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Updated, March 2020

For many students with disabilities-and for many without- the key to success in the classroom lies in having appropriate adaptations, accommodations, and modifications made to the instruction and other classroom activities.

Some adaptations are as simple as moving a distractible student to the front of the class or away from the pencil sharpener or the window. Other modifications may involve changing the way that material is presented or the way that students respond to show their learning.

Adaptations, accommodations, and modifications need to be individualized for students, based upon their needs and their personal learning styles and interests. It is not always obvious what adaptations, accommodations, or modifications would be beneficial for a particular student, or how changes to the curriculum, its presentation, the classroom setting, or student evaluation might be made. This page is intended to help teachers and others find information that can guide them in making appropriate changes in the classroom based on what their students need.

Part 1: A Quick Look at Terminology
Part 2: Different Types of Supports

Part 1: A Quick Look at Terminology

You might wonder if the terms supports, modifications, and adaptations all mean the same thing. The simple answer is: No, not completely, but yes, for the most part. (Don't you love a clear answer?) People tend to use the terms interchangeably, to be sure, and we will do so here, for ease of reading, but distinctions can be made between the terms.

Sometimes people get confused about what it means to have a modification and what it means to have an accommodation. Usually a modification means a change in what is being taught to or expected from the student. Making an assignment easier so the student is not doing the same level of work as other students is an example of a modification.

An accommodation is a change that helps a student overcome or work around the disability. Allowing a student who has trouble writing to give his answers orally is an example of an accommodation. This student is still expected to know the same material and answer the same questions as fully as the other students, but he doesn't have to write his answers to show that he knows the information.

What is most important to know about modifications and accommodations is that both are meant to help a child to learn.

Part 2: Different Types of Supports

Special Education

By definition, special education is "specially designed instruction" (§300.39). And IDEA defines that term as follows:

(3) Specially designed instruction means adapting, as appropriate to the needs of an eligible child under this part, the content, methodology, or delivery of instruction-(i) To address the unique needs of the child that result from the child's disability; and(ii) To ensure access of the child to the general curriculum, so that the child can meet the educational standards within the jurisdiction of the public agency that apply to all children. [§300.39(b)(3)]

Thus, special education involves adapting the "content, methodology, or delivery of instruction." In fact, the special education field can take pride in the knowledge base and expertise it's developed in the past 30-plus years of individualizing instruction to meet the needs of students with disabilities. It's a pleasure to share some of that knowledge with you now.

Adapting Instruction

Sometimes a student may need to have changes made in class work or routines because of his or her disability. Modifications can be made to:

For example:

Jack is an 8th grade student who has learning disabilities in reading and writing. He is in a regular 8th grade class that is team-taught by a general education teacher and a special education teacher. Modifications and accommodations provided for Jack's daily school routine (and when he takes state or district-wide tests) include the following:

Jack will have shorter reading and writing assignments.

Jack's textbooks will be based upon the 8th grade curriculum but at his independent reading level (4th grade).

Jack will have test questions read/explained to him, when he asks.

Jack will give his answers to essay-type questions by speaking, rather than writing them down.

Modifications or accommodations are most often made in the following areas:

Scheduling. For example,

giving the student extra time to complete assignments or tests

breaking up testing over several days

working in a small group

working one-on-one with the teacher

providing audiotaped lectures or books

giving copies of teacher's lecture notes

using large print books, Braille, or books on CD (digital text)

Instruction. For example,

reducing the difficulty of assignments

reducing the reading level

using a student/peer tutor

Student Response. For example,

allowing answers to be given orally or dictated

using a word processor for written work

using sign language, a communication device, Braille, or native language if it is not English.

Because adapting the content, methodology, and/or delivery of instruction is an essential element in special education and an extremely valuable support for students, it's equally essential to know as much as possible about how instruction can be adapted to address the needs of an individual student with a disability. The special education teacher who serves on the IEP team can contribute his or her expertise in this area, which is the essence of special education.

Related Services

One look at IDEA's definition of related services at §300.34 and it's clear that these services are supportive in nature, although not in the same way that adapting the curriculum is. Related services support children's special education and are provided when necessary to help students benefit from special education. Thus, related services must be included in the treasure chest of accommodations and supports we're exploring. That definition begins:
§300.34 Related services.
(a) General. Related services means transportation and such developmental, corrective, and other supportive services as are required to assist a child with a disability to benefit from special education, and includes...

Here's the list of related services in the law.

speech-language pathology and audiology services

interpreting services

psychological services

physical and occupational therapy

recreation, including therapeutic recreation

early identification and assessment of disabilities in children

counseling services, including rehabilitation counseling

orientation and mobility services

medical services for diagnostic or evaluation purposes

school health services and school nurse services

social work services in schools

This is not an exhaustive list of possible related services. There are others (not named here or in the law) that states and schools routinely make available under the umbrella of related services. The IEP team decides which related services a child needs and specificies them in the child's IEP. Read all about it in our Related Services page.

