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McWhirter vividly explores post-World War I racial violence

As World War I drew to a close in late 1918, the noted black author and activist James Weldon Johnson posed the issue that was on the minds of many African-Americans: Would their support for the war effort, on the battlefields of Europe and in the factories of the United States, translate into improvements in the "status of the Negro as an American citizen?" At that historical moment, blacks' status could be described as second-class - or worse. Their bill of complaints was painfully long: They were denied the vote in the South, trapped in a system of sharecropping that precluded economic mobility, excluded from countless workplaces, denigrated as biologically and culturally inferior, subject to harassment and violence, and relegated to segregated facilities that were palpably inferior to those of their white counterparts. Black wartime participation had raised "many high hopes" about the possibilities for change. "Now comes the test," Johnson announced.

Indeed, much had already changed over the course of the war. Half a million southern blacks had migrated to the North and industrial workplaces, long closed to black labor, opened their doors under the pressure of labor shortages. Black servicemen fighting in Europe encountered a white population often less hostile than American whites. The talk of a "New Negro" appeared in print and was heard on the streets. Civil rights protests erupted in the North and South. It was not unreasonable for African-Americans to think - or at least hope - that wartime gains would be maintained and even extended.

Instead of rewarding black Americans for their military service or even acknowledging their patriotic sacrifice, however, white Americans resolved to restore the pre-war status quo. Southern states cracked down hard on black protest organizations. The summer of 1919, argues journalist Cameron McWhirter, witnessed the "worst spate of race riots and lynchings in American history." From April to October, American cities exploded in an orgy of violence whose extensive bloodshed led Johnson to name it the "Red Summer." "Though no complete and accurate records on the eight months of violence were [ever] compiled," McWhirter notes, "at least 25 major riots erupted and at least 52 black people were lynched" in those months. "Millions of Americans had their lives disrupted. Hundreds of people - most of them black - were killed and thousands more were injured. Tens of thousands were forced to flee their homes."

Taking Johnson's phrase for his title, McWhirter vividly explores the dynamics of that season's bloodletting and the responses it elicited from black Americans. Postwar racial violence and politics are hardly new subjects for American historians, who have produced numerous studies on individual riots and lynchings, but McWhirter is among the few to look at the violence as a whole. He weaves together the multiple outbreaks into a single, highly readable (if, given its subject, sometimes painful) narrative.

The triggering events were many, some real, others imagined. In Washington, daily newspapers fanned the flames with lurid, exaggerated, or even fabricated accounts of black crime. In Chicago, postwar unemployment, labor conflicts, housing shortages, and heat provided the context for the massive violence that followed the stoning death of a young black swimmer who crossed an invisible line separating whites from blacks in Lake Michigan. Whites in Omaha, Neb., physically attacked their mayor before destroying the local courthouse to seize and then lynch a black man accused of assaulting a white woman. In Phillips County, Ark., black sharecroppers' efforts to organize a union to secure fair end-of-year settlements precipitated what one contemporary called "a crusade of death" that left hundreds dead.

In many instances, the press and public officials only made matters worse. Shortly before the nation's capital erupted into a "race war," the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) denounced four local newspapers for "sowing the seeds of a race riot by their inflammatory headlines." Arkansas journalists falsely claimed that officials had suppressed a "deliberately planned insurrection" aimed at a "general slaughter of white people." Making no secret of their opposition to black rights, white southern politicians blamed black sharecroppers and called the NAACP "an association for the promotion of revolution." For their part, federal officials believed, without evidence, that Bolshevik and other "agitators" instigated the violence. President Woodrow Wilson stood on the sidelines, doing nothing.

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'Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America' by Cameron McWhirter

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McWhirter vividly explores post-World War I racial violence As World War I drew to a close in late 1918, the noted black author and activist James Weldon Johnson posed the issue that was on the minds of many African-Americans: Would their support for the war effort, on the battlefields of Europe and in the factories of the United States, translate into improvements in the "status of the Negro as an American citizen?"

