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Introduction

Teacher professional learning is of increasing interest as a critical way to support the increasingly complex skills students need to learn in order to succeed in the 21st century. Sophisticated forms of teaching are needed to develop student competencies such as deep mastery of challenging content, critical thinking, complex problem solving, effective communication and collaboration, and self-direction. In turn, effective professional development (PD) is needed to help teachers learn and refine the instructional strategies required to teach these skills.

However, research has noted that many professional development initiatives appear ineffective in supporting changes in teachers' practices and student learning. Accordingly, we set out to discover the features of effective professional development. We define effective PD as structured professional learning that results in changes to teacher practices and improvements in student learning outcomes.

The paper on which this brief is based reviews methodologically rigorous studies that have demonstrated a positive link between teacher professional development, teaching practices, and student outcomes. To define features of effective PD, we reviewed 35 studies from the last three decades that featured a careful experimental or comparison group design, or analyzed student outcomes with statistical controls for context variables and student characteristics. We coded each of the studies to identify the elements of effective professional development models.

Elements of Effective Professional Development

Using this methodology, we found seven widely shared features of effective professional development. Such professional development:

1. Is content focused

2. Incorporates active learning utilizing adult learning theory

3. Supports collaboration, typically in job-embedded contexts

4. Uses models and modeling of effective practice

5. Provides coaching and expert support

6. Offers opportunities for feedback and reflection

7. Is of sustained duration

Our research shows that effective professional learning experiences typically incorporate most or all of these elements, as suggested in the examples below. Each of these elements was part of the professional development addressed in at least 30 of the 35 studies we reviewed, and some were featured in all 35.

Content Focus

Professional development that focuses on teaching strategies associated with specific curriculum content supports teacher learning within their classroom contexts. As one example, the Science Teachers Learning from Lesson Analysis program (STeLLA) seeks to strengthen teachers' understanding of how to teach science productively. Its first goal is to deepen teacher understanding of students' science thinking, which helps teachers anticipate and respond to students' ideas and misunderstandings in productive ways. Its second goal is to help teachers learn to sequence science ideas to help students construct a coherent "story" that makes sense to them.

Over the course of more than 100 hours, STeLLA teachers studied and discussed video cases of teaching, including student work and teacher interviews. They also taught model lessons themselves and analyzed their teaching with their colleagues, evaluating the experience and student work to revise the lessons for colleagues to then teach in a form of lesson study. These teachers' students achieved significantly greater learning gains on science pre- and post-tests than comparison students whose teachers received content training only, a finding further confirmed by a second randomized study of the program several years later.

Active Learning

Active learning provides teachers with opportunities to get hands-on experience designing and practicing new teaching strategies. In PD models featuring active learning, teachers often participate in the same style of learning they are designing for their students, using real examples of curriculum, student work, and instruction. For example, Reading Apprenticeship is an inquiry-based PD model designed to help high school biology teachers integrate literacy and biology instruction in their classrooms. Each of the program's 10 full-day sessions is designed to immerse the teachers in the types of learning activities and environments they will then be creating for their students. Working together, teachers study student work, videotape classroom lessons for analysis, and scrutinize texts to identify potential literacy challenges to learners.

Teachers in the program practice classroom routines that will help to build student engagement and student collaboration, such as "think-pair-share," jigsaw groups, and text annotation. Reflection and other metacognitive routines such as think-alouds and reading logs for science investigations are also used in PD sessions. In a randomized control study in a set of high-poverty schools, this active learning PD model resulted in student reading achievement gains equivalent to a year's additional growth compared with control group students, as well as significantly higher achievement on state assessments in English language arts and biology.

Collaboration

High-quality professional development creates space for teachers to share ideas and collaborate in their learning, often in job-embedded contexts that relate new instructional strategies to teachers' students and classrooms. By working collaboratively, teachers can create communities that positively change the culture and instruction of their entire grade level, department, school, and/or district. "Collaboration" can span a host of configurations-from one-on-one or small group collaboration to schoolwide collaboration to collaboration with other professionals beyond the school.

In one program in a Texas district, teachers engaged in on-site, small-group professional development to promote inquiry-based, literacy-integrated instruction in science classrooms to improve English language learners' science and reading achievement. Through the initiative, teachers and paraprofessionals participated in collaborative biweekly workshops in which they jointly reviewed upcoming lessons, discussed science concepts with peers, engaged in reflections on their students' learning, and participated as learners in the types of inquiry-based science activities they would be implementing for their students. They also received instruction in strategies for teaching English language learners. Students who received enhanced instructional activities and whose teachers received PD demonstrated significantly higher science and reading achievement than students who were engaged in business-as-usual instruction. By focusing on improving the practice of teachers of English language learners, this kind of collaborative, districtwide PD can have important implications for improving the equity of whole systems.