Supplementary Aids and Services

One of the most powerful types of supports available to children with disabilities are the other kinds of supports or services (other than special education and related services) that a child needs to be educated with nondisabled children to the maximum extent appropriate. Some examples of these additional services and supports, called supplementary aids and service s in IDEA, are:

adapted equipment-such as a special seat or a cut-out cup for drinking;

assistive technology-such as a word processor, special software, or a communication system;

training for staff, student, and/or parents;

peer tutors;

a one-on-one aide;

adapted materials-such as books on tape, large print, or highlighted notes; and

collaboration/consultation among staff, parents, and/or other professionals.

The IEP team, which includes the parents, is the group that decides which supplementary aids and services a child needs to support his or her access to and participation in the school environment. The IEP team must really work together to make sure that a child gets the supplementary aids and services that he or she needs to be successful. Team members talk about the child's needs, the curriculum, and school routine, and openly explore all options to make sure the right supports for the specific child are included.

Much more can be said about these important supports and services. Visit our special article on Supplementary Aids and Services to find out more.

Program Modifications or Supports for School Staff

If the IEP team decides that a child needs a particular modification or accommodation, this information must be included in the IEP. Supports are also available for those who work with the child, to help them help that child be successful. Supports for school staff must also be written into the IEP. Some of these supports might include:

attending a conference or training related to the child's needs,

getting help from another staff member or administrative person,

having an aide in the classroom, or

getting special equipment or teaching materials.

The issue of modifications and supports for school staff, so that they can then support the child across the range of school settings and tasks, is also addressed in our article on Program Modifications for School Personnel.

Accommodations in Large Assessments

IDEA requires that students with disabilities take part in state or district-wide assessments. These are tests that are periodically given to all students to measure achievement. It is one way that schools determine how well and how much students are learning. IDEA now states that students with disabilities should have as much involvement in the general curriculum as possible. This means that, if a child is receiving instruction in the general curriculum, he or she could take the same standardized test that the school district or state gives to nondisabled children. Accordingly, a child's IEP must include all modifications or accommodations that the child needs so that he or she can participate in state or district-wide assessments.

The IEP team can decide that a particular test is not appropriate for a child. In this case, the IEP must include:

an explanation of why that test is not suitable for the child, and

how the child will be assessed instead (often called alternate assessment).

Ask your state and/or local school district for a copy of their guidelines on the types of accommodations, modifications, and alternate assessments available to students.

Even a child with many needs is to be involved with nondisabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate. Just because a child has severe disabilities or needs modifications to the general curriculum does not mean that he or she may be removed from the general education class. If a child is removed from the general education class for any part of the school day, the IEP team must include in the IEP an explanation for the child's nonparticipation.

Because accommodations can be so vital to helping children with disabilities access the general curriculum, participate in school (including extracurricular and nonacademic activities), and be educated alongside their peers without disabilities, IDEA reinforces their use again and again, in its requirements, in its definitions, and in its principles. The wealth of experience that the special education field has gained over the years since IDEA was first passed by Congress is the very resource you'll want to tap for more information on what accommodations are appropriate for students, given their disability, and how to make those adaptations to support their learning.

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Supports, Modifications, and Accommodations for Students

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Updated, March 2020 For many students with disabilities-and for many without- the key to success in the classroom lies in having appropriate adaptations, accommodations, and modifications made to the instruction and other classroom activities. Some adaptations are as simple as moving a distractible student to the front of the class or away from the pencil sharpener or the window.

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The Critical Role of Classroom Management

Teachers play various roles in a typical classroom, but surely one of the most important is that of classroom manager. Effective teaching and learning cannot take place in a poorly managed classroom. Effective teachers appear to be effective with students of all achievement levels regardless of the levels of heterogeneity in their classes. If the teacher is ineffective, students under that teacher's tutelage, will achieve inadequate progress academically, regardless of how similar or different they are regarding their academic achievement. Current research indicates that students in classes of teachers classified as most effective can be expected to gain about 52 percentile points in their achievement over a year's time. Students in classes of teachers classified as least effective can be expected to gain only about 14 percentile points over a year's time. This comparison is even more dramatic when one realizes that some researchers have estimated that students will exhibit a gain in learning of about 6 percentile points simply from maturation-from growing one year older and gleaning new knowledge and information through everyday life (see Hattie, 1992; Cahen & Davis, 1987).

The effective teacher performs many functions that can be organized into three major roles: (1) making wise choices about the most effective instruction strategies to employ, (2) designing classroom curriculum to facilitate student learning, and (3) making effective use of classroom management techniques (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). Therefore, effective teachers have a wide array of instructional strategies at their disposal, are skilled at identifying and articulating the proper sequence and pacing of their content, are skilled in classroom management techniques.

In summary, the research over the past 30 years indicates that classroom management is one of the critical ingredients of effective teaching. The research resulted in two books on classroom management; one elementary level and one for the secondary level. The books, Classroom Management for the Elementary Teachers and Classroom Management for the Secondary Teacher by Carolyn Evertson, Edmund Emmer and Murray Worsham are considered the primary resources for the application of the research on classroom management to K-12 education (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock).

The following information was taken directly from the book, Classroom Management for Elementary Teachers by Carolyn Evertson, Edmund Emmer and Murray Worsham (2006), considered by many as the to be the primary resource for the application of the research on classroom management.

