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https://sciencing.com/mutualism-biology-definition-types-facts-examples-13719234.html#:~:text=Mutualism%20Facts%20and%20Types,in%20digestion%20and%20overall%20health.

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Ecosystems in the natural world are comprised of living organisms that interact with one another in assorted ways. The term mutualism refers to a type of relationship that mutually benefits two species sharing an environment.

Living creatures have adapted interesting and unusual ways of helping each other out, although their motives are self-serving.

in biology refers to a close connection between different species that evolved together. A one-sided relationship that helps one species without affecting the other is called commensalism.

A one-sided relationship that benefits one species to the detriment of the other is called parasitism. A useful two-way relationship is referred to as mutualism.

Mutualism in biology refers to symbiotic species interactions that are mutually beneficial, or even essential, for survival. A mutualistic relationship forms when two different species each benefit by working closely together.

The relationship can be a bit complicated, however. For instance, one species may derive greater benefit, and the interaction could border on parasitism.

Mutualism is common in all ecosystems, including the human body. For instance, Harvard Medical School estimates that trillions of bacteria called gut microbiota live in the human intestine and aid in digestion and overall health. When a mutually beneficial relationship is close and longstanding, it is an example of mutualistic symbiosis.

Not all symbiotic relationships are mutualistic.

Mutualistic symbiosis came about through evolution. Mutualism between partner species enhances fitness to the environment and bolsters reproductive success. Organisms of different species that have adapted to adapt to each other's behavior and traits are called symbionts. Some species have become so interdependent that they cannot survive without the other one.

When the growth, reproduction or sustenance of living organisms is intertwined, the relationship represents obligate mutualism. For instance, certain types of Yucca plants and moth species have come to depend on each other to complete their reproductive life cycle. When a regularly occurring interaction benefits organisms but isn't essential for survival, that is facultative mutualism.

There are countless examples of mutualism on Earth. Mutualistic interactions can develop between two animals, two plants, animals and plants, and bacteria and plants, for instance.

Interspecific interactions help maintain stable populations and vice versa. Loss of one species can lead to the loss of others because of the interdependent nature of the food web.

The oxpecker is a little bird that has strong toes to grip animals' coats, and a colorful beak perfectly shaped for dislodging parasites. Although elephants want nothing to do with the bird, the oxpecker has a longstanding mutualistic relationship with zebras, giraffes and rhinoceroses in South Africa. The birds are always on the lookout for lice, blood-sucking ticks and fleas that jump on an animal's hide.

Along with eradicating pests, oxpeckers clean wounds. Some scientists have questioned whether such behaviors are mutual or parasitic because pecking at the wound delays healing. Nonetheless, feeding on bugs, grease and earwax is a helpful grooming service.

Thus, the oxpecker and certain hoofed species are generally considered mutualistic. Further, oxpeckers sound the alarm with a screeching hissing sound when a predator is lurking in the grass, giving bird and beast more time to flee.

Flowering plants need a plant-pollinator like nectar-craving bees for reproductive success during their life cycle. Some plants and trees even need a species-specific insect for fertilization.

For instance, the fig tree and small Agaonidae wasps peacefully co-exist and gain from their interaction. Fig trees and their mutualistic species of wasps are great examples of mutualism and coevolution.

Figs are modified stems with many flowers inside that mature into seeds if fertilized. Fig flowers emit on odor that attracts a fertilized female wasp that will bring pollen and lay eggs in the fig flower before she dies. Some seeds ripen, and others provide nourishment for growing wasp grubs. Wingless male wasps mate and die, and winged females leave in search of a new fig.

Legumes, like soybeans, lentils and peas, offer an excellent source of protein in the diet. Therefore, legumes need an optimal amount of nitrogen to synthesize amino acids and build protein.

Legumes have a species-specific mutualistic relationship with bacteria. Legumes and certain bacteria meet each other's needs without causing harm, unlike pathogenic bacteria.

Rhizobium bacteria in the soil form bumpy nodules on plant roots and "fix" nitrogen by converting N ₂ in the air to ammonia, or NH ₃. Ammonia is a form of nitrogen that plants can use as a nutrient. In turn, plants provide carbohydrates and a home for nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Reliance on bacteria when growing crops like soybeans reduces the use of chemical fertilizer that can seep into the waterways and cause toxic algal blooms.

Many ecological studies have shown that birds and animals play a role in seed dispersal. Now scientists are taking a closer look at the mutualistic interactions of plants and reptiles, especially in island ecosystems. Fruit-eating lizards, skinks and geckos play a key role in plant biodiversity and viability.

Because plants cannot move, they are dependent on external means for seed dispersal. Some species of lizards gorge on pulpy fruit, along with arthropods, and excrete undigested seeds at another location. Seed dispersal reduces competition with the parent plant for nutrients and facilitates gene exchange within the plant population.