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The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow . Jim Crow Stories . Red Summer | PBS

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important journal of Negro life...

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Opportunity: Opportunity, American magazine associated with the Harlem Renaissance, published from 1923 to 1949. The editor, Charles S. Johnson, aimed to give voice to black culture, hitherto neglected by mainstream American publishing. To encourage young writers to submit their work, Johnson sponsored three

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Find your favorite poets here!

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Harlem Renaissance

A period of musical, literary, and cultural proliferation that began in New York's African-American community during the 1920s and early 1930s. The movement was key to developing a new sense of Black identity and aesthetics as writers, visual artists, and musicians articulated new modes of African-American experience and experimented with artistic forms, modernist techniques, and folk culture. Harlem Renaissance artists and activists also influenced French and Caribbean Négritude and Negrismo movements in addition to laying a foundation for future Black Arts champions like Sonia Sanchez and Amiri Baraka. Writing luminaries of the Harlem Renaissance include Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen, James Weldon Johnson, Claude McKay, Zora Neale Hurston, Jean Toomer, Nella Larsen, and Arna Bontemps. Important publications included the anthology The New Negro (1925), edited by Alan Locke, and the magazines Crisis, Opportunity, Fire!!, and the Messenger. See also Hughes's essay "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain" (1926) and Elizabeth Alexander's more recent historical article "The Black Poet as Canon-Maker". Browse more Harlem Renaissance poets.

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Harlem Renaissance A period of musical, literary, and cultural proliferation that began in New York's African-American community during the 1920s and early 1930s. The movement was key to developing a new sense of Black identity and aesthetics as writers, visual artists, and musicians articulated new modes of African-American experience and experimented with artistic forms, modernist techniques, and folk culture.

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Since opening its doors in 1914 and introducing the first Amateur Night contests in 1934, the Apollo has played a major role in the emergence of jazz, swing, bebop, R&B, gospel, blues, and soul - all quintessentially American music genres. Ella Fitzgerald, Sarah Vaughan, Billie Holiday, Sammy Davis Jr., James Brown, Gladys Knight, Luther Vandross, D'Angelo, Lauryn Hill, and countless others began their road to stardom on the Apollo stage. Today, the Apollo is a respected not-for-profit, presenting concerts, theatrical and dance performances, film screenings, education and community outreach programs.

The neo-classical theater known today as the Apollo's HistoricTheater was designed by George Keister and first owned by Sidney Cohen. In 1914, Benjamin Hurtig and Harry Seamon obtained a thirty-year lease on the newly constructed theater calling it Hurtig and Seamon's New Burlesque Theater. Like many American theaters during this time, African-Americans were not allowed to attend as patrons or to perform.

In 1933 Fiorello La Guardia, who would later become New York City's Mayor, began a campaign against burlesque and Hurtig & Seamon's was one of many theaters that would close down. Cohen reopened the building as the 125th Street Apollo Theatre in 1934 with his partner, Morris Sussman serving as manager. Cohen and Sussman changed the format of the shows from burlesque to variety revues and redirected their marketing attention to the growing African-American community in Harlem.

Frank Schiffman and Leo Brecher took over the Apollo in 1935. The Schiffman and Brecher families would operate the Theater until the late 1970s.The Apollo reopened briefly in 1978 under new management then closed again in November 1979. In 1981, it was purchased by Percy Sutton, a prominent lawyer, politician, media and technology executive, and a group of private investors. Under Sutton's ownership, the Theater was equipped with a recording and television studio.

In 1983, the Apollo received state and city landmark status and in 1991, Apollo Theater Foundation, Inc., was established as a private, not-for-profit organization to manage, fund and oversee programming for the Apollo Theater. Today, the Apollo, which functions under the guidance of a Board of Directors, presents concerts, performing arts, education and community outreach programs. Soon, the Apollo will embark on expanding its physical footprint, becoming the operator and manager for the cultural space located a few doors down within the Victoria Theater Redevelopment Project. The Apollo's Victoria Theater's will provide vibrant, year-round artistic, educational, and community programs that build on the cultural heritage of Harlem and celebrate the enormous well of creativity found in our neighborhood.