Taken from Classroom Management for Elementary Teachers, Seventh Edition, Carolyn M. Evertson, Edmund T. Emmer, and Murray E. Worsham, Pearson Education, Boston, 2006.

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Teachers play various roles in a typical classroom, but surely one of the most important is that of classroom manager. Effective teaching and learning cannot take place in a poorly managed classroom. Effective teachers appear to be effective with students of all achievement levels regardless of the levels of heterogeneity in their classes.

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Ways to Ensure Support is Provided to all Class Members During an Assignment

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Ways to Ensure Support is Provided to all Class Members During an Assignment

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Establishing Individual Accountability for Learning in Group Projects

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Establishing Individual Accountability for Learning in Group Projects

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1. Introduction

A modern knowledge-based society requires developing progressive approaches to education. It causes the need of formation of a student -centered learning environment. The environment promotes independent, active, individual and collaborative learning by doing of students; involves students in what they are studying; encourages their interest in problem solving and critical thinking; allows teacher's monitoring of the development of students' knowledge and skills; and provides adaptability to each student .

A central teaching strategy fostering formation of the student -centered learning environment is Project-Based Learning (PBL). The strategy encourages independent and effective learning through performance of projects by students, improves ability to reach consensual decisions, and favors acquiring critical thinking, problem solving, learning to learn, communication, collaboration, and accountability skills .

The student -centered PBL environment assumes taking accountability by students for learning while performance of project tasks by them. Accountability is "the willingness to accept responsibility for one's actions" . Willingness of a student for performance of project tasks incorporates his (her) ability and desire to perform the tasks. Hence, accountability of a student for learning in the student -centered PBL environment can be determined as his (her) ability and desire to accept responsibility for performing the project tasks.

A teacher should be accountable for encouragement of students' willingness to learn in the student -centered PBL environment . It causes accountability of a teacher for specific organization of teaching, collaborative learning, and assessment inducing students to take accountability for their learning in the PBL environment.

The ability of a student to perform a project task can be revealed by comparison of his (her) knowledge with task-relevant knowledge (knowledge needed for performance of task). There are four knowledge levels according to their determined roles in education. Thus, the know-what level represents cognitive knowledge; the know-how level deals with practical problems of design based on a synthesis of knowledge; the know-why level refers to deep knowledge of complex cause-and-effect relationships; and the care-why level represents self-motivated creativity .

The desire of a student to perform a project task can be motivated by perception of PBL as a convenient learning environment. It is attained by adaptive assessment of students' knowledge, habituation of PBL, and opportunity of productive collaboration.

The proposed approach is aimed at development of student accountability for PBL through specific organization of the student-centered PBL environment by a teacher.

2. Related Research

In the following section some approaches, methods, and tools are reviewed in terms of their potential contribution to development of students' accountability for PBL, such as determining student accountability, improving student assessment, organizing student collaboration.
Determining student accountability
Schoof examined relation between student-centered learning and student accountability. The author concluded that student accountability is caused by student -centered learning. Samuel & Chiche described a personal accountability model, which enhances the intention to become accountable. The model is based on determining accountability as an action that is consistent with the student's desired outcomes.

Shavelson propounded the need of mutual adjustment the between formative function of accountability, conducive to change of teaching and learning, and the summative function of accountability directed towards determining its extent. He emphasized that improvement of teaching and learning can be attained by coordination of assessment activities with accountability.

An approach developed by Abu-Hussain, Essawi & Tilchin promotes creating accountability for learning results, sharing accountability among students, and acquiring accountability skills in the PBL environment. The corresponding model was built for realizing the approach.
Improving student assessment
Hassel & Lourey claimed that the improper mechanism of assessment used by instructor doesn't allow to change behavior of students towards taking accountability for learning. Frye revealed the relationships among accountability, assessment, and student learning. The author showed the constructive role of assessment in improving student learning.

Lovie-Kitchin claimed that assessment methods should be congruent with the PBL process. Macdonald & Savin-Baden stressed the need in assessment methods taking into account the practical orientation of PBL. Ellis & Hafner affirmed that assessment of a student in the PBL environment should be based on evaluation of the work of his team and his individual work both personal and as a member of the team.

Papanastasiou defined adaptive assessment as one that is specific for each student and based on his (her) previous performance, thus making it more accurate in terms of individual ability. Aguilar & Kaijiri developed an adaptive computer-based assessment system, which provides initial, formative, and summative assessments. The system generates questions adapted to the student knowledge. Lazarinis, Green & Pearson created computerized adaptive testing system, which adapts based on student performance, instructional goals, and testing of knowledge of the subject matter.
Organizing student collaboration
Bell concluded that interdependence of students in a collaborative group creates a situation in which each student has to do his (her) part of work while performance of project tasks. It causes accountability to peers and more motivation for students than if they were only responsible to the instructor.

Markham suggested an approach to specific management of project performance directed towards building collective knowledge through collaboration. Stanton & Fairfax defined a productive collaborative environment as one in which there is interdependence of the students on a project, on face-to-face interaction and on development of collaborative skills. Various methods and means of facilitation of group interactions are suggested in works .

