# data[].attributes.body
Oral language is the foundation for all aspects of literacy. It is composed of both speaking and listening which are innate capacities of the human mind. Oral language is the way in which we communicate and express ourselves to one another. It is a necessary component for the future development of reading and writing (Reading Rockets, 2022)

Fisher, D & Frey, N. (2022). Speaking and Listening in Content Area Learning. Reading Rockets. 68(1), 64–69 Doi: 10.1002/trtr.1296. Retrieved June 26, 2022, from Speaking and Listening in Content Area Learning | Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
 Listening and Reading Comprehension by Age (Stricht & James,1984)

# data[].attributes.body
As seen by the graphic, for much of our early life, we can comprehend at higher levels when listening as opposed to reading. For nearly 8 years after we learn to read, this interval still exists which makes it necessary for our classrooms to adjust to this. Students can be supported through activities like presentations as opposed to essays, reciprocal teaching between students as opposed to teacher lectures, and recorded lessons as opposed to a written copy of notes (Reading Rockets, 2022). These alternatives can help support students as they bridge this gap while also expanding their knowledge in a variety of disciplines.

Fisher, D & Frey, N. (2022). Speaking and Listening in Content Area Learning. Reading Rockets. 68(1), 64–69 Doi: 10.1002/trtr.1296. Retrieved June 26, 2022, from Speaking and Listening in Content Area Learning | Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.body
Math can be a difficult subject to teach due to its perceived nature. Often children will give up doubting their abilities before giving an honest attempt. However, the discipline of math can adapt in similar ways. Dr. Palisoc describes math as a language to get rid of the negative stereotype of math as a daunting set of abstract ideas. Teaching this language through oral means can mean more than recording lectures or allowing discussion between groups on math homework. As Dr. Palisoc explains through an example with a kindergartener, finding the patterns in math language can allow even 6-year old's to be exposed to algebraic concepts. By speaking and repeating the labels in previous problems, the listener can pick up on the patterns and find success in problems including fractions and variables. This is important to remember in all math classes, as finding patterns within the mathematical language and emphasizing these through speech will only benefit learners as they advance in the discipline.

Palisoc, R. (2014). Math isn't Hard, it's a Language. TEDx. Retrieved 5/26/2022 from Math isn't hard, it's a language | Randy Palisoc | TEDxManhattanBeach - YouTube

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Math isn't hard, it's a language | Randy Palisoc | TEDxManhattanBeach

# data[].attributes.body
Since oral language is one of the first parts of language that is perceived, one's native language plays a big part in the patterns one will recognize. In this video, Dr. Kuhl describes the critical period, mainly from birth to three years of age, in which children take mental statistics over the language they hear and begin attempting to speak. In the experiments she described, some children were exposed to both English and Japanese, whose patterns are very different. Through studies like these, it is clear that English Language Learners face similar challenges. Recognizing patterns in one's nonnative language is, understandably, more difficult as these children must keep mental statistics of both languages' patterns simultaneously. To account for this, it is crucial that we as teachers remain patient with these students, emphasize more difficult patterns, and be available for questions.

Kuhl P. (2010). The Linguistic Genius of Babies. TEDx. Retrieved 5/26/2022 from Patricia Kuhl: The linguistic genius of babies | TED Talk

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Patricia Kuhl shares astonishing findings about how babies learn one language over another -- by listening to the humans around them and “taking statistics” on the sounds they need to know. Clever lab experiments (and brain scans) show how 6-month-old babies use sophisticated reasoning to understand their world.

# data[].attributes.body
Phonological awareness is the ability to recognize syllables, alliteration, sentence segments, and rhyming words as well as phonemic awareness, which is comprised of the ability to utilize phonemes and individual sounds in spoken words (Reading Rockets, 2022). Each component of phonological awareness builds upon the previous with phonemic awareness as one of the most elaborate concepts as seen by the diagram.