Use of Models and Modeling

Curricular models and modeling of instruction provide teachers with a clear vision of what best practices look like. Teachers may view models that include lesson plans, unit plans, sample student work, observations of peer teachers, and video or written cases of accomplished teaching.

For example, in a program used across a number of states, PD focused on the types of pedagogical content knowledge teachers need to effectively teach elementary science. Curricular and instructional models were used in multiple ways to support teacher learning. For example, one group of teachers analyzed teaching cases drawn from actual classrooms and written by teachers. Another set of teachers worked in carefully structured, collaborative groups to analyze examples of student work from a shared unit taught in their own classrooms. A third group used metacognitive strategies to reflect on their instruction and its outcomes. Teachers also had access to a "task bank" of formative assessment model items they could use with their students during the program.

These types of models support teachers' ability to "see" what good practices look like and implement new strategies in their classrooms. In a randomized experimental study, students of teachers who participated in any of these PD opportunities had significantly greater learning gains on science tests than students whose teachers did not participate, and these effects were maintained a year later.

Coaching and Expert Support

Coaching and expert support involve the sharing of expertise about content and practice focused directly on teachers' individual needs. Experts may share their specialized knowledge as one-on-one coaches in the classroom, as facilitators of group workshops, or as remote mentors using technology to communicate with educators. They may include master teachers or coaches based in universities or professional development organizations.

In one coaching initiative designed to enhance early literacy instruction among Head Start teachers, educators participated in biweekly sessions with a university-based literacy coach following a two-day orientation that introduced them to the literacy concepts. Prior to each session (which could be conducted in person or remotely), coaches and teachers collaboratively chose a specific instructional practice on which to focus their time together. Coaches then observed teachers in their classrooms and provided both supportive and constructive oral and written feedback on their teaching, facilitating the implementation of desired instructional practices.

For remote coaching, educators shared 15-minute video clips and coaches provided detailed written feedback, supported by links to video exemplars and other materials available through the program. The semester-long program included 16 hours of workshops and seven coaching sessions. A two-year randomized controlled trial found that classrooms led by these teachers demonstrated larger gains and higher performance on a widely used early childhood classroom quality assessment, and their students experienced larger gains on a number of early language and literacy skills than did those in the control group.

Feedback and Reflection

High-quality professional learning frequently provides built-in time for teachers to think about, receive input on, and make changes to their practice by facilitating reflection and soliciting feedback. Feedback may be offered as teachers analyze lesson plans, demonstration lessons, or videos of teacher instruction, which also provide opportunities for reflection about what might be refined or retained and reinforced. These activities are frequently undertaken in the context of a coaching session or workshop, but may also occur among peers.

For example, in a program targeting early childhood educators' ability to promote children's language and literacy development, educators enrolled in a facilitated online course called eCIRCLE. The course included videos of model lessons, online coursework and knowledge assessments, and opportunities to plan lessons and practice skills in small groups and in teachers' own classrooms. The course also offered interactive message boards that were moderated by expert facilitators. Teachers participated in four hours of this coursework per month throughout the school year. They received a supplemental curriculum on preschool language and literacy skills and were encouraged to monitor children's language and literacy progress using a common tool. In addition, some educators participated in biweekly on-site mentoring sessions with the expert facilitators, who observed the teacher's practice, then facilitated reflective follow-up and provided positive and constructive feedback. In a randomized controlled study of the program, researchers found that students of teachers who received expert mentoring and feedback experienced the greatest gains on a variety of language and literacy outcomes.

Sustained Duration

Effective professional development provides teachers with adequate time to learn, practice, implement, and reflect upon new strategies that facilitate changes in their practice. As a result, strong PD initiatives typically engage teachers in learning over weeks, months, or even academic years, rather than in short, one-off workshops.

For example, the Transformative Professional Development program is a two-year PD model to enhance science instruction for Spanish-speaking elementary school students. The program begins with a two-week summer workshop that includes graduate-level coursework on teaching elementary science. Teachers' learning from this intensive workshop is reinforced through occasional release days and monthly grade-level workshops with professional learning communities. These additional sessions support teachers in deepening their learning and provided space for ongoing support in implementing the new curriculum.

This model not only offers teachers the opportunity to return repeatedly to the PD material over the course of a semester, but also to apply their learning within the context of their classroom between workshops. This cycle is repeated in the second year, with an additional summer workshop and continued release days. In a comparison group study, students whose teachers participated in the program demonstrated significantly larger improvements in science achievement over time than students whose teachers experienced business-as-usual PD. By promoting learning over time, both within and between sessions, PD that is sustained may lead to many more hours of learning than is indicated by seat time alone.