Soller described various tools of adaptive support for collaborative learning to promote facilitation of interactions, motivation for knowledge sharing, and collaboration management. Brusilovsky & Peylo considered adaptive group formation using knowledge about collaborating peers.

The publications discussed above indicate that no comprehensive approach exists to developing student accountability by specific organizing of the PBL environment that would improve study of a subject. The proposed comprehensive approach will promote development of student accountability due to:

* Ensuring study of a subject through sequential performance of the sample-project and the group projects

* Accustoming students to take accountability for study of a subject in the PBL environment

* Promoting self-assessment of student knowledge

* Inducing self-formation of the collaborative groups through self-assessment of students' willingness to take accountability for performing the project tasks

* Setting performance-based assessments of student knowledge

* Sustaining collaborative performance of the project tasks

* Adjusting projects and control tests to knowledge dynamics of students

* Measuring accountability development of students for performing the project tasks

* Determining a level of accountability skills acquired by students

3. Development of Student Accountability in the PBL Environment

The goal of the proposed approach is development of student accountability for study of a subject in the PBL environment through its specific organization by a teacher. Hence, development of student accountability for PBL is the accountability area of the teacher.

The basis of the approach is the comprehensive assessment process. It includes setting initial knowledge assessments, student self-assessment of knowledge after completion of a sample-project, setting adaptive (performance-based) knowledge assessments, andteacher assessment of student knowledge while performance of the group projects.

Student accountability for PBL is developed by a suggested seven-step process of the specific organization of the PBL environment. The steps are preparing the sample-project, setting initial knowledge assessments, ensuring study of a subject by a class through performance of the sample-project, promoting self-formation of collaborative student groups for performing projects of different levels of complexity, adapting PBL to knowledge dynamics of students by setting the adaptive assessments of knowledge, sustaining collaborative performance of the project tasks, and measuring student accountability. The stages of developing student accountability for PBL correspond with the steps of organizing the PBL environment.

The aim is engendering concern about the need to take accountability for studying the subject matter in the PBL environment.

A sample-project is prepared for the class so as to induce students' interest to learning the subject matter through project activity, and foster adoption of PBL specificity.

The sample-project contains a set of interrelated project tasks. Sample project-relevant knowledge (the knowledge required in order to carry out the sample-project) is set equal to the subject-relevant knowledge. Due to that, a set of the tasks corresponds to a set of subject topics. It means that one task or more than one task correspond to each subject topic, the order of the tasks' performance conforms to the order of studying the corresponding subject topics, and task-relevant knowledge (the knowledge required in order to perform a task) corresponds topic-relevant knowledge .

The aim is motivating students to take accountability for acquiring the subject-relevant knowledge while performance of the sample-project. For that, the initial assessments of student knowledge corresponding with different knowledge levels are set by the teacher.

The values of assessment are set according to ordered sequence of knowledge levels. The sequence is know-how, know-what, know-why, and care-why. The most value of assessment is set for know-how level. It is caused by the need to motivate students to learn by doing. The initial assessments of student knowledge corresponding with the subject topics and the sample-project tasks are set by dividing the initial knowledge assessments of the corresponding knowledge levels.

The aim is the habituation of students to take accountability for study of a subject through performing a sample-project. The aim is attained by facilitation and stimulation of acquiring subject-relevant knowledge and PBL experience by students since the subject matter is submitted by a teacher in synchrony with the performance of the sample project tasks, and a project performance process fosters adoption of specificity of PBL.

The teacher suggests control questions for student self-assessment of knowledge corresponding with the various knowledge levels. Each student assesses his (her) knowledge acquired while performance of the sample-project tasks by answers to the control questions.

The assessment process is adjusted by the initial assessments of task-relevant knowledge of the corresponding knowledge levels. According to that, the knowledge self-assessments corresponding with the knowledge levels and the total self-assessment of knowledge are determined. The total self-assessment is the sum of the knowledge self-assessments for all knowledge levels.

The aim is inducing and guiding of students to take accountability for collaborative performance of projects of different levels of complexity.

The descriptions of the projects of different complexity levels and the requirements to self-formation of collaborative groups are used for attaining the aim.

The project description includes the level of project complexity, the sequence of typical project tasks caused by their relationship, the task-relevant knowledge, and a bonus (addition to assessment) which can be gained by students as a result of a successful project performance. The project with a higher level of complexity has the more number of the project tasks which are the more complicated tasks. Existence of higher-order task relevant knowledge is required for their performance.

Example 1. The project description includes two projects of different levels of complexity, the sequence of tasks for each project, the task-relevant knowledge of all knowledge levels, and the bonus corresponding with each project. The project descriptions are represented by Table 1.

The requirements to self-formation of collaborative groups are set by a teacher. The requirements are

* The maximal number of students in the collaborative group is set. It fosters knowledge transfer through intensive intra-group interactions.

* Each project task should have a student who is accountable for task performance. It induces sharing accountability.

* Every student should hold accountability for performing the fixed number of project tasks related with different subject topics. It engenders diversity of accountability relations.

* One member of a collaborative group may be accountable for performing a project task. It personalizes accountability of students for qualitative and timely performance of a task.