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Since opening its doors in 1914 and introducing the first Amateur Night contests in 1934, the Apollo has played a major role in the emergence of jazz, swing, bebop, R&B, gospel, blues, and soul - all quintessentially American music genres.

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1915: Professor Ernest E. Just
Head of Physiology, Howard University Medical School for research in biology.

1916: Major Charles Young
Services in organizing the Liberian Constabulary and roads in the Republic of Liberia.

1917: Harry T. Burleigh
Excellence in the field of creative music.

1918: William Stanley Braithwaite
Distinguished achievements in literature.

1919: Archibald H. Grimke
U.S. Consul in Santo Domingo; President of American Negro Academy; for seventy years of distinguished service to his race and country.

1920: William Edwards Burghardt (W.E. B.) DuBois
Author, Editor Crisis Magazine; founding and calling of Pan-African Congress.

1921: Charles S. Gilpin
Notable performance in the title role of The Emperor Jones and for excellence as an actor.

1922: Mary B. Talbert
Former President of the National Association of Colored Women and for continued service to women of color.

1923: George Washington Carver
Head of Department of Research and Director of the Experiment Station of Tuskegee Inst. For researching Agricultural Chemistry.

1924: Roland Hayes
Singer; for artistry through interpreting Negro folk song; soloist with the Boston Symphony Orchestra.

1925: James Weldon Johnson
Former U.S. Consul in Venezuela and Nicaragua; former editor and secretary of NAACP.

1926: Carter G. Woodson
Historian and Founder of the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History; editor, Negro Orators and Their Orations for his outstanding work as an historian.

1927: Anthony Overton
President of Victory Life Insurance Company, the first black company certified by the state of New York.

1928: Charles W. Chestnutt
Author; for his pioneer work as a literary artist, depicting the life and struggle of Americans of Negro descent.

1929: Mordecai Wyatt Johnson
President of Howard University. For distinguished leadership as first black president.

1930: Henry Hunt
Principal of the Fort Valley High and Industrial School, Fort Valley, GA. For twenty-five years of service in the education of black students.

1931: Richard Berry Harrison
For his fine and reverent characterization of the Lord in Marc Connelly's Play - The Green Pastures.

1932: Robert Russa Moton
Principal of the Tuskegee Institute. For excellent leadership and service in the field of education.

1933: Max Yergan
American Y.M.C.A. Secretary; missionary of intelligence, tact and self-sacrifice. For the excellence of his work in Africa.

1934: William Taylor Burwell Williams
Dean of Tuskegee Institute, long service as field agent of the Slater and Jeanes Funds and the General Education Board.

1935: Mary McLeod Bethune
Founder and President of Bethune Cookman College. For outstanding leadership and service to education.

1936: John Hope (posthumously)
President of Atlanta University; distinguished leader of his race.

1937: Walter White
Executive Secretary of NAACP. For his personal investigation of more than forty-one lynchings.
1938: NO AWARD GIVEN
1939: Marian Anderson
Chosen for her special achievement in music.

1940: Louis T. Wright
Surgeon; chosen for his contribution to the healing of mankind and for his courageous position in the face of bitter attack.

1941: Richard Wright
Author; Uncle Tom's Children and Native Son. For his outstanding contributions to literature.

1942: A. Philip Randolph
International President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. For his role in securing the presidential order to establish the FEPC in 1941.

1943: William H. Hastie
Jurist and Educator; chosen for his distinguished career as a jurist and uncompromising champion of equal justice.

1944: Charles Drew
Scientist; chosen for his outstanding work in blood plasma; research led to establishment of blood plasma bank.

1945: Paul Robeson
Singer and Actor chosen for distinguished achievement in the theatre and concert stage.