Putting It All Together

Our research shows that effective professional learning incorporates most or all of these elements. Well-designed professional learning communities, such as those instituted by the National Writing Project, can integrate these elements to support teacher learning resulting in student learning gains. This collaborative and job-embedded professional development, described in additional detail in the box that follows, can enable widespread improvement within and beyond the school level.

Creating Conditions for Effective Professional Development

The quality of a PD initiative's implementation has implications for its overall effectiveness in enhancing teacher practice and improving student learning. Researchers have found that willing teachers are sometimes unable to implement professional development practices due to obstacles that are beyond their control. Even the best-designed professional development may fail to produce desired outcomes if it is poorly implemented due to barriers such as:

inadequate resources, including necessary curriculum materials;

lack of a shared vision about what high-quality instruction entails;

lack of time for implementing new instructional approaches during the school day or year;

failure to align state and local policies toward a coherent set of instructional practices;

dysfunctional school cultures; and

inability to track and assess the quality of professional development.

Implementing professional development well also requires responsiveness to the specific needs of teachers and learners, and to the school and district contexts in which teaching and learning will take place. These types of common obstacles to professional development should be anticipated and planned for during both the design and implementation phases of professional development.

Implications for Policy and Practice

Policy can help support and incentivize the kind of evidence-based PD described here. For example:

1. Policymakers could adopt standards for professional development to guide the design, evaluation, and funding of professional learning provided to educators. These standards might reflect the features of effective professional learning outlined in this report, as well as standards for implementation.

2. Policymakers and administrators could evaluate and redesign the use of time and school schedules to increase opportunities for professional learning and collaboration, including participation in professional learning communities, peer coaching and observations across classrooms, and collaborative planning.

3. States, districts, and schools could regularly conduct needs assessments using data from staff surveys to identify areas of professional learning most needed and desired by educators. Data from these sources can help ensure that professional learning is not disconnected from practice and supports the areas of knowledge and skills educators want to develop.

4. State and district administrators could identify and develop expert teachers as mentors and coaches to support learning in their particular area(s) of expertise for other educators.

5. States and districts can integrate professional learning into their Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) school improvement initiatives, such as efforts to implement new learning standards, use student data to inform instruction, improve student literacy, increase student access to advanced coursework, and create a positive and inclusive learning environment.

6. States and districts can provide technology-facilitated opportunities for professional learning and coaching, using funding available under Titles II and IV of ESSA to address the needs of rural communities and provide opportunities for intradistrict and intraschool collaboration.

7. Policymakers can provide flexible funding and continuing education units for learning opportunities that include sustained engagement in collaboration, mentoring, and coaching, as well as institutes, workshops, and seminars.

In the end, well-designed and implemented PD should be considered an essential component of a comprehensive system of teaching and learning that supports students to develop the knowledge, skills, and competencies they need to thrive in the 21st century. To ensure a coherent system that supports teachers across the entire professional continuum, professional learning should link to their experiences in preparation and induction, as well as to teaching standards and evaluation. It should also bridge to leadership opportunities to ensure a comprehensive system focused on the growth and development of teachers.

This report was prepared with the assistance of Danny Espinoza.

Effective Teacher Professional Development (research brief) by Linda Darling-Hammond, Maria E. Hyler, and Madelyn Gardner is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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Teacher professional learning is of increasing interest as a critical way to support the increasingly complex skills students need to learn in order to succeed in the 21st century. Sophisticated forms of teaching are needed to develop student competencies such as deep mastery of challenging content, critical thinking, complex problem solving, effective communication and collaboration, and self-direction.

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by Gabriel Diaz-Maggioli

"Let's face it: Professional development, as we have known it for years now, has yielded little or no positive effects on student learning." Thus complain the many weary professionals who flinch at the mere mention of the word "workshop." In the collective imagination, the term "professional development day" conjures only images of coffee breaks, consultants in elegant outfits, and schools barren of kids.

Of course, professional development was never intended to trigger such pessimistic reactions. Even critics of the professional development movement admit that all forms of teacher development, whether effective or not, have at their core the noble intention of improving student learning. We might disagree with the implementation processes available, but not with their purpose. Indeed, when correctly implemented, they actually yield the results intended. In this era of high-stakes testing and increased accountability, it is necessary to reposition professional development so that the collective efforts of teachers, students, and administrators result in enhanced learning for all members of the teaching community.

Current professional development practices are generally constricted by the following stumbling blocks:

1. Top-down decision making. Traditionally, professional development arrangements are made by administrators and consultants rather than teachers. By muffling the teachers' voices and placing priority on administrative needs, these programs become a burden to professionals instead of a welcome solution to classroom problems.