Reading Rockets. (2022). Phonological and Phonemic Awareness. WETA, Retrieved 5/26/2022 from Phonological and Phonemic Awareness | Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.body
Phonemic awareness, the final stage of phonological awareness, can be displayed in numerous ways:
1. Identifying words with the same first sound
Ex. Mat, Mix, Month
2. Identifying the beginning or ending sound of a word
Ex. Cat starts with the sound of a "c", Book ends with the sound of a "k"
3. Molding individual sounds into a single word
Ex. The sounds of p, a, and t combine to sound out the word pat
4. Dividing a word into its sounds
Ex. Bat divides into the sound of a "b", "a", and "t"
(Reading Rockets, 2022).

While these may seem unrelated to math at first glance, the ideas closely mirror the language of math with a closer look
1. Identifying pieces of an equation with the same first symbols to group the problem into processes that are easier to complete
Ex. 5+2-9+6-4+3 changes to (5+2+6+3)-9-4 or
(5+2+6+3) -(9+4) =16-13=3
2. Identifying the ending variable's power within an equation
Ex. 5(x^2)-4(x^5)- (x^3) +7(x^2) +4(x^5)
or by recognizing and combining the variables to the second and fifth power, the equation simply becomes
12(x^2) -(x^3)
3. Recognizing the multiplication of variables combines to a single term
Ex. x(n)(l)(p)(s) =xnlps
4. Dividing an equation up into its components
Ex. (6x^4+9x^2) which can be expanded into
(3)(2)(x)(x)(x)(x) +(3)(3)(x)(x)
Further identifying what they have in common, a single 3 and 2 x's, which can be taken out to equal
3x^2(2x^2+3)

Mathematics is a language that students often fear. When beginning to approach more complicated processes, connecting mathematics to the language and phonemes they do know can create familiarity and foster confidence.

# data[].attributes.body
Mathematics is a field often dominated by men while women are pushed to subjects like English and art. As seen by the graph, these stereotypes affect performance on large-scale standardized tests like the ACT. A great way to combat this phenomenon is to show that subjects like math and English are not all that different after all. As seen by the previous examples, the language of mathematics has similar properties to the English language if we look close enough. Comparing these within lectures will convey these similarities to students and show that these disciplines are far from opposites. Since the divide between these subjects can be recognized as obsolete, students will begin to question the divide of genders between these subjects and will likely discredit these false stereotypes altogether.

WIA Reporters. (2011). Gender Differences in ACT Scores: Women Score higher in English, Men in Math and Science. Retrieved 5/27/2022 from Gender Differences in ACT Scores: Women Score Higher in English, Men in Math and Science : Women In Academia Report (wiareport.com)

# data[].attributes.body
Phonics describes the concept of "sound-letter correspondence" as well as the "organized, logical, and predictable relationship between written letters and spoken sounds" (Reading Rockets: Phonics and Decoding, 2022, para 1,3). The understanding of these relationships allows students to generalize the correspondences they learn and then apply them to novel words.
Print awareness involves understanding the features and functions of texts in a variety of contexts. Features range from the basic reading from left to right, spaces between words, and punctuation to divide sentences to the more complex understanding of formatting for essays, books, poetry, articles, and other compositions of text (Reading Rockets: Print Awareness, 2022). Giving students the opportunity to read everything from books to posters, to game boards, to recipes, to nutrition labels will help them develop this skill in a range of scenarios.

Reading Rockets. (2022). Phonics and Decoding. WETA. Retrieved June 3, 2022, from Phonics and Decoding | Reading Rockets
Reading Rockets. (2022). Print Awareness. WETA. Retrieved June 3, 2022, from Print Awareness | Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.body
In this video, Woo describes mathematics as "our sense for patterns, relationships, and logical connections" (Woo, 2018, 6:10). Mathematics is a lot like phonics in this way. The correspondence between letters and sounds is strongly reminiscent of the correspondence between equations and their solutions. While this correspondence in math becomes less automatic and more time-consuming as the equations advance, the relationships still exist. The operations still exist. The patterns still exist. The connections build upon each other and grow just as words grow from "at" to "cat" to "category" to "categorization" and so on. In mathematics, we as teachers must continually return to the base of the pattern and build upon it to help students develop understanding.
Print Awareness works in a similar way. Just as students learn to read a sentence from left to right, students learn to read an equation from left to right. Just as students can read a variety of texts (books, labels, signs), so can students learn to see math in a variety of formats: recipes, games, and gauges.