Sea anemones are an ancient species that has characteristics of a plant and animal. When unsuspecting small fish swim by, the sea anemone uses its deadly tentacles to paralyze its prey.

Surprisingly, the orange and white clownfish makes its home within the sea anemone. Clownfish have adapted a thick coating of mucus that offers protection from the sea anemone's deadly sting.

Brightly colored clown fish lure other fish to the sea anemone's clutches, and subsequently benefit from the leftovers of the sea anemone's meal. Clown fish also provide air circulation to the sea anemone by swimming between the tentacles. They keep the sea anemone clean and healthy by getting rid of excess food.

The study showed that advantages are greatest when the small organisms live in an ecosystem dominated by large organisms. Further benefit can be gained from mutualistic partnerships between three symbionts.

For example, the whistling thorn acacia tree of Africa provides nectar and habitat for ants that bite elephants who nibble on the tree. During dry spells, ants feed on honeydew excreted by scale insects that live off tree sap.

A change in one symbiont would set off a chain reaction. For example, if the ants died off, elephants would destroy the tree, and the scale insect would lose its habitat and main food source.

The various types and examples of mutualism are not fully understood. Many questions remain about coevolution and the persistence of the various types of interspecific interactions.

Much of the work to date has focused on beneficial plant and microbe relationships. Mathematical modeling may deepen understanding of the genetics and physiology of co-evolutionary phenomena in the natural world.

Predictive modeling also looks at how factors such as resource availability and proximity may influence cooperative behaviors. Data at the cellular, individual, population and community levels can be integrated with mathematical models for comprehensive analysis of ecosystem interactions. Models can be tested and reconfigured as data accumulates.

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Mutualism (Biology): Definition, Types, Facts & Examples

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Mutualism is a close, symbiotic relationship that mutually benefits two different species present in an ecosystem. Many examples exist, such as the unusual relationship between the clown fish and the fish-eating sea anemone. Mutualistic interactions are common but sometimes rather complicated.

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Mutualism is common in all ecosystems, including the human body. For instance, Harvard Medical School estimates that trillions of bacteria called gut microbiota live in the human intestine and aid in digestion and overall health!

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https://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/7819/#:~:text=We%20define%20an%20ultimate%20mutualism,the%20presence%20of%20the%20partner.

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Understanding Mutualism When There is Adaptation to the Partner

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1. A mutualism is a mutually beneficial interaction between individuals of two species. Using the ongoing debate about plant-herbivore interactions as a springboard, we show that different measures of benefit arise depending on whether adaptation within the mutualism is considered. 2. A species’ p…

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https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02114.x

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https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/mutualism

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Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online

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Mutualism definition
n., ˈmju.tʃu.əˌlɪz.m̩
A form of symbiosis wherein the participating species benefit from the association and the beneficial effects must be greater than the costs

Mutualism Definition

What is mutualism? In biology and ecology, a mutualism is a form of symbiosis that is characterized by both species benefiting from the association. It is one of the symbiotic relationships occurring in nature. Other common ecological interactions between or among species are commensalism, parasitism, predation, cooperation, and competition. Ecologists define "symbiosis" as a close, long-term association between organisms of different species. Some old references use the term as a synonym for mutualism. However, symbiosis is a more ambiguous term. It includes other forms of relationships happening in an ecosystem and not just the mutualistic type. Furthermore, not all relationships have been merely positive or beneficial. Other interactions bring harm or danger to one of the participants. In the parasitic mode of relationship (called parasitism), for instance, an organism called the parasite benefits while the other (called the host) is mostly harmed as exemplified by intestinal worms, ticks, and fleas that exploit their hosts. In contrast, there are instances when an organism benefits from the relationship but does not cause significant harm to its host. This form of symbiosis where only one benefits while the other is generally unharmed and does not benefit from the association is called commensalism. The organism that benefits solely from it is referred to as commensal. An example of this is commensal birds living in hollow trees. Hence, organisms benefiting from each other is one of the defining characteristics of mutualism. Rather than reducing biological fitness, as in parasitism, mutualism promotes it. The benefits may be in terms of gaining access to nutrients, protection, or other life functions. It can be thought of as a form of a "biological barter" since the species trade resources (for example, carbohydrates or inorganic compounds) or services (such as protection from predators or gamete dispersal). For a relationship to be considered as a mutualism, the beneficial (or positive) effects must exceed the costs of the association. Otherwise, it will not be construed as mutualism but another form, such as parasitism and predation. Because of the positive effects of the association, mutualism is likened to cooperation. However, in the latter, the association is intraspecific. In mutualism, the organisms involved are from different species (i.e. interspecific). The mutualistic relationship, though, may not be perpetual. The positive association is sustained when the conditions are conducive. If not, mutualism may be disrupted. It could lead to one participant benefitting while the other is not. In certain instances, the other is harmed by the association. An example of this is the association between humans and normal gut flora. The human intestines harbor beneficial bacteria. These bacteria are provided with substrates in the human gut. In return, they provide humans vital compounds (e.g. vitamins) that they cannot normally synthesize. This mutualism can be disrupted when the human body becomes weak and immunocompromised. There is a risk that these bacteria could turn against the human host and become an opportunistic pathogen (i.e. an agent of disease).