2. The idea that teachers need to be "fixed." Too often, professional development is guided by the erroneous idea that if students don't learn, it's because their teachers don't know how to teach. Myriad approaches to teaching have surfaced over the past fifteen years or so, all claiming to be the ultimate solution for teaching problems. However, when we listen in awe at the stories of classroom teachers-stories of passion and commitment, strife and success, dedication and love-it's easy to wonder what kind of fixing these teachers might need.

3. Lack of ownership of the professional development process and its results. Given that their voices are not generally heeded during professional development, teachers rightly question their investment in programs that were built behind their backs yet are aimed at changing the way they do things.

4. The technocratic nature of professional development content. More often than not, teachers in professional development programs are taught techniques that they are expected to replicate in the classroom. Most of these methods, however effective, are standardized for communication purposes and serve the needs of teachers and learners in specific contexts. In attempting to transfer these practices into their classrooms, teachers need to invest considerably more effort than the professional development planners originally anticipated.

5. Universal application of classroom practices regardless of subject, student age, or level of cognitive development. It is not uncommon to hear of school districts that run the same professional development programs for all grade levels. While certain teaching practices and learning principles might be suitable across the board, a one-size-fits-all approach, though economical, has been proven totally ineffective.

6. Lack of variety in the delivery modes of professional development. Once a decision is made to invest in professional development, the cheapest format is often chosen for the purpose-usually a lecture, workshop, or seminar. It is ironic that so much has been written about the importance of differentiated instruction in the classroom; when it comes to instruction for teachers, undifferentiated approaches usually prevail.

7. Inaccessibility of professional development opportunities. Professional development opportunities seldom reach teachers when they are really needed. When teachers do not help plan and deliver professional development programs, their needs can go unmet. This may help explain why only a small percentage of teachers seems able to transfer the content covered in a workshop to the classrooms.

8. Little or no support in transferring professional development ideas to the classroom. Transferring new ideas to the classroom is perhaps one of the most difficult tasks a teacher faces. A lot of effort is put into helping preservice teachers bridge the gap between theory and practice; we may wonder why the same support systems are not available to in-service teachers as well.

9. Standardized approaches to professional development that disregard the varied needs and experiences of teachers. Researchers have pointed out that teachers go through certain developmental stages as they progress in their careers, each of which triggers specific needs and crises that they must address (Fessler & Christensen, 1992; Furlong & Maynard, 1995; Huberman, 1989). The standardized nature of traditional professional development programs assumes that all teachers should perform at the same level, regardless of their particular experience and needs.

10. Lack of systematic evaluation of professional development. Given the complex nature of teacher competence, assessing development often seems impossible. As a result, many professional development programs are not evaluated, nor are their results communicated to other communities. Teachers would be right to take offense at this. A learning organization should yield knowledge that enriches not only the immediate community, but the profession as a whole. It is a disservice to the teaching community when we fail to probe the effectiveness of established programs and overlook their results.

11. Little or no acknowledgment of the learning characteristics of teachers among professional development planners. Most professional development models for teachers ignore the fact that teachers possess unique learning characteristics that must be accounted for if the programs are to be successful. Though the characteristics of adult learners have been the focus of research for over a century now (Brookfield, 1986; Vella, 1994), they are too often overlooked.

My vision of professional development is grounded in faith in teachers, the institutions they work for, and the power of the broader community of educators around the country and the globe. Effective professional development should be understood as a job-embedded commitment that teachers make in order to further the purposes of the profession while addressing their own particular needs. It should follow the principles that guide the learning practices of experienced adults, in teaching communities that foster cooperation and shared expertise. Teacher success stories are living theories of educational quality and should be shared with the wider educational community for the benefit of all involved.

Figure 1.1 summarizes my vision of professional development in contrast to more traditional practices.

Figure 1.1. Traditional vs. Visionary Professional Development

Characteristics of Traditional Professional Development

Characteristics of Visionary Professional Development

Top-down decision-making

A "fix-it" approach

Lack of program ownership among teachers

Prescriptive ideas

One-size-fits-all techniques

Fixed and untimely delivery methods

Little or no follow-up

Decontextualized programs

Lack of proper evaluation

Pedagogical (child-centered) instruction

Collaborative decision-making

A growth-driven approach

Collective construction of programs

Inquiry-based ideas

Tailor-made techniques

Varied and timely delivery methods

Adequate support systems

Context-specific programs

Proactive assessment

Andragogical (adult-centered) instruction

Acknowledging Teaching Styles

Professional development can be defined as a career-long process in which educators fine-tune their teaching to meet student needs. As such, it directly tackles teachers' teaching styles-the patterns of decisions teachers make when mediating their students' learning. Butler (1984) defines learning styles as "a set of attitudes and actions that open a formal and informal world of learning to students. It is a subtle force that influences a student's access to learning and teaching by establishing perimeters around acceptable learning procedures, processes, and products" (pp. 51-52). But just as learners learn according to a particular style, so do teachers exhibit particular teaching styles. Most researchers agree that teaching styles operate along a continuum that ranges from teacher-centered to student-centered. In characterizing these styles, researchers tend to focus on such criteria as control over time and procedures, student involvement, and materials used in class.