Woo, E. (2018). Mathematics is the Sense you Never Knew you Had. TEDx Talks. Retrieved June 3, 2022 from Mathematics is the sense you never knew you had | Eddie Woo | TEDxSydney - YouTube

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mathematics is the sense you never knew you had | Eddie Woo | TEDxSydney

# data[].attributes.body
As mentioned previously, gaining print awareness involves reading texts from a variety of contexts to look at their unique features and functions. A great way to do this is to have students bring in a favorite recipe, game, or other modes of text (rather than a book). It is necessary for activities like this to represent all cultures and languages within your classroom. Giving students the opportunity to show recipes unique to their culture is a great way to spark open conversations and allow students to share what is special to them. It is important with activities like this to foster a classroom of respect and interest so students can share these significant pieces of their culture.

# data[].attributes.body
Fluency incorporates the skills that allow readers to read as smoothly as they speak. Words flow easily with expression, and meaning is taken through the quick grouping of words by the reader (ReadingRockets, 2022). Nonfluent readers struggle to piece words together in a text as they must slow down to decode each one. Benefits of fluency include the ability to decode while comprehending text (Reading Rockets, 2022).

Reading Rockets. (2022). Fluency. WETA, retrieved June 4, 2022, from Fluency | Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.body
While fluency looks different in math, there are many transferrable skills as described by Christina Tondevold. Tondevold created this video at the start of the covid pandemic. She knew with schools shutting down many teachers and parents would be at a loss for how to teach their children the long process of fluency as opposed to the shortcut that is memorization. While fluency may take longer to develop, the rewards are evident as students move to higher math classes where skills must be generalized and transferred (which is far more difficult when skills are simply memorized). Tondevold gives three suggestions when beginning this process (Tondevold, 2020):
1. Estimation
Estimation is a powerful tool that allows teachers to have an idea of what students comprehend about the nature of numbers and how they move with certain processes. This can be as simple as having students predict the number of jellybeans in a jar or as complex as predicting the shape of the graph from the derivative of an equation.
2. Visuals
When reading fluently, students often create mental pictures to let go of all the words they would have to hold. They are able to let go of these words through pictures as they take in more perpetuating the process that is fluent reading. The same can be done in math. Visualizing a graph such as f(x)=x^2 will help students more easily comprehend the limit as the graph approaches 0 to equal 0. Incorporating visuals as much as possible benefits children in that they can simultaneously "decode and comprehend" the math problems they see.
3. Relation
Relation in math is like synonyms in reading. Understanding 3X2 is the same as 2X3 helps students not only in doubling their knowledge of addition and multiplication facts but in understanding the malleability of the mathematics language. This knowledge of manipulation will help them come at problems with a creative mindset as opposed to the fixed one that memorization enforces.

Tondevold, C. (2020). Math Experiences that Build Fluency, not Memorization. Build Math Minds. Retrieved June 4, 2022, from Math Experiences That Build Fluency, Not Memorization - YouTube

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
0:00 / 8:25•Watch full video

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Math Experiences That Build Fluency, Not Memorization

# data[].attributes.body
While English Language Learners often develop conversational English skills early on, academic skills (including fluency) can take nearly seven years to develop (Namnun, 2022). Math is often easier for ELLs to convert as math is known as the "Universal Language"; however, fluency in English is still needed for reading math textbooks, homework assignments, and tests. It is essential to support these students' development through techniques like
1. Groupwork in which ELLs can be paired with someone who is fluent in English and can assist in interpreting the requirements of the problems/lesson
2. Included extra time as ELLs need patience when developing fluency and may be afraid to ask for this time on their own.
3. Teacher support is essential whether students are in class or outside of class. It is important teachers are an available resource students are not afraid to use, especially should they not have the tools at home to develop fluency in English.