Etymology of Mutualism

Etymologically, what does mutualism mean? The word mutualism came from the Latin mūtu(us), meaning "mutual", "reciprocal" and from the Greek -ismos, -isma, meaning "often directly", "often through". Synonym: mutual relationship. Compare: commensalism; parasitism. Sentence example: The ants herding and protecting the aphids from insect predators and the aphids providing honeydew for ants is a blatant display of mutualism.

Types of Mutualism

Some mutualistic relationships are so vital and substantial that the participants tend to rely on one another for each other's survival. Hence, these organisms in an extensively beneficial association are usually found living together in close proximity. In other instances, the participants are not too dependent on each other and may benefit from the association from time to time or when there's an opportunity. These instances are the two types of mutualism: obligate and facultative.

In obligate mutualism, the species involved are in close proximity and interdependent. This means that the absence of one meant the death of the other. They would not be able to survive without each other. Thus, they tend to co-exist and evolve together. The lichen is a common example used to describe and explain this type of mutualism. See the lichen pictures below.

The fungal component of a lichen provides the algae water and minerals whereas the algal component provides the fungi "food". The algae (mostly green algae) use the minerals and water to synthesize food by photosynthesis. Separating one component from the other by scientific or laboratory means will result in the death of both species as both will not grow and reproduce in the absence of the other. Thus, they perfectly represent the obligate-type of mutualism.

In facultative mutualism, the interacting species derive benefit from each other but not fully dependent on one another. Thus, one can still survive even without the other. This is the more common form of mutualism in nature. As an example, let's take a look at how plants and birds interact in a mutualistic way. The plants bear fruits that the birds feed on. In return, the birds help disperse the seeds, e.g. when they excrete them in places far from the parent plant. This is beneficial to the parent plant because its offspring may eventually compete for space, light, and nutrients.

The above examples are a direct type of mutualism. The benefits are reaped directly by the participants. In certain instances, the organism benefits indirectly. For example, when two predator species make a negative impact on another competitor species over the same prey species, this scenario makes it an indirect type of mutualism. (Ref. 1) In indirect mutualism, an intermediary species is involved. And in the given example, the intermediary is a foe of a foe and therefore is a friend that indirectly helps out. It may also be positive: a friend of a friend could be construed as a friend indirectly helping out. For example, the bird feeding on the fruit and subsequently dropping it on the ground will indirectly provide for the fruit-eating insects. When the insects feed on them, the seeds can be expeditiously liberated from the fruit to the soil.

More Mutualism Examples

Bees and flowers

A classic example of mutualism is the insect pollination. A bee, for instance, pollinates a flower as it collects nectar from various flowers to turn it into food. When it lands on the flower, the pollen grains stick to its hairy body. Thus, when it moves to another flower, it, then, transfers the pollen to it, helping in plant reproduction.

Hermit crab and anemones

The shell of the hermit crab provides anemones a safe habitat. In return, the anemone defends the animal from its predators by its sting.

Oxpecker and rhino or zebra

The oxpecker (a kind of bird) on the back of rhino or zebra is another form of mutualism. This bird's behavioral display benefits the rhino and zebra by having onboard a biological pest control. The oxpeckers eat the ticks and other parasites on the skin of the rhino/zebra. Furthermore, they give rhinos and zebras a warning signal when they fly upward and scream as they perceive danger nearby. (Ref. 2)

Legume roots and nitrogen-fixing bacteria

Root nodule formation in legumes is another manifestation of mutualism at work. Root nodules are formed from the colonies of beneficial bacteria (e.g. Rhizobium) in the legume roots. The plant provides these beneficial bacteria a habitat (root cells) and the bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to a compound that the plant can readily use.

Humans and cohabitants

Modern human communities are now designed to be more ecologically and environmentally friendly. Healthier cities are being built based on the tenet and the objective of fostering harmony together with the other species living in the same habitat. These cities are designed and built based on the principles of living in harmony with nature and reconciling human health and ecological living. (Ref. 3)

References

1. Direct and Indirect Interactions | Learn Science at Scitable. (2010). Nature.Com. https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/direct-and-indirect-interactions-15650000/

2. Mutualistic Relationships - New England Complex Systems Institute. (2014). New England Complex Systems Institute. New England Complex Systems Institute. https://necsi.edu/mutualistic-relationships

3. Healthier Cities Factsheet: Building Biology Case Histories. (2019, October 8). Building Biology Institute. https://buildingbiologyinstitute.org/free-fact-sheets/healthier-cities/
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Mutualism - Definition and Examples - Biology Online Dictionary

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Mutualism definition n., ˈmju.tʃu.əˌlɪz.m̩ A form of symbiosis wherein the participating species benefit from the association and the beneficial effects must be greater than the costs What is mutualism? In biology and ecology, a mutualism is a form of symbiosis that is characterized by both species benefiting from the association.

