labor, with prisoners working in various industries for long hours and receiving little rest. They were subjected to harsh treatment by guards. The camp was under the control of the SS, commanded by Theodor Eicke. The SS guards maintained strict discipline and carried out the orders. The life expectancy in labor camps varied depending on the conditions and the health of prisoners, but many still perished due to exhaustion, malnutrition, or brutality.
"Dachau." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia, accessed 24 May 2023, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/dachau.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Dachau was the first and longest operating Nazi concentration camp. Learn about the camp’s early years, prisoners, medical experiments, and liberation.

# data[].attributes.body
Sighet, now known as Sighet Marmatiei, was a town in Hungary between 1940 and 1944. Since the 18th century, Sighet had a relatively decent Jewish population, with 100 Jews in the 18th century. During the beginning of World War I, Sighet had 8,000 Jews and around 10,500 Jews by World War II. Germany occupied Hungary in March of 1944, as they were losing the fronts. The Sighet Ghetto was formed on April 18th, 1944 and it had two sections. One section was in the city and one was in the suburbs. Living conditions were horrible and very crowded. Jews had to wear yellow stars as they left the house and all valuables were turned in. The photo is of Sighet town center prior to German occupation.
"Sighet." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia, accessed 24 May 2023, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/sighet.

# data[].attributes.body
In this, Jews who were not deemed for work were separated from the rest and were killed by gas at the Hartheim Castle. The "14" in the sequence stands for the camp inspector, the "f" stands for the word death in German, and "13" stands for the cause of death, gas. Between 15,000-20,000 were killed in Aktion 14f13.
““Aktion 14f13“ – Death by Gas at Hartheim Castle.” Gusen-Memorial, “Aktion 14f13“ – Death by Gas at Hartheim Castle. Accessed 25 May 2023.

# data[].attributes.body
Also known as the "euthanasia program." It was a systemic murder program to kill people with disabilities. Took between January 1940 to August 1941. Around 70,273 adult patients were killed. They used carbon monoxide. The program you are referring to is commonly known as the Aktion T4 program, also referred to as the euthanasia program. Aktion T4 was a systematic and state-sponsored murder program initiated by the Nazi regime in Germany during World War II. Its primary objective was to exterminate individuals with disabilities and severe mental illnesses, considering them "life unworthy of life" according to the Nazi ideology of eugenics and racial purity.
"Killing Centers: An Overview." Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 24 Sep. 2021, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/killing-centers-an-overview. Accessed 24 May 2023.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Nazis established killing centers for efficient mass murder. Unlike concentration camps, which served primarily as detention and labor centers, killing centers (also referred to as "extermination camps" or "death camps") were almost exclusively "death factories." German SS and police murdered nearly 2,700,000 Jews in the killing centers either by asphyxiation with poison gas or by shooting.

First Use in the Euthanasia Program (Operation T4)

Killing centers first made their appearance in Nazi Germany in the execution of Operation T4, the so-called "euthanasia" program. The Euthanasia Program was the systematic murder of institutionalized patients with disabilities in Germany. From January 1940 through late August 1941, adult patients were murdered in gas chambers using chemically pure carbon monoxide gas.

Chelmno, Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka

To carry out the "Final Solution" (the genocide or mass murder of Jews), the Nazis established killing centers in German-occupied annexed and occupied Poland. The first killing center for the mass murder of Jews was General Government (a territory in the interior of occupied Poland), the Nazis opened the Chelmno, which opened in the Warthegau (part of Poland annexed to Germany) in December 1941. Mostly Jews, but also Roma (Gypsies), were gassed in mobile gas vans there. In 1942, in the Jews between March 1942 and November 1943. The overwhelming majority of those who arrived at these camps were immediately murdered in the gas chambers. Chelmno and the Reinhard camps used carbon monoxide produced by diesel exhaust to murder their victims. Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka killing centers (known collectively as the Operation Reinhard camps) to systematically murder the Jews of Poland. In the Operation Reinhard killing centers, the SS and their auxiliaries killed approximately 1,526,500

Auschwitz-Birkenau

The largest killing center was Over a million Jews and tens of thousands of Auschwitz-Birkenau, which by spring 1943 had four gas chambers in operation. Since the Auschwitz main camp was a labor camp, Jewish prisoners arriving at the Auschwitz complex faced a selection process. Those judged best able to work were selected for labor, while the majority of the transport were sent immediately to death in the gas chambers . At the height of the deportations, an average of 6,000 Jews were gassed each day at the Birkenau killing center using Zyklon B, a poisonous gas. Roma, Poles, and Soviet prisoners of war were killed there by November 1944.