Namnun, R. (2018) Four Steps to Fluency and Mastery in Education for ELLs. District Administration. Retrieved June 4, 2022, from 4 steps to fluency and mastery in education for ELLs (districtadministration.com)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Incorporating high-quality resources to support ELL students can have a stark impact on whether they succeed. At High School of World Cultures, we have been able to pinpoint four best practices for evaluating ELL resources.

Editor’s note: District Administration welcomes the insights and opinions of educators and administrators on all topics. If you would like to contribute a guest column, please contact Tim Goral at tgoral@promediagrp.com.

Without question, the fastest-growing student population in the United States is English language learners. Nearly 3 out of 4 classrooms include at least one English language learner and just one-third of these students reach basic proficiency on national exams in math and reading. That’s half the rate of their non-ELL peers.

Further, the dropout rate for ELL students is double the national average and the achievement gap with non-ELL students has remained constant for nearly two decades.

This challenge is evident within our school, the High School of World Cultures in the South Bronx in New York City. We have students arriving from 30 different countries who speak up to 13 different languages and who have been in the United States for less than six months.

It is particularly difficult to address their individual language needs while also providing them with the tools and resources they need to graduate.

ELL students often develop conversational English skills quickly but it can take up to seven years to develop full academic proficiency.

Compounding the issue is that many districts are unprepared to provide ELL students the support required to achieve proficiency. And most teachers feel that they lack the high-quality instructional materials they need to address students’ language and academic needs, particularly within secondary education.

These challenges are amplified when serving highly mobile families, as schools may enroll students for only a few months or years of their academic journey. Yet, the stakes are high.

Incorporating high-quality resources to support ELL students can have a stark impact on whether they succeed. At High School of World Cultures, we have been able to pinpoint four best practices for evaluating ELL resources.

With an effective curriculum, ELL students can achieve the dual goals of establishing language fluency while reaching grade-level mastery across each subject. When the curriculum addresses the needs of these students, English language fluency and grade-level mastery across each subject is achievable.

Using content-rich instruction to accelerate comprehension

In high school, English language learners absorb the vast majority of new words through context, and only a relatively small number through direct translation instruction.

Consequently, context-rich instruction can dramatically accelerate the development of fluency. Context-rich instruction—which might include visualizations, text, audio and active learning opportunities—offers multiple ways of demonstrating the meaning of an unfamiliar word or concept.

This can also include leveraging familiar examples to activate prior knowledge by connecting the new word to a familiar concept. The power of context is strengthened through personalization, such as by offering tailored support and individualized feedback throughout the learning experience.

These approaches give students with multiple chances of assigning meaning to words, understanding the material and expanding their vocabulary.

Unlock subject-level success through comprehensible input

English language learners develop language and subject-area mastery when the content is comprehensible—when they understand what they are seeing, hearing or reading. We have found three effective ways to maximize the comprehensibility of instructional content.

1. Attention to vocabulary. With both text and speech, content is comprehensible when students can understand at least 85 to 90 percent of the words used. This requires careful attention to the vocabulary used as well as to the supports students have available.

2. Context-rich instruction. Context-rich instruction broadens comprehensibility by offering multiple ways to understand the meaning of a word or concept. If text initially proves incomprehensible, an image can provide the context essential to understanding it.

If an image still isn’t enough, a relevant example, interactive simulation or alternative explanation can all increase a student’s understanding of the word or concept.

3. Literary scaffolds. Specific literary scaffolds are essential to closing the comprehensibility gap. This means including structured reading activities, guided notes, audio support, dictionaries, native language translations and active reading strategies, among others.

These supports are particularly important for emerging language learners, who more frequently recognize fewer than 85 percent of the words used during instruction.

Leverage direct instruction for academic vocabulary

Direct instruction is essential to learning academic vocabulary as definitions are often too technical or abstract to learn through context alone.

For English language learners, effective direct instruction requires something more than a dictionary. A combination of accessible definitions, contextualized reinforcement and explicit review provides English language learners with the clarity and exposure they need to retain academic vocabulary.