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https://www.britannica.com/science/mutualism-biology

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Mutualism, association between organisms of two different species in which each benefits. Mutualistic arrangements are most likely to develop between organisms with widely different living requirements. Several well-known examples of mutualistic arrangements exist.

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https://byjus.com/biology/mutualism/#:~:text=Mutualism%20is%20a%20type%20of,partners%20present%20in%20the%20Mutualism.

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The term mutualism can be simply defined as a relationship in which both species are mutually benefited. This relationship can either be within the species or between the two different species. The species with this relationship is termed as symbionts.

Mutual relationship is seen in all living organisms including human beings, animals, birds, plants and other microorganisms like bacteria, virus, and fungi. Mutualism is a sort of symbiosis.

Mutualism is a type of relationship between the host and a symbiont, where both organisms benefit and no one is harmed. This relationship may either continue for longer or for shorter-term. The term mutualist is used to indicate the small partner and the host are the other partners present in the Mutualism.

For example, Ants live and feed on the nectar of acacia trees. Here ants are the mutualist and acacia trees is the host.

The acacia tree provides home and food for the ants. As they have hollow huge thorns - homes for the ants and yellow swellings on the leaves- food for the ants. In reverse ants acts a guard attacking insects and protects the tree from grazing animals.

There are five types of Mutualism.

In obligate mutualism the relationship between two species, in which both are completely dependent on each other. Most of the symbioses and some non-symbiotic are the best examples of obligate mutualism

For example Yucca plant and the moth.

The yucca plant, the habitat of the dry and arid climate of the southwestern United States. The flower of the yucca plant relies on the moth for the pollination process. In turn, the moth is benefited by laying its eggs on the flower and feeding the larvae with the seeds.

In facultative mutualism, the partners may coexist without a depending on each other. They, however, form a diffuse relationship involving a varying mixture of species.

For example Honeybees and plants.

Honey bees visit many different plants species for the nectar from the flower and these plants will be visited by the number of the insect as pollinators for pollination.

In trophic mutualism, the partners are specialized in complementary ways to obtain energy and nutrients from each other.

For example The cows and the bacteria.

Cows cannot digest the plant's cellulose. The bacteria present in the rumens of cows helps in digesting plants cellulose. In reverse bacteria gets food and warm environment, which is required for their growth and development.

In defensive mutualism, one partner receives food and shelter and in return, it helps the partner by defending against the herbivores or predators or parasites.

For example The aphids and the ants.

The aphids produce honeydew to the ants, which is carried to their nests at night for protecting them from the predators and escort. These aphids are carried back to the plant the next morning. In return, ants are benefited by assembling the aphid's eggs and storing in their nest chambers to survive the cold winter months.

In dispersive mutualism, one partner receives food in return for helping flower in transferring their pollen.

For example Honeybees and the Plants.

Honey bees travel from one flower to another in search of nectar from the flower which is required to prepare honey, in return plants are benefited by the pollination as the honey bee spread the pollen from one plant to another.
Also Read: Saprophytes
Following are the important examples of mutualism:

The human requires oxygen for life and plants use the carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Here both human and plants are mutually benefited. Humans use the oxygen given by the plants. In return, plants use carbon dioxide, which is exhaled by the Humans.
Also Read: Parasitism and Symbiosis
The bird oxpecker lives on the rhino and removes all bugs and parasites on the animal skin by eating them. The Rhino provides the bird with food and in return, the bugs removed from the skin of the rhino. Both rhino and the oxpecker is benefited.

To learn more about mutualism, its types and examples, keep visiting BYJU'S or download BYJU'S app for further reference.

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Mutualism - Definition, Types and Examples

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The term mutualism can be simply defined as a relationship in which both species are mutually benefited. This relationship can either be within the species or between the two different species. The species with this relationship is termed as symbionts.

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I personally enjoy learning about these behaivors and think that these are crucial for the earth, even as humans we have these behaivors which i find extremely facinating because it shows how close we are to nature and how humans and nature goes hand in hand. These social behaivors are a major key to communities and environments.

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Mutualism is an adaption, this is because both organisms could never have performed as well without the other, even if it was adapted to the absence of the organism. There would be a struggle for survival.

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In mutualism two organsism have a realtionship to where both are effected with benefits from eachother. Both organisms association does not harm them at all. This relationship can be short amount of time to their whole lives!