The issue of teaching styles is far more complex than it appears at first. First of all, it is necessary to acknowledge that the term itself refers to the way teachers perform in the classroom-that is, to teacher behavior. These behaviors are contingent on a multitude of factors that affect how teachers go about their daily chores. As Figure 1.2 shows, teaching styles are the result of interacting personal, professional, knowledge, career, institutional, and curriculum factors.

Figure 1.2. Factors Affecting Teaching Styles

Overcoming the Crises of Practice

According to Huberman (1989), teachers progress through the following five phases in their careers, each of which includes a crisis they must overcome:

Phase 1: Exploration and stabilization. Teachers develop strategies to cope with day-to-day tasks. There is little or no focus on student learning during this phase, as the teachers are primarily concerned with following rules and plans. Crisis: Learning to perceive the messages that the teaching and learning environments send.

Phase 2: Commitment. Teachers take bold steps towards focusing on student learning, developing a repertoire of coping techniques and trying out new ideas. Crisis: Learning how best to cater to all students.

Phase 3: Diversification. Teachers begin to question their effectiveness when some of their students fail to learn. Most teachers leave the profession at this stage. Crisis: Many need to solve a professional identity crisis.

Phase 4: Serenity or distancing. Teachers resolve the identity crisis in Phase 3 by either confirming their commitment to classroom teaching or by moving into administration or teacher education or by leaving the profession altogether. Crisis: If teachers are able to realize their aspirations, they tend to enter a phase of serenity; otherwise, they remain stable but stagnant.

Phase 5: Conservatism and regret. Teachers retire. Crisis: For some, regret over the past; for others, refusal to accept that there are other ways to teach besides one's own.

Curriculum Factors

Another factor affecting teaching styles is the school curriculum, which can be defined as the totality of experiences that result in student learning. There are different kinds of curriculum, some intended and some, such as the "hidden curriculum," unintended. Curriculum is built upon the following foundations:

Psychological. How students learn.

Epistemological. The nature and purpose of knowledge.

Sociological. The role of schooling in relation to students, their families, and communities.

Didactic. Practices most likely to result in desired learning outcomes.

All teachers are by definition curriculum developers in that they select, sequence, organize, plan, deliver, and evaluate their students' learning experiences. This process can either inhibit the full expression of teacher learning styles or make them more autonomous. For example, a curriculum focused strongly on high-stakes testing may prompt a teacher to teach to the test at the expense of other important "formational tasks" (Freire, 1998), inhibiting the teacher's style by turning her into a mere deliverer of contents. A curriculum that advocates a dialogic perspective, on the other hand, allows both teacher and student to enter a cycle of action and reflection in which both will grow. In this latter context, the teacher's learning style is open to interaction and the exercise of greater freedom.
School Culture and Climate

Sergiovanni and Starratt (2002) define school climate as "the enduring characteristics that describe the psychological character of a particular school, distinguish it from other schools, and influence the behavior of teachers and students, and as the psychological 'feel' that teachers and students have for that school" (p. 82). These "enduring characteristics" include goal focus, communication adequacy, optimal power equalization, resource utilization, cohesiveness, morale, innovativeness, autonomy, adaptation, and problem-solving adequacy. How these characteristics operate within a school determines whether its climate is open (supports learning) or closed (hinders learning).

According to Peterson (2002), school culture is "the set of norms, values, and beliefs, rituals and ceremonies, symbols, and stories that make up the 'persona' of the school. These unwritten expectations build up over time as teachers, administrators, parents, and students work together, solve problems, deal with challenges and, at times, cope with failures." School culture is responsible for the way members of a school regard themselves, their relationships with one another, and the institution and its goals.

Hargreaves (1994) proposes the existence of four distinct cultures in educational institutions: isolationist, balkanized, contrived collegial, and collegial. He suggests that educational institutions have a long tradition of isolationism, with teachers operating alone inside their own classrooms. I believe that this isolation accounts for many of the failures we see in schools, and that the ideal school would have a collaborative or collegial culture. According to Petersen (2002), in such a milieu, "teachers, students, and administrators value learning, work to enhance curriculum and instruction, and focus on students. In schools with professional learning communities, the culture possesses:

A widely shared sense of purpose and values;

Norms of continuous learning and improvement;

A commitment to and sense of responsibility for the learning of all students;

Collaborative, collegial relationships; and

Opportunities for staff reflection, collective inquiry, and sharing personal practice."

