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By Medha Chandwani

Each year has an event with a brief transition leading up to the event and the overall significance of it to the fall of the Republic.
I hope you enjoy! :)

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Tiberius Gracchus took office as tribune of the plebs while everything in the Roman Republic was peaceful and functional.

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The Romans did not have a written constitution, but there was an unwritten rule that there would be mutual cooperation (mos maiorum). This date marks the destruction of this consensus as Marcus Octavius was pressured to veto Tiberius’s programmes of land reform by owners of large landholdings and Tiberius called an assembly to remove his position. This way he can pass his bill without opposition, but his opponents began to discuss getting rid of Tiberius after his term, making him seek reelection the following year.

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Tiberius was assassinated, which was a turning point in Roman history as we finally see the crumble of mos maiorum and the senators turn on Tiberius by resorting to downright murder, setting this as the standard.

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The Optimates stopped all agrarian reform and ceased to meet the demands of their allies. After the confiscation of their allies’ lands, Romans were questioning where their Italian allies lay in their status against Romans.

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Gaius Gracchus, Tiberius’s brother, is elected fourth tribune and shown to be a great orator. He introduced the land reforms once again as he followed Tiberius’s ideals and he added additional legislation to prevent the people from greed and excessive taxes from officials.

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Going directly against the Optimates, Gaius almost ventures from his position’s duties of second tribunate as he proposed a franchise bill, giving Roman citizenship for the Latin allies and more rights for their Italian allies. However, this bill was rejected as the Optimates wanted to keep the benefits of citizenship to themselves. Even the common people sided with the Optimates as Gaius Fannius and the other tribune Marcus Livius Drusus convinced them that they would have to share their own privileges, straying from the idea of Gaius representing the people.

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After the murder of Gaius's enemies by one of his followers, the senate accused Gaius and his supporters of rebellion. With this chance, despite the pass of the Lex Sempronia De Capite Civis, a law that states only the assembly or authorized court could give the death penalty, the senate declared martial law. Therefore, they sent a mob of the senate’s followers after Gaius to restore order and kill him.

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Gaius Marius was elected to the consulship with the help of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, his quaestor, and recruited a larger army that included volunteers from poor classes to confront Jugartha, later resulting in a final victory to the Jugurthine War. This war highlights Rome’s decline in morals as individuals sought after their own power despite the consequences of their state, which is a key factor in the fall of Rome.

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With the Jugurthine War ending in the early 105 BCE, another war called the Cimbric War was still ongoing where the alliance formed between Cimbri, Teutones, Ambrones and other places challenged Rome, so on this year, Marius was unconstitutionally elected to his second consulship in order to defend Rome. When he traveled with his army to the north in anticipation of the alliance's arrival, the alliance did not arrive, leading to Marius’s unconstitutional re-election as a consul as they waited each year (more breaking of societal rules).

Source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Gaius_Marius/

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Marius’s once ally Saturninus died through the stones thrown by the members of the aristocratic party as he revolted against the state during Marius’s sixth consulship. Marius successfully neutralized Saturninus, but after the public realized he had allied himself with a corrupt politician, his vast influence declined.

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Lucius Cornelius Sulla marched on Rome after declaring Sculpicius and Marius as enemies of the state, and deemed this march to be justified by stating that the Senate was being held captive. With this march, Sulla was able to regain his command over the army against Mithridates VI despite the interference from the allies of Marius. This contributed to the fall of Rome as Sulla further broke the traditional rules as he easily overcame the Senate’s decision and shockingly marched legions in Rome.

Source: https://historyofyesterday.com/sullas-first-march-on-rome-decline-of-the-roman-republic-582e0a01c433

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Sulla became dictator and he passed reforms to give the Senate the power it used to have. With these constitutional reforms, he tries to strengthen the Roman Republic once again.

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Gnaeus Pompeius and Marcus Licinius Crassus joined forces and were elected consul although Pompeius was not even a member of the Senate. This caused the Optimates to disapprove of his position, but they had a lot of support from the Roman people as the two consuls proceeded to undo Sulla’s legislation (rights of the tribunes restored, etc.).

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The first triumvirate was formed between Pompeius, Crassus, and Gaius Julius Caesar. Their amicitia and agreement had never been done in Rome before where three people determined the regulations of Rome as they had the power and resources together. With this agreement, they lessened the power of the Senate as they appealed mostly to the Roman people as their alliance was not liked by the Optimates.

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After the death of Julia, Caesar’s daughter, Crassus also died at the Battle of Carrhae on this date, breaking the first triumvirate. These two deaths cause the amicitia of Caesar and Pompeius to break as they were the only two people keeping Caesar and Pompeius together. This leads to the two going their separate ways and becoming enemies on separate parties.

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Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with his army, an action forbidden by Roman law as it ensured the survival of the Republic. Caesar was called back to Rome by the Senate, but although he knew he was not allowed to bring his army with him, he knew that he would not be safe in Rome if he entered alone. Essentially, crossing the Rubicon River was akin to declaring war on Rome.

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In this year, Caesar both became dictator perpetuus (dictator for life) and died. After Caesar declared himself as dictator for life, many Roman politicians feared that he would be king. They did not want a monarch, but a Republic, so a group of senators, led by Brutus and Cassius, stabbed Caesar 23 times and killed him, causing the upcoming civil wars that result in the end of the Republic for good.

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The Battle of Philippi occurred where the Second Triumvirate, Caesar loyalists, (Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian) took control of Rome and chased after Brutus and Cassius, Caesar’s killers. This battle determined whether the Republic lived or died, and with the suicide of Brutus and Cassius towards the end of the battle, the Second Triumvirate won, ending the Roman Republic.

Source: https://www.historyhit.com/how-the-roman-republic-committed-suicide-at-philippi/

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The Battle of Naulochus occurred where the admiral of Octavian, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, faced Sextus Pompeius in a naval battle in Sicily. With Agrippa winning the battle, any resistance to the Second Triumvirate ceased, but this battle also caused Octavian to strip Lepidus’ political power, leaving only Octavian in the West and Antony in the East.

Source: https://www.wikizero.com/en/Battle_of_Naulochus

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Battle of Actium occurred where Octavian won against Mark Antony and Cleopatra in a naval battle, letting Octavian achieve total control of Rome. However, unlike Caesar, he outwardly showed that he was humble by refusing extravagant titles, and he grew in power as the people desperately wanted peace after these civil wars. This ended the Republic once and for all as in the next few years, Octavian became emperor.

Source: https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-battle-of-actium

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The Crisis of the Republic
by Jurgen von Ungern-Sternberg (Translated by Harriet I. Flower)