1946: Thurgood Marshall
Special Counsel for NAACP. For distinguished service as a lawyer before the U.S. Supreme Court.

1947: Dr. Percy Julian
Research Chemist chosen for many important discoveries that have saved many lives.

1948: Channing H. Tobias
In recognition of his consistent role as a defender of fundamental American liberties.

1949: Ralph J. Bunche
International civil servant; acting UN mediator in Palestine. For singular service to the United Nations.

1950: Charles Hamilton Houston
Chairman, NAACP Legal Committee and stalwart defender of democracy.

1951: Mabel Keaton Staupers
Leader of the National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses.

1952: Harry T. Moore
NAACP leader in the state of Florida and a martyr in the crusade for freedom.

1953: Paul R. Williams
Distinguished architect, for his pioneer contributions as a creative designer of livable, attractive modern dwellings.

1954: Theodore K. Lawless
Physician, educator and philanthropist. For pioneering achievements in dermatology.

1955: Carl J. Murphy
Dedicated editor, publisher and farsighted civic leader.

1956: Jack Roosevelt Robinson
Brilliant and versatile athlete; for superb sportsmanship and for his singular role in athletics.

1957: Martin Luther King, Jr.
Dedicated and selfless clergyman; for leadership role in the Montgomery bus protest movement.

1958: Mrs. Daisy Bates and the Little Rock Nine
For their pioneer role in upholding the basic ideals of American democracy in the face of continuing harassment and constant threats of bodily injury.

1959: Edward Kennedy (Duke) Ellington
Composer and orchestra leader. For outstanding and unique musical achievements.

1960: Langston Hughes
Poet, author and playwright.

1961: Kenneth B. Clark
Professor of Psychology at the College of the City of New York; founder/director of the Northside Center for Child Development. For his dedicated service and inspired research in the field of psychology.

1962: Robert C. Weaver
Administrator, Housing and Home Finance Agency; for his long years of dedicated public service at municipal, state and federal levels.

1963: Medgar Wiley Evers
NAACP field secretary for the state of Mississippi. For his dedication and steadfast courage in the face of continued death threats.

1964: Roy Wilkins
Executive Director, NAACP. For his leadership, integrity and his dedicated service.

1965: Leontyne Price
Metropolitan Opera star, in recognition of her divinely inspired talent.

1966: John H. Johnson
Founder/President of the Johnson Publishing Company of Chicago.

1967: Edward W. Brooke, III
First African American to win popular election to the United States Senate since Reconstruction.

1968: Sammy Davis, Jr.
Broadway/Hollywood star and civil rights activist.

1969: Clarence M. Mitchell, Jr.
Director, Washington Bureau, NAACP and civil rights lobbyist. For his pivotal role in the enactment of civil rights legislation.

1970: Jacob Lawrence
Artist, teacher and humanitarian.

1971: Leon Howard Sullivan
Clergyman, activist and prophet.

1972: Gordon Alexander Buchanan Parks
In recognition of his unique creativity, as exemplified by his outstanding achievements as photographer, writer, film maker and composer.

1973: Wilson C. Riles
Educator, in recognition of the stature he has attained as a national leader in the field of education.

1974: Damon J. Keith
Jurist; in tribute to his steadfast defense of constitutional principles.
1975: NO AWARD GIVEN
1976: Hank Aaron
Athlete, in recognition of his singular achievement in the sport which symbolizes America - baseball; his impressive home run record.

1977: Alvin Ailey
Innovative dancer, choreographer and artistic director.

1977: Alexander Palmer Haley
Author, biographer and lecturer; exhaustive research and literary skill combined in Roots.
1978: NO AWARD GIVEN
1979: Andrew Jackson Young
Minister plenipotentiary and extraordinary United States Ambassador to the United Nations.

1979: Rosa L. Parks
In recognition to the quiet courage and determination exemplified when she refused to surrender her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus.

1980: Rayford W. Logan
Educator, historian, author for his prodigious efforts to set before the world the black American's continuing struggle against oppression.