The influence of school cultures on teaching styles cannot be overstated; as with curriculum, they can either hinder or improve teaching.

Professional Factors

Closely linked to the influences of school culture and climate on teaching style is the issue of professionalism. Barker, Kagen, Klemp, Roderick, and Takenaga-Taga (1997) define a true teaching professional as "a teacher who is engaged with a career path that encourages, fosters, and rewards constant professional growth that reflects directly and positively back on classroom practice." This engagement depends upon the teacher's professional identity: the way he or she relates to the norms and values of the profession.

Sachs (1999) claims that such a view treats professionalism as "an exclusive rather than an inclusive ideal, and is conservative rather than radical"-thus reducing professional development to the mere acquisition of traits that allow teachers to claim membership in the profession. Because teacher learning stems from reflective involvement with other learners, be they students or fellow teachers, it seems to make more sense for a concept of professionalism to reflect "cooperative action between teachers and other stakeholders" (Sachs, 1999).

Sachs suggests an even more powerful view of teacher professionalism-one that sees it as "negotiated, open, shifting, ambiguous, the result of culturally available meanings and the open-ended powerladen enactment of those meanings in everyday situations"-and identifies "five dimensions of identity:

1. Identity as negotiated experiences where we define who we are by the ways we experience our selves through participation as well as the way we and others reify our selves,

2. Identity as community membership where we define who we are by the familiar and the unfamiliar,

3. Identity as learning trajectory where we define who we are by where we have been and where are going,

4. Identity as nexus of multi membership where we define who we are by the ways we reconcile our various forms of identity into one identity, and

5. Identity as a relation between the local and the global where we define who we are by negotiating local ways of belonging to broader constellations and manifesting broader styles and discourses."

Teaching styles are greatly influenced by the teachers' own idealization of themselves as teaching professionals. Those who equate professionalism with adherence to external norms will tend toward relatively directive and ethnocentric teaching styles; on the other hand, those who perceive themselves as existing in a dialectical relationship with other professionals, working collectively to build their professional identities, will necessarily have more constructivist styles.

Learning Factors

Three learning factors greatly influence teaching styles: the teachers' learning styles, their experience as learners, and the theories about teaching and learning to which they adhere (Díaz-Maggioli, 1996).

When making decisions, teachers should ideally have the students as their main focus. Too often, however, they teach according to their own preferred learning methods, rather than according to what is best for the students. Similarly, teachers tend to emulate the teachers who helped them to learn best when they were in school-though in most cases they don't know why the model teachers taught the way they did. Teachers need to be aware of these personal influences and refocus their actions to benefit the students. To do this, they need space to develop their own theories about teaching and learning through professional development with col leagues.

The Teacher's Choice Framework

Planners of professional development programs should bear in mind the following facts:

Teachers are talented and devoted individuals who have gained enormous experience by interacting with students, and possess a wealth of knowledge that must be explored and shared.

Teachers differ from one another in terms of their theoretical and professional knowledge and the stages they are at in their careers. This diversity offers a wealth of resources and experience.

Teachers fulfill different functions in their jobs. They are not only mediators of student learning, but also administrators of student information, counselors on learning, and resources for parents and the broader community. Their professional development should be embedded in their daily schedule; they should not be expected to devote their own free time to programs that are divorced from the context in which they work.

In order for teachers to develop ownership of professional development, they need to be active participants in its construction, tailoring programs to their needs and motivations.

Professional development should not be regarded as an administrative duty, but rather as a career-long endeavor aimed at disclosing the factors that contribute to the success of all students and teachers. Mandatory professional development offered only when it is convenient to administrators has little to offer to teachers.

Professional development will only have an effect on student learning if it involves the entire school community. Knowledge about teaching and learning only makes sense when considered in the context of a teacher's own school culture and climate. The effect of professional development is not measured by the sum of the discrete actions of individual factors and stakeholders, but through an examination of how factors and stakeholders interact with one another.

In order to ensure that professional development is congruent with these facts, educators need an organizational framework based on the unique characteristics and contributions of teachers. The Teacher's Choice Framework (see Figure 1.3) helps teachers make individual and collaborative decisions by having them reflect on practice. For the framework to function effectively, learning communities should promote collaborative reflection on student learning data, which should be gathered and shared across grades and disciplines. Once the data are shared, educators should involve as many stakeholders as possible in planning a professional development program that addresses the needs of all participants.

Figure 1.3. The Four Quadrants of the Teacher's Choice Framework

Types and Levels of Awareness

As soon as everyone's needs are clear, it is time to select activities that are suited to each teacher's needs and level of awareness. There are four distinct types of awareness needs that teachers can address through professional development:

Technical awareness. Reflection on particular classroom procedures or teaching methods.