* The members of a collaborative group should be accountable for performance all project tasks. It engenders completeness of accountability.

* Providing compatibility of students by coordination of their personal characteristics. It promotes collaboration of students.

* The students of a collaborative group should participate in performance of all project tasks. It reinforces student accountability for task performance.

Attaining of the aim on this step of the specific organization of the PBL is provided by a process of self-formation of the collaborative student groups. At first, each student from the class choices the project of determined level of complexity on the basis of comparison of student self-assessments of knowledge carried out after completion of the sample-project with the project descriptions (Table 1). It induces the students to take accountability for performing tasks of a project of the determined complexity level. Owing to that, the class is divided on the groups according to the project complexity levels.

Then, a student who chose the project of the determined complexity level evaluates of his (her) willingness to take accountability for performance of the determined project tasks. The willingness to be accountable is resulted by self-assessment of personal knowledge needed for performance of a task and the desire to take accountability, which is guided by the above requirements.

The results of students' self-evaluation can be represented in the table. The rows of the table correspond to the students. The columns of the table correspond to the subject topics and the project tasks related with the topics. The intersection of a row and a column contains the result of self-evaluation. The student's willingness to take accountability for performing a task is marked by symbol "A" in the intersection.

Example 2. Six students from the class chose the project of the second level of complexity. The sequence of typical project tasks is z ₁, z ₂, ....., z ₆ (Table 1). The maximal number of students in the collaborative group is set equal to three. Then, the number of collaborative groups is equal to two. The course includes five subject topics. Each collaborative group will perform separate project of the second level of complexity.

According the aforementioned requirements each student should take accountability for performance of two project tasks related to the different subject topics. The self-evaluation outcomes are represented in Table 2. Thus, the student s ₁ makes decision to take accountability for the results of performing the tasks z ₁ and z ₂, corresponding with the first and the second subject topic, accordingly.

Self-formation of the collaborative groups is realized through coordination of the s elf-evaluation outcomes of students guided by the aforementioned requirements. Coordination is realized through discussion of students with participation of an instructor. While the coordination each student compares the tasks for performance of which he (she) prefers being accountable with the tasks chosen by peers. The tasks chosen earlier by the student can be replaced by other tasks due to coordination with the peers.

Example 3. The student s ₁ is incompatible with the student s ₃. The student s ₂ is incompatible with the student s ₄. It means that the student s ₁ may not be in the same collaborative group with the student s ₃. Analogically, the student s ₂ may not be in the same collaborative group with the student s ₄. The coordination of the self-evaluation outcomes (Table 2) allows to form the two collaborative groups. Three students' s ₁, s ₂ and s ₅ are included in the first group. Three students' s ₃, s ₄ and s 6 are included in the second group.

The student s ₂ compete with the student s ₅ for taking accountability for performing the task z ₆ and there is lack of accountability for performance of the task z ₅. As a result of coordination the student s 5 takes accountability for performing the task z ₅ instead of the task z ₆.

The student s ₃ compete with the student s ₄ for taking accountability for performing the task z 4 and there is lack of accountability for performance of the task z ₁. As a result of coordination, the student s 4 takes accountability for performing the task z ₁ instead of the task z ₄.

The performed changes correspond with the above mentioned requirements to self-formation of the first and the second groups. The changes are shown by the arrows in Table 2.

The aim is to stimulate students to hold accountability for collaborative performance of the projects. Holding accountability for performance of the determined project tasks induces students to develop higher-order knowledge and leads to acquiring by them accountability skills. It requires setting more adaptive assessments of student knowledge regarding know-why and care-why levels then adaptive assessments regarding know -what and know-how levels.

Moreover, the adaptive knowledge assessment set for the collaborative group depends from the total knowledge assessment received after completion of the sample-project by summation of the individual self- assessments of knowledge of each group member. According to that, the more adaptive assessment of knowledge regarding know-why and care-why levels is set for the collaborative group having the more total knowledge assessment. It induces the students of such collaborative group to aspire to receiving the best learning results.

Example 4. An adaptive knowledge assessment for all knowledge levels is set equal to 100%. The total knowledge self-assessments of students of the first, and the second collaborative groups after completion of the sample project are 210 and 230, accordingly. Hence, the more adaptive knowledge assessment of both know-why and care-why levels is set for second group. The adaptive knowledge assessments set for students from the corresponding collaborative groups regarding the knowledge level pairs are represented by Table 3.

The adaptive knowledge assessments of the collaborative group students regarding the separate knowledge levels are set on the basis of the student self-assessment of knowledge after completion of the sample project. These assessments stimulate students to hold accountability for collaborative performance of the projects by developing higher-order knowledge.

Example 5.Knowledge development of the first group students after completion of the sample project regarding know-what level is higher than their knowledge development regarding know-how level. Hence, the adaptive knowledge assessment regarding know-what level for this group is set lower than the adaptive assessment regarding know-how level.

The knowledge development of the first group students regarding know-why level is higher than the knowledge development regarding care-why level. Consequently, the adaptive knowledge assessment regarding know-why level is set lower than the adaptive assessment regarding care-why level. The adaptive knowledge assessments for students of the second collaborative groups are set on the basis of similar inferences.