With that in mind, effective interactive instruction strategies include:

coming up with student-friendly definitions

visual aids

examples of using the words in a familiar context

asking questions to help students think critically about the meaning of the words

opportunities to compare and contrast words and repetition to reinforce the target words.

Cement mastery through output

Practicing vocabulary words is just as important—if not more so—as learning them, and English language learners cement mastery through regular, varied usage. This output is most effective when it includes matching exercises, short answers, essays and discussions.

A balance of output facilitates syntactic processing, productive experimentation and the automatization of skills. Output also provides the opportunity for important feedback, which creates a natural mechanism for English language learners to validate, revise and reinforce their understanding through trial and error.

Many English language learners require additional support to generate grade-level responses—particularly for short answers, discussions, essays, reports and other open responses. These supports can include controlled release, guided examples and scaffolded writing assignments, among others.

Seizing the opportunity

These strategies outline the path to highly effective ELL instruction. Given the diverse backgrounds of our students, it often takes many of them more than four years to graduate from high school. But, ultimately, about 85 percent of our students do eventually graduate.

This can be a challenging, time-consuming task, but we believe that other districts, by combining these best practices, have an opportunity to build English language learners’ fluency and subject-level mastery simultaneously.

Doing this well provides these new English language learners with the foundation they need to excel both in school and beyond, while also increasing district performance and community standing.

Ramon Namnun is principal of the High School of World Cultures, one of three schools housed in the James Monroe Educational Complex in the Bronx, offering instruction for new arrival students within New York City Public Schools.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
4 steps to fluency and mastery in education for ELLs

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Incorporating high-quality resources to support ELL students can have a stark impact on whether they succeed. At High School of World Cultures, we have been able to pinpoint four best practices for ev

# data[].attributes.body
Comprehension is the general understanding of a text. Combining knowledge of vocabulary, language, and connections to oneself, other texts, and the world, students piece together the meaning of texts (Reading Rockets, 2022). Understanding does not always come quickly so readers must use techniques like context clues or main idea searching in order to build comprehension skills.

Reading Rockets. (2022). Comprehension. WETA, retrieved June 9, 2022, from Comprehension | Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.body
The Reading Rockets article offers five points for what good readers do: "draw on prior knowledge, make inferences, self-monitor, create mental images, summarize and retell" (Reading Rockets, 2022, para. 3-7). These techniques are very similar to those used within the math community.
1. Draw on Prior Knowledge
Mathematics is a subject that constantly builds upon itself. Counting becomes addition which becomes multiplication which is used in order of operations and so on. Prior knowledge is necessary to understand new mathematic processes.
2. Make Inferences
Before solving a problem, it is important for students to be able to estimate the answer. Completing this process shows that students understand the procedures they are using and allows for a comparison for the true answer to be 'in range'.
3. Self-Monitor
Similar to making inferences, self-monitoring helps students make sure their answers make sense. Monitoring what answers require a whole number, specific decimal, or other adjustments is necessary when answers must be exact.
4. Create Mental Images
Similar to reading, mental images in math help students visualize and work through problems. Especially in areas like geometry and word problems, visualizing and drawing out problems can simplify the problem-solving process.
5. Summarize and Retell
While not as common in mathematics, summarizing is still a great way for students to recall their process, notice mistakes, and develop a deeper understanding of the content. When reteaching content to peers and recalling their own process, students have a higher chance of understanding the material themselves. They are also more apt to notice mistakes, especially if they read through them aloud.

Reading Rockets. (2022). Comprehension. WETA, retrieved June 9, 2022, from Comprehension | Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.body
Within this video is the powerful quote, "Equality is giving everyone a shoe. Equity is giving everyone a shoe that fits" (Equity and Equality, 2019, 3:30). Students' needs for comprehension vary greatly from factors like their background, native language, and support outside the school. English Language Learners may need extra resources, tutoring, and time than students whose native language is English in order to build comprehension skills. Students of low economic status may need greater support at school because they do not receive it at home. Providing equity as opposed to equality is necessary to give all students the opportunity to succeed.