Personal awareness. Reflection on how classroom activity relates to life outside of work.

Problematic awareness. Reflection on how to solve professional problems.

Critical awareness. Reflection on established thoughts, feelings, or actions that have been called into question.

In addition, most teachers fall into one of the following four awareness-level categories:

Level 1. Teachers are aware that they possess up-to-date knowledge and can help other teachers through initiatives such as mentoring, providing on-site teacher training workshops, and expert coaching with colleagues in other levels. They can also develop field notes-narratives of classroom success stories that they share with other teachers for feedback and development.

Level 2. Teachers possess updated knowledge, but are not aware that they do. Those in this category can be involved in mirroring and collaborative coaching by having colleagues come into their classrooms and observe them in order to pinpoint areas of strength. Field notes can serve as a powerful reflection tool for these teachers as well.

Level 3: Teachers are aware of their development needs in specific knowledge areas. Pertinent techniques for this level include engaging in action research, establishing critical development teams, and maintaining dialogue journals.

Level 4: Teachers are unaware of their need to expand their knowledge in certain areas. Appropriate professional development programs for such teachers could include mandated in-house training workshops, mentoring, and expert coaching.

Types of Knowledge

In its 1985 report to the Ford Foundation, the Academy for Educational Development stated the following:

It is reasonable, if not essential, to expect that anyone who intends to teach be: first, educated broadly and well; second, fundamentally knowledgeable about the fields to be taught; third, familiar with how children or adolescents develop, behave, and learn; and fourth, knowledgeable about and skilled in the profession of education to assure quality standards, ethics, responsible conduct, and responsiveness to the educational needs of the greater society. Prospective teachers should also be made aware that continued professional growth depends upon prolonged interaction with peers and others. (p. 25)

Authors such as Shulman (1987), Grossman (1990), and Putnam and Borko (2000) have elaborated on the idea that there are different kinds of teacher knowledge. In a nutshell, teachers are motivated to enter the profession by one or more of the following:

Content knowledge. An interest in the subject matter.

General pedagogical knowledge. An interest in pedagogy.

Contextual knowledge. An interest in students and their communities.

In the course of their work, teachers develop a specific kind of knowledge that differentiates them from subject specialists, pedagogues, or social workers. Grossman (1990) characterizes this kind of knowledge as understanding the purpose for teaching the subject matter, positioning the discipline within the broader school curriculum, and using instructional strategies appropriate for the specific learners and setting. Grossman calls this kind of knowledge "pedagogical content knowledge." All teachers will have moments in their careers when they must focus on increasing their pedagogical content knowledge.
The Teacher's Choice Framework allows teachers with expertise in a certain domain to provide mediation and scaffolding to colleagues whose weaknesses lie in that same area. Teachers enter a cycle of constant development, since teachers can have different awareness levels for different types of knowledge. A teacher well versed in developing a classroom climate conducive to learning, for example, may pair up with one who has classroom management problems-and who in turn might share his or her differentiated instruction expertise with the other teacher. By capitalizing on the internal strengths of its members, the learning community is enriched.

The Teacher's Choice Framework allows teachers to feel reassured about their dual roles as both experts and novices, and "to move along a continuum ranging from inductee to master teacher where increased responsibilities, qualifications, professional development, and performance-based accountability requirements are commensurate with compensation" (Wenglinsky, 2000).

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by Gabriel Diaz-Maggioli "Let's face it: Professional development, as we have known it for years now, has yielded little or no positive effects on student learning." Thus complain the many weary professionals who flinch at the mere mention of the word "workshop."

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Clear focus

Collaborative

Teacher directed

Job-embedded

Meaningful communication  and on-going feedback between individuals

Accountability

Reflective

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My vision for professional development is that it is continuous cycle of improvement for the academic advancement of students.  As an instructional leader, I must model what I preach but it all begins with establishing strong relationships with my staff.  All educators must feel supportive and there must be meaningful collaboration and communication amongst all individuals.  Professional development exists in my building in multiple facets.  It could be a brainstorming session for possible solutions to an instructional problem together, providing teacher-directed coaching sessions or on-going discussions of student achievement.  A fundamental component of professional development is reflection.  Teachers must have an opportunity to reflect on their beliefs, assumptions, and practices within themselves as well as others, which allows for professional growth.  All individuals share an investment in the education of each student in the building and as the building administrator, it is my responsibility to ensure the success of both students and staff.