The adaptive knowledge assessments regarding the knowledge levels of students of these collaborative groups for performance by them the group projects are represented by Table 4.

Since the project chosen by the collaborative group students includes six tasks, then the adaptive knowledge assessments of students regarding know-what, know-how, know-why, and care-why levels for each task are determined by dividing of the corresponding adaptive knowledge assessments of the collaborative group students for performing the project (Table 4). As a result of that, the task oriented adaptive knowledge assessments regarding the knowledge levels for students of the first group are equal to 2.5%, 4.5%, 3.0%, and 6.67%, accordingly. The adaptive assessments for students of the second group are equal to 2%, 4%, 3.7%, and 7%, accordingly.
The step 6: Sustaining collaborative p erformance of the project tasks
The aim is to reinforce students' accountability for collaborative performance of the project tasks. Collaborative performance of the project tasks is sustained by the teacher's control and the possibility of use of the sample-project as a guide to performance of similar project tasks.

Project performance control is realized by setting the control points all of which are correspond with the fixed number of the project tasks, and assessing the task-relevant knowledge regarding the various knowledge levels gained by each student of collaborative group through testing in a control point.

If a student passed the control test then his (her) assessment is equal to the corresponding adaptive assessment. If a student didn't pass the control test correctly or completely, then the corresponding assessment is marked.

Control of student knowledge during project performance promotes concentration of the students' attention on performance of the project tasks that causes reinforcement of their accountability for collaborative performance of the tasks.

Example 6.The two control points are set. The tasks z ₁, z ₂, and z ₃ correspond with the first point. The tasks z ₄, z ₅, and z ₆ correspond with the second point. Results of the teacher assessment of the task-relevant knowledge gained by students of two collaborative groups in these control points are represented by Table 5.

The aim is to evaluate development of student accountability and a level of accountability skills.

Personal accountability for performance of the determined project task taken by a student motivates him (her) to search creative extraordinary solutions while task performance. It induces a student to develop knowledge of the care-why level. Hence, the assessment of student knowledge of the care-why level can serve as measure his (her) personal accountability for task performance.

The personal accountability measure can be reinforced by knowledge assessment of the care-why level others students of the group. It incites the student to energize others group students to achieving the best task performance. For this, the student favors effective collaboration of the group students aimed at developing their knowledge of the care-why level. Owing to that, an additional accountability measure is determined by summation of knowledge assessments of the care-why level of the group students. It allows to determine the reinforced accountability measure for performance of the task by summation of the personal and additional accountability measures.

The integrated accountability measure of the student is equal to sum of the personal accountability measures. The integrated reinforced accountability measure of the student is determined as a sum of the reinforced accountability measures. The integrated reinforced accountability measure for project performance is equal to sum of the integrated reinforced accountability measure of all group students.

Example 7. The personal accountability measures of the student s ₁for performance of the tasks z ₁, and the z 2 are equal to 6.4%, and 6.5%, accordingly (Table 5). Then, the integrated personal accountability measure of the student s 1 is equal to12.9 %.

The additional accountability measure of the student s 1 for performance of the task z ₁ is determined as a sum of the knowledge assessments of the care-why level of the students' s 2 and s ₅. These assessments are equal to 4%, and 3.5%, accordingly (Table 5). Then, the additional measure of accountability is equal to 7.5%. The additional accountability measure of the student s ₁ for performance of the task z ₂ is determined similarly. It is equal to 6.8%.

The reinforced accountability measures of the student s ₁for performance of the task z ₁and the task z ₂ are equal to 13.9%, and 13.3%, accordingly. Then, the reinforced accountability measure of the student s ₁ is equal 27.2%. The measures of student accountability for task performance for second collaborative group are determined similarly. The integrated reinforced measure of accountability for project performance by first and second collaborative group is equal to 74%, and 78%, accordingly. The measures of student accountability are represented by Table 6.

Example 8. The integrated personal accountability measure of the student s ₁is more than the integrated personal accountability measures of the students s ₂ and s 5 (Table 6). It means that knowledge of care-why level of the student s ₁ allows him to perform the project tasks for which he (she) is accountable more qualitatively.

The integrated additional accountability measure of the student s ₁ is also more than the integrated additional accountability measures of the students s ₂ and s ₅ (Table 6). It means, that the student s ₁ could energize the students' s ₂ and s ₅ to be more creative while performance of the project tasks for which the student s ₁ is accountable. Hence, the integrated reinforced accountability measure of the student s ₁is more than the integrated reinforced accountability measures of the students' s 2 and s ₅. Comparison of the accountability measures for performance of the project tasks by students from second collaborative group is realized similarly.

The integrated reinforced accountability measure for project performance by the second collaborative group is more than the integrated reinforced accountability measure for project performance by the first collaborative group. It means that students of the second collaborative group performed the project tasks for which they are accountable more qualitatively. Furthermore, the students of the second group are more stimulated by higher adaptive assessments set for higher-order knowledge then the students of the first group (Table 4).