Gardner, S.K. (2019). Equity and Equality. YouTube. Retrieved June 9, 2022, from Equity and Equality - YouTube

# data[].attributes.body
Vocabulary is composed of the words readers must understand in order to listen, speak, read, and write. Comprehension is only possible through vocabulary as it is the key to making meaning of texts. Vocabulary can be learned by indirect means, natural, everyday experiences, or direct means, words that are taught explicitly. While most vocabulary is learned indirectly, direct instruction is beneficial for more complex words (Reading Rockets, 2022).

Reading Rockets. (2022). Vocabulary. WETA, retrieved June 17, 2022, from Vocabulary | Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.body
Vocabulary in math often seems to take up precious time for practice and learning. It is often overlooked and left to the students after quick direct instruction in the classroom, but this is not effective for most students. Students need interaction with math vocabulary in order to learn the language and become a part of the math discipline. Immersion is key, and Uscianowski (2018) provides five ways to achieve this.
1. Start with what they know:
Most students can describe processes in math without math-specific language. The goal is to transition these descriptions they know into the correct mathematic language. For example, with 3D objects words like sides become faces and points become vertices.
2. Explicitly Teach and Model:
Words like numerator, quotient, and intercept are often not learned indirectly. It takes time, patience, and constant exposure to these words for students to gain a full understanding of these tier 3 words. It is our job as teachers to model these words consistently and encourage students to use the words themselves.
3. Set up a Word Wall:
Math requires a foundation that is built upon throughout the year and throughout each grade. With this vast amount of information students must know, keeping an updated word wall with both new and old vocabulary will provide students with a useful reference.
4. Use Graphic organizers:
Similar to word walls, graphic organizers give students a more individualized reference to help them in class. These can be divided into the word, a classroom definition,
an in-your-own-words definition, and a picture/example. Students will be able to put their own words onto this during class time, so they have a dynamic resource all year.
5. Use Math Journals:
Math journals could be used as an exit ticket or a weekly check on students' understanding of vocabulary. Having students write descriptions as well as provide relevant examples in a weekly journal will help both teachers and students monitor progress.

Uscianowski, C. (2018). Use these 5 Actionable Strategies Today to Grow your Students' Math Vocabulary. Luminous Learning. Retrieved June 17, 2022, from Use these 5 practical strategies to grow students' math vocabulary (luminouslearning.com)

# data[].attributes.body
While the previous strategies mentioned are effective, some students need more supplements when learning vocabulary. English Language Learners often need these supplements as they are learning both English vocabulary and Math specific vocabulary. In this video, Dr. Hampton provides resources and advice on how to help English Language Learners with vocabulary in math. She begins by emphasizing the importance of pre-teaching vocabulary, so students have an idea of the common words in a lesson before the lesson begins. She also encourages using a rating system so students can rate their current knowledge at the beginning of the day followed by their learned knowledge at the end of the day. This can also help teachers have an idea of which strategies students are most receptive to in the classroom. She also suggests bringing in physical objects to display math terminology in a way students are more likely to understand. These strategies are not only effective for English Language Learners but also for students with learning disabilities and students with low socioeconomic status.

Hampton. (2020). How to Teach Math to ESL Learners. The Language Lady-YouTube. Retrieved June 17, 2022, from How to Teach Math to ESL Learners - YouTube

# data[].attributes.body
Writing occurs when students begin to understand that print has meaning, and they attempt to recreate this meaning by copying the print they see. It is a very complex process that necessitates direct instruction by the teacher so students can learn the skills, rules, and structure of writing. Good writers must have a strong knowledge of genre, voice, basic mechanical skills, organizational skills, and vocabulary to be successful (Reading Rockets, 2022).

Reading Rockets. (2022). Writing. WETA, retrieved June 22, 2022, from Writing | Reading Rockets

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
More resources: Writing and Spelling (PBS Launching Young Readers series) Growing Writers (PBS Launching Young Readers series) Looking at Writing Writing: Course Module Writing Apps Topics A-Z: Writing A child's writing development parallels the child's development as a reader.