1981: Coleman Alexander Young
Mayor, City of Detroit; public servant, labor leader.

1982: Benjamin Elijah Mays
Educator, theologian and humanitarian.

1983: Lena Horne
Artist humanitarian and living symbol of excellence.
1984: NO AWARD GIVEN
1985: Tom Bradley
Government executive, public servant, humanist; Chief Executive of Calvert, Texas.

1985: William H. Cosby
Humorist, artist, educator, family man and humanitarian.

1986: Benjamin Lawson Hooks
Executive Director, NAACP. In tribute to his precedent-setting accomplishments.

1987: Percy Ellis Sutton
Public servant, businessman, community leader.

1988: Frederick Douglass Patterson
Educator, doctor of veterinary medicine, visionary and humanitarian.

1989: Jesse Louis Jackson
Clergyman, political leader, civil rights activist; first American of African descent to become a major presidential candidate.

1990: Lawrence Douglas Wilder
Governor, public servant, attorney and visionary in tribute to an extraordinary life of accomplishment.

1991: Colin L. Powell
General of the U.S. Army, 12th Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S. Department of Defense.

1992: Barbara Jordan
Lawyer, educator, political leader and stateswoman.

1993: Dorothy Irene Height
National Council of Negro Women; National YWCA; The Center for Radical Justice; President, Delta Sigma Theta Sorority. For extraordinary leadership in advancing women's rights.

1994: Maya Angelou
Poet, author, actress, playwright, producer, educator and historian.

1995: John Hope Franklin
Historian, scholar and educator; in recognition of an unrelenting quest for truth and the enlightenment of Western Civilization.

1996: A. Leon Higginbotham, Jr.
Jurist, Scholar, teacher and humanitarian; in honor of a distinguished jurist who emerged a giant of jurisprudence during a three-decade tenure as the nation's longest serving active Federal Judge.

1997: Carl T. Rowan
Journalist, publicist, civic leader and public servant.

1998: Myrlie Evers-Williams
Civil rights activist, risk-taker, mother, true believer.

1999: Earl G. Graves, Sr.
Founder, Black Enterprise Magazine; Businessman, publisher, educator, advocate, entrepreneur, family man.

2000: Oprah Winfrey
Actress, producer, educator, publisher and humanitarian.

2001: Vernon E. Jordan
Lawyer, Advisor to Presidents, Champion of Civil Rights and Human Rights, Exemplar and True Believer.

2002: John Lewis
Public servant, protector of civil and human rights, community leader and inspirer of youth.

2003: Constance Baker Motley
Civil rights pioneer, jurist, public official, for her commitment and pursuit of the goal of equal opportunity and justice for all Americans.

2004: Robert L. Carter
Attorney, educator, federal judge and guardian of civil rights; for his extraordinary achievement of winning twenty-one cases argued before the Supreme Court.

2005: Oliver W. Hill
For his key role in the United States Supreme Court Case, Brown v. Board; for his determined, quiet and persistent pursuit of justice.

2006: Benjamin S. Carson, Sr.
In tribute to a lifetime of growth and singular achievement, from the bottom of his fifth grade class, to become the youngest ever Chief of Pediatric Neurosurgery in the United States.

2007: John Conyers, Jr.
Guardian of Civil Rights and Civil Liberties, consummate legislator and public servant.

2008: Ruby Dee
Actress, poet, playwright and civil rights activist.

2009: Julian Bond
Former Chairman of the NAACP Board of Directors and legendary civil rights activist.

2010: Cicely Tyson
Actress and civil rights activist.

2011: Frankie Muse Freeman
Attorney and civil rights activist.

2012: Harry Belafonte
Singer, song writer, actor and social activist.

2013: Jessye Norman
Opera singer, Grammy Award winner.

2014: Quincy Jones
Composer, Producer, Grammy Award winner.

2015: Sidney Poitier
Actor, social activist, and Oscar winner.