Accountability skill of a student is ability to hold self and others accountable for project task performance. Owing to that a level of accountability skills characterizes quality of task performance caused by creative decisions depending on care-why knowledge level. Hence, the accountability measure can determine a level of accountability skills. If the accountability measure is more, then the level of accountability skills is higher.

Example 9. The accountability measure of the student s ₂ is more than the accountability measure of the students s ₂ and s 5 (Table 6). Owing to that, the level of accountability skills of the student s ₁ is higher than the level of accountability skills of the students' s ₂ and s ₅.

4. Conformity between the Specific Organization of a PBL Environment and Development of Student Accountability for PBL

The fulfilled exploration sets conformity between the steps of the specific organization of a PBL environment and the stages of development of student accountability for PBL. The conformity is represented by Table 7.

5. Conclusion

The approach to development of student accountability for study of a subject in the PBL environment through a seven-step process of its specific organization realized by a teacher is proposed. Conformity between the steps of organizing the PBL environment and the stages of development of student accountability for performance of group project tasks is set. It means that the each step contributes to development of student accountability for performance of the project tasks.

Specificity of organizing PBL consists in ensuring subject study through sequential performance of the sample-project and the group projects, promoting self-formation of the collaborative groups for performing projects of different complexity levels, realizing the comprehensive process of assessment of student knowledge, and sustaining collaborative performance of the project tasks.

The accountability measure is proposed for measurement of student accountability for performance of the project tasks. Correspondence of the accountability measure of a student for performance of the project tasks with a level of his (her) accountability skills is established. It allows evaluating development of student accountability and a level of accountability skills. The accountability measure of a student combines the personal accountability measure and the additional accountability measure of the collaborative group members. As a result of combination, the reinforced accountability measure of a student for performance of the project tasks is formed.

References

[5]

Barkley, E., Cross, K. P., Howell, M. C. (2004). Collaborative Learning Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty (Paperback), Jossey-Bass; 1 edition.

[19]

Lopez, A.V. et al. (2002).Embedding facilitation in group support systems to manage distributed group behavior, Proceedings of the 35th Annual Haw aii International Conference on System Sciences, 7-10 Jan.

[20]

Lovie-Kitchin, J. (2001). Reflecting on assessment, In Schwartz, P. et al. (Eds), Problem-Based Learning: Case Studies, Experience and Practice. London: Kogan Page.

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Maltese, R. (2012). Project Based Learning, 25 Projects for 21 st Century Learning, Dog Ear Publishing.

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Solomon, G. (2003). Project-Based Learning: A Primer. Technology and Learning, 23(6).

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Development of Student Accountability in a Project-based Learning Environment

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In this paper, we propose an approach to development of student accountability for study of a subject in a PBL environment through its specific organization by a teacher. It allows to include process of developing accountability of students for PBL to accountability area of a teacher.

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Cite this guide: Brame, C.J. & Biel, R. (2015). Setting up and facilitating group work:
Using cooperative learning groups effectively. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-cooperative-learning-groups-effectively/.

Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students' learning. Whether the goal is to increase student understanding of content, to build particular transferable skills, or some combination of the two, instructors often turn to small group work to capitalize on the benefits of peer-to-peer instruction. This type of group work is formally termed cooperative learning, and is defined as the instructional use of small groups to promote students working together to maximize their own and each other's learning (Johnson, et al., 2008).

Cooperative learning is characterized by positive interdependence, where students perceive that better performance by individuals produces better performance by the entire group (Johnson, et al., 2014). It can be formal or informal, but often involves specific instructor intervention to maximize student interaction and learning. It is infinitely adaptable, working in small and large classes and across disciplines, and can be one of the most effective teaching approaches available to college instructors.

What can it look like?

Informal cooperative learning groups
In informal cooperative learning, small, temporary, ad-hoc groups of two to four students work together for brief periods in a class, typically up to one class period, to answer questions or respond to prompts posed by the instructor.

Additional examples of ways to structure informal group work
Think-pair-share
The instructor asks a discussion question. Students are instructed to think or write about an answer to the question before turning to a peer to discuss their responses. Groups then share their responses with the class.
Peer Instruction
This modification of the think-pair-share involves personal responses devices (e.g. clickers). The question posted is typically a conceptually based multiple-choice question. Students think about their answer and vote on a response before turning to a neighbor to discuss. Students can change their answers after discussion, and "sharing" is accomplished by the instructor revealing the graph of student response and using this as a stimulus for large class discussion. This approach is particularly well-adapted for large classes.
Jigsaw
In this approach, groups of students work in a team of four to become experts on one segment of new material, while other "expert teams" in the class work on other segments of new material. The class then rearranges, forming new groups that have one member from each expert team. The members of the new team then take turns teaching each other the material on which they are experts.
Formal cooperative learning groups
In formal cooperative learning students work together for one or more class periods to complete a joint task or assignment (Johnson et al., 2014). There are several features that can help these groups work well:

The instructor defines the learning objectives for the activity and assigns students to groups.

The groups are typically heterogeneous, with particular attention to the skills that are needed for success in the task.

Within the groups, students may be assigned specific roles, with the instructor communicating the criteria for success and the types of social skills that will be needed.