# data[].attributes.body
While it is often the most dreaded part of any math class, writing is everywhere in mathematics from word problems to proofs to written explanations. Dr. Kevin P. Lee states, " If a mathematician wants to contribute to the greater body of mathematical knowledge, she must be able to communicate her ideas in a way which is comprehensible to others" (Lee, n.d.). As seen throughout this Padlet, math is a language that many students feel they lack fluency in. When teachers fail to address this concern, students feel lost and hopeless to ever understand. Dr. Lee elaborates on what good writing in math looks like with the following eight points
1. Express mathematical ideas, not just the final answer:
Mathematical ideas take guidance, and space to complete. Teachers should walk students through how work should look, present students with different ways a problem can be worked, and answer questions between the two.
2. Follow the rules of grammar:
Teachers can keep a common grammar rules poster within the classroom to aid students with this. In addition, teachers can provide students time to individually edit work, peer edit work, and to use individual grammar checkers.
3. Use symbols and words appropriately:
Similar to grammar rules, teachers can keep a poster in the classroom that contains common symbols. They could also support students by giving a direct lesson that follows a graphic organizer for students to fill out over common symbols and words.
4. Use precise, direct language:
To practice this skill, teachers could provide students with an activity in which lengthy sentences and ideas are provided for students to make more concise either in groups or in pairs. The direct practice of this skill will help them in editing their own work especially if the activity contains common indirect phrases among the class.
5. Organize writing in a logical way:
Teachers can support this point by providing students with templates and graphic organizers as they prewrite their ideas and work through the design of the project. Another great resource is a detailed rubric in which students can determine what the key points are and how to organize all these necessary points.
6. Write with an audience in mind:
To practice this skill, teachers can provide activities in which students must identify the audience. Using writing formats like emails, tables/graphs, and videos, students can identify whether the audience might be teachers, students, administration, or city council members.
7. Define variables and Formulas:
Teachers can provide students with a blank key, in which they can fill out the formulas and variables they used throughout the project. A sample key could be filled out by the teacher to demonstrate how this activity should be completed.
8. Use pictures and Diagrams where appropriate:
Included in the rubric should be a point about including pictures and diagrams whether this be a number requirement or part of the template between each idea. Teachers can support this component by providing direct instruction on how to find, copy, paste, and cite pictures within the project.
(Lee, n.d.)

Lee K. P. (n.d.). A Guide to Writing Mathematics. The University of California. Retrieved June 22, 2022, from writingman.dvi (ucdavis.edu)

# data[].attributes.body
In this video, Dr. Keener and Dr. Charlton discuss writing fair assessment questions for students of all backgrounds. Their main points emphasize the bias teachers can have when creating both multiple choice and constructed response test questions. This bias is the reason students often stop trying to understand the content but instead learn the nature of the test. These tests can contain cultural bias or bias against students with disabilities as the teacher's perspective may lack these two components. The cultural bias within tests may elicit the stereotype threat, fear of confirming a negative stereotype, for students of different backgrounds. This will take up the majority of these students' cognitive energy, to fight off mental stereotypes, instead of using this energy for the test. For students with disabilities, these tests will inaccurately represent the content they do comprehend, but instead reflect their lack of ability to think as the teacher thinks. Writing fair assessment questions cannot be a task taken lightly. Especially when students respond with long essay answers, teachers must be aware of and omit any bias they may have in writing and grading these questions. A great way to combat bias is to allow students to complete multimodal lessons, assignments, and tests. This could look like students having the option between teacher-instructed, video, or peer-discussed lessons. For exams, students could have the opportunity to make projects or videos that address the content within the exam in a more creative and flexible way. Giving students these options also opens the floor for questions, so students can have more of a say in their learning and how they want their learning to be measured. In this way, assignments become less motivated by teacher bias and more motivated by student creativity.

Keener T., Charlton B.C. (2016). Writing Assessments and Exercise in Equity. Beyond the Apple: Reframing Conversations in Education. Retrieved June 2022 from Writing Assessment Questions . . . An Exercise in Equity - YouTube

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
Beyond the Apple: Reframing Conversations in Education

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Writing Assessment Questions . . . An Exercise in Equity