Majdanek

Though many scholars have traditionally counted the Majdanek camp as a sixth killing center, recent research had shed more light on the functions and operations at Lublin/Majdanek. Within the framework of Operation Reinhard, Majdanek primarily served to concentrate Jews whom the Germans spared temporarily for forced labor. It occasionally functioned as a killing site to murder victims who could not be killed at the Operation Reinhard killing centers: Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka II. It also contained a storage depot for property and valuables taken from the Jewish victims at the killing centers.

Disguising Mass Murder

The SS considered the killing centers top secret. To obliterate all traces of gassing operations, special prisoner units (the Sonderkommandos) were forced to remove corpses from the gas chambers and cremate them. The grounds of some killing centers were landscaped or camouflaged to disguise the murder of millions. Moreover, the Special Action 1005 used prisoners to exhume and burn bodies from mass graves where cremation was not practiced.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Nazis established killing centers for efficient mass murder. Unlike concentration camps, which served primarily as detention and labor centers, killing centers (also referred to as "extermination camps" or "death camps") were almost exclusively "death factories." German SS and police murdered nearly 2,700,000 Jews in the killing centers either by asphyxiation with poison gas or by shooting.

# data[].attributes.body
As of spring in 1943, Auschwitz-Birkenau was the biggest killing center with four gas chambers. The chambers used Zyklon B as the killing gas. By November of 1944, around a million Jews, Poles, Gypsies, and Soviets had been killed there. One should not mix Auschwitz-Birkenau with Auschwitz I, which was a labor camp for those who were deemed capable of working. The picture was of the selection of Hungarian Jews at Auschwitz-Birkenau.
"Killing Centers: An Overview." Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2021, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/killing-centers-an-overview. Accessed 24 May 2023.

# data[].attributes.body
The Nazis used what were called "sonderkommandos" to hide the their gassing operations. Killing centers were considered top secret to the Nazis. Use of sonderkommandos led to the installment of Special Action 1005, which was an effort to burn bodies from mass graves. This is a picture of one the machines used to burn the bodies.
"Killing Centers: An Overview." Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2021, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/killing-centers-an-overview. Accessed 23 May 2023.

# data[].attributes.body
Riga, the capital of Latvia, was home to around 40,000 Jews before the Second World War, around ten precent of the cities population. Riga had a good system of Hebrew and Yiddish schools. Germans occupied Riga in July 1941. Latvian auxiliaries and German Einsatzgruppen shot thousands of Jews as they entered the city. Nazis ordered for the Riga Ghetto in mid-August, but it was sealed by October of 1941, in prisoning 30,000 Jews. In December the Nazis said they were moving the Jews further east. Between November 30th and December 9th, around 25,000 Jews from the Riga Ghetto were shot in the Rumbula forest. The remaining Jews of about 4,000 were placed into a smaller ghetto. The picture is of a young 14 year-old inmate at the Riga Ghetto, named Sara.

"Riga." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia, accessed 24 May 2023, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/riga.

# data[].attributes.body
President Eisenhower's visit to the liberated concentration camps was really important. He wanted to make sure that everyone knew the terrible things the Nazis had done. He took pictures and videos to show the world the evidence of the Holocaust. He wanted future generations to have proof of what happened and to remind everyone to never let it happen again. Eisenhower's actions helped create a record of history and showed that justice needed to be done for the victims of the Holocaust.
"Film of General Dwight D. Eisenhower Visiting the Ohrdruf Camp." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Perspectives, accessed 24 May 2023, https://perspectives.ushmm.org/item/film-of-general-dwight-d-eisenhower-visiting-the-ohrdruf-camp.