2016: Nathaniel R. Jones
Lawyer, Jurist, Academic and Public Servant.

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NAACP | Spingarn Medal Winners: 1915 to Today

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1915: Professor Ernest E. Just Head of Physiology, Howard University Medical School for research in biology. 1916: Major Charles Young Services in organizing the Liberian Constabulary and roads in the Republic of Liberia. 1917: Harry T. Burleigh Excellence in the field of creative music. 1918: William Stanley Braithwaite Distinguished achievements in literature.

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These topics are merely suggestions to get you started. If you have other ideas, I'd be happy to help you. 

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These topics are merely suggestions to get you started. If you have other ideas, I'd be happy to help you. 

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PIG FOOT MARY:  The Saga of Lillian Harris Book Trailer

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Marcus Garvey accomplished the largest Black movement in history.

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Harlem is perhaps the most famous, iconic neighborhood in the United States. A bastion of freedom and the capital of Black America, Harlem's twentieth century renaissance changed our arts, culture, and politics forever. But this is only one of the many chapters in a wonderfully rich and varied history.

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routledge international encyclopedia of ethics

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routledge publisher of women's studies books

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The Routledge International Encyclopedia of Ethics: Routledge is a leading international publisher of books, journals, reference and electronic products in Ethics, among other subjects. For a complete list of our Ethics publications, visit our main website at www.routledge.com.

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then and now

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The domestic style of Harlem's elite will be on exhibit starting this weekend in five designers' vignettes at Macy's, and in real life at the second annual Strivers' Row Home Tour in Harlem on Oct. 5.

Strivers' Row is composed of two blocks from West 138th to West 139th Streets, between Adam Clayton Powell Boulevard and Frederick Douglass Boulevard. In 1891, David H. King Jr., a developer, bought the land and hired three New York architecture firms, including McKim, Mead & White, to design the homes.

"Strivers' Row style is a microcosm of what New York is all about: to do their best, to achieve their best selves and to fulfill themselves," said Michael Henry Adams, an architectural and cultural historian, who is a consultant to the tour. "Those houses were occupied by African-Americans who were the elite of Harlem, but compared to the white elite of New York, they had not nearly the resources, but wanted to live the same way. But most people lived in only part of the house, and made apartments in the rest of the house."

Elena Addomine, the president of Insol Consulting, a management consultant company that advises technology companies, and her husband, Robert Lampietti, who works in technology at State Street Bank, bought their four-story house on West 139th Street in 2008. At that time, it was divided into five small apartments. "It had been butchered over the course of decades," Ms. Addomine said.

The couple renovated it, and transformed it into two apartments, a triplex that includes the parlor floor, second and third floors, and a separate one-floor apartment for her office. Working with her contractor, Ms. Addomine created an elliptical staircase for the triplex, so that natural light from the skylight poured down onto the parlor floor. It replaced a square staircase that was so worn, its spindles were missing. "I couldn't go upstairs," she said.

For the Macy's exhibition, called "Strivers' Row Style: Uptown Comes Downtown," participating designers include Keita Turner, Henry Mitchell, Byron C. James-Rodrigues, Alma Nugent and Michael Anthony Arguello.

The Macy's show house opens at 3 p.m. Sunday, with a reception that will have live jazz and food tastings from Harlem restaurateurs, and will be on view through Oct. 5. Admission is free. The Strivers' Row Home Tour starts at 11 a.m. on Oct. 5. Tickets for self-guided tours to 10 homes start at $25; guided tours to three additional homes and several churches start at $50. Information: striversrowhometour.org.

Correction: October 1, 2014

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The domestic style of Harlem's elite will be on exhibit starting this weekend in five designers' vignettes at Macy's, and in real life at the second annual Strivers' Row Home Tour in Harlem on Oct. 5. Strivers' Row is composed of two blocks from West 138th to West 139th Streets, between Adam Clayton Powell Boulevard and Frederick Douglass Boulevard.