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Glimpse into any classroom in the country, and it wouldn't be surprising to see students interacting and working together, engaged in group projects or other forms of collaboration. But in the Fulton County Schools system in Atlanta, Georgia, it's equally common to walk through a school building and see teachers engaged in similar types of collaborative learning and problem solving. That's because teachers in Fulton County Schools have opportunities for collaborative and personalized professional learning opportunities. These educators collaborate on lesson plans, visit each other's classrooms, and study student work together. Student data drives teachers' learning and helps pinpoint what they need to do differently to ensure they meet the needs of their students. In short, these teachers have more time within their schools to focus on improving teaching. And all of this creates a learning-focused culture within their schools that helps sustain the teachers' professional growth and development.
So what are the key elements of this type of strong, collaborative professional learning?
First, teachers want-and benefit the most from-job-embedded professional learning that happens within their school day. At the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, we believe that schools are where the action of learning happens-for both students and teachers. It's crucial to recognize that teachers need the time and space in their schools to plan, collaborate, learn, and reflect. For example, in its recent Reimagining the School Day report, the Center for American Progress (CAP) looked at five promising innovative school schedules-all of which included additional time for teachers to plan and collaborate.

The thinking is that "providing teachers with more time to plan and attend to other responsibilities throughout the school day creates systematic opportunities to support new teachers and stretch more seasoned teachers-increasing the likelihood of teacher retention," according to the CAP report.

Second, teachers reap tremendous benefits from working with teams of colleagues-especially those who teach the same grade or subject-to plan and share best practices. And it is particularly important for teachers to have time to collaborate on reviewing data to understand what's working and where to focus for improvement. These data could come from formative assessments or they could be artifacts of student work, but they should be available to teachers in real time so that they can continuously refine their practice to support students.

Third, professional learning should be anchored in a strong instructional system that includes coherent and relevant materials, tools, and curricula that are aligned to high standards. In the District of Columbia Public Schools system, teachers engage in content-specific professional learning that is tied to the district's curricula. Notably, the learning happens within the teachers' schools, in small groups that take a dynamic inquiry-based approach and build on their learning from one week to the next. This cycle of inquiry and collaboration enables the teachers to better use and adapt the curricula to meet their students' needs.

Teachers have a wealth of expertise, but too few opportunities to share that expertise. School-level improvements begin with the actions and behaviors of the adults in the building. Supporting students most in need requires a close examination of data, curriculum, and instructional practices. This provides every reason to expand professional learning opportunities that fuel collaboration and continuous improvement.

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3 Key Elements for High-Quality Professional Learning - K-12 Education

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Glimpse into any classroom in the country, and it wouldn't be surprising to see students interacting and working together, engaged in group projects or other forms of collaboration. But in the Fulton County Schools system in Atlanta, Georgia, it's equally common to walk through a school building and see teachers engaged in similar types of collaborative learning and problem solving.

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Just nominated by Pennsylvania as a possible National Blue Ribbon School

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Just nominated by Pennsylvania as a possible National Blue Ribbon School

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School and Leadership Awardees

Filter the awardee database by year, state, school type, or grade level to find recognized schools, applications, and contact info.
NBRS AWARDEES
Learn about the Terrel H. Bell school leadership awardees.
BELL AWARDEES

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School and Leadership Awardees Filter the awardee database by year, state, school type, or grade level to find recognized schools, applications, and contact info. NBRS AWARDEES Learn about the Terrel H. Bell school leadership awardees. BELL AWARDEES

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Group of 17 teachers, mostly reading specialists, who coordinate interventions for our most academically challenged students.

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Future Ready PA Index - School Performance - Letort Elementary School

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Team of district administrators working together to coordinate initiatives in data analysis and professional development to ultimately impact student achievement.

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Every year, PDE's Division of Federal Programs honors successful Title I students and schools. The Annual Conference Awards Luncheon recognizes distinguished Title I students from the Commonwealth. Top performing PA Title I schools are honored at the PDE/PAFPC ISP Conference held earlier in the year.

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Each and every day, professionals and paraprofessionals across our state strive to intervene when our children struggle with learning. Our districts/schools continue to face daily challenges in understanding and responding to federal programs in an ever-changing educational climate with limited financial resources, extensive reporting, data tracking, extensive federal and state guidelines, and, for many, multiple job responsibilities.

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the ron clark academy kim bearden educator training essential 55 excellent 11 end of molasses classes atlanta georgia education middle schools obama inauguration oprah @ronclarkacademy order operations good day teacher staff development phenomenal man private school cool interviews news disney the year

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LeTort’s Strengths and Areas for Improvement

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LeTort’s Strengths and Areas for Improvement

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Strengths:
Community
Strong Collaboration
Meeting student needs
Strong communication with staff, students, and parents
Flexibility

Improvements:
Training on new initiatives
Student progress monitoring; assessments not utilized effectively
Faculty meetings for collaboration ~ especially technology
Consistency between grade levels and district