Importantly, the instructor continues to play an active role during the groups' work, monitoring the work and evaluating group and individual performance.

Instructors also encourage groups to reflect on their interactions to identify potential improvements for future group work.

This video shows an example of formal cooperative learning groups in David Matthes' class at the University of Minnesota:

There are many more specific types of group work that fall under the general descriptions given here, including team-based learning, problem-based learning, and process-oriented guided inquiry learning.

What's the theoretical underpinning?

The use of cooperative learning groups in instruction is based on the principle of constructivism, with particular attention to the contribution that social interaction can make. In essence, constructivism rests on the idea that individuals learn through building their own knowledge, connecting new ideas and experiences to existing knowledge and experiences to form new or enhanced understanding (Bransford, et al., 1999). The consideration of the role that groups can play in this process is based in social interdependence theory, which grew out of Kurt Koffka's and Kurt Lewin's identification of groups as dynamic entities that could exhibit varied interdependence among members, with group members motivated to achieve common goals. Morton Deutsch conceptualized varied types of interdependence, with positive correlation among group members' goal achievements promoting cooperation.

Lev Vygotsky extended this work by examining the relationship between cognitive processes and social activities, developing the sociocultural theory of development. The sociocultural theory of development suggests that learning takes place when students solve problems beyond their current developmental level with the support of their instructor or their peers. Thus both the idea of a zone of proximal development, supported by positive group interdependence, is the basis of cooperative learning (Davidson and Major, 2014; Johnson, et al., 2014).

Cooperative learning follows this idea as groups work together to learn or solve a problem, with each individual responsible for understanding all aspects. The small groups are essential to this process because students are able to both be heard and to hear their peers, while in a traditional classroom setting students may spend more time listening to what the instructor says.

Cooperative learning uses both goal interdependence and resource interdependence to ensure interaction and communication among group members. Changing the role of the instructor from lecturing to facilitating the groups helps foster this social environment for students to learn through interaction.

Is there evidence that it works?

David Johnson, Roger Johnson, and Karl Smith performed a meta-analysis of 168 studies comparing cooperative learning to competitive learning and individualistic learning in college students (Johnson et al., 2006). They found that cooperative learning produced greater academic achievement than both competitive learning and individualistic learning across the studies, exhibiting a mean weighted effect size of 0.54 when comparing cooperation and competition and 0.51 when comparing cooperation and individualistic learning. In essence, these results indicate that cooperative learning increases student academic performance by approximately one-half of a standard deviation when compared to non-cooperative learning models, an effect that is considered moderate. Importantly, the academic achievement measures were defined in each study, and ranged from lower-level cognitive tasks (e.g., knowledge acquisition and retention) to higher level cognitive activity (e.g., creative problem solving), and from verbal tasks to mathematical tasks to procedural tasks. The meta-analysis also showed substantial effects on other metrics, including self-esteem and positive attitudes about learning. George Kuh and colleagues also conclude that cooperative group learning promotes student engagement and academic performance (Kuh et al., 2007).

Springer, Stanne, and Donovan (1999) confirmed these results in their meta-analysis of 39 studies in university STEM classrooms. They found that students who participated in various types of small-group learning, ranging from extended formal interactions to brief informal interactions, had greater academic achievement, exhibited more favorable attitudes towards learning, and had increased persistence through STEM courses than students who did not participate in STEM small-group learning.

The box below summarizes three individual studies examining the effects of cooperative learning groups.

What are approaches that can help make group work effective?
Preparation Articulate your goals for the group work, including both the academic objectives you want the students to achieve and the social skills you want them to develop. Determine the group conformation that will help meet your goals.
In informal group learning, groups often form ad hoc from near neighbors in a class.

In formal group learning, it is helpful for the instructor to form groups that are heterogeneous with regard to particular skills or abilities relevant to group tasks. For example, groups may be heterogeneous with regard to academic skill in the discipline or with regard to other skills related to the group task (e.g., design capabilities, programming skills, writing skills, organizational skills) (Johnson et al, 2006).

Groups from 2-6 are generally recommended, with groups that consist of three members exhibiting the best performance in some problem-solving tasks (Johnson et al., 2006; Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992).

To avoid common problems in group work, such as dominance by a single student or conflict avoidance, it can be useful to assign roles to group members (e.g., manager, skeptic, educator, conciliator) and to rotate them on a regular basis (Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992). Assigning these roles is not necessary in well-functioning groups, but can be useful for students who are unfamiliar with or unskilled at group work.
Choose an assessment method that will promote positive group interdependence as well as individual accountability.
In team-based learning, two approaches promote positive interdependence and individual accountability. First, students take an individual readiness assessment test, and then immediately take the same test again as a group. Their grade is a composite of the two scores. Second, students complete a group project together, and receive a group score on the project. They also, however, distribute points among their group partners, allowing student assessment of members' contributions to contribute to the final score.

Heller and Hollabaugh (1992) describe an approach in which they incorporated group problem-solving into a class. Students regularly solved problems in small groups, turning in a single solution. In addition, tests were structured such that 25% of the points derived from a group problem, where only those individuals who attended the group problem-solving sessions could participate in the group test problem. This approach can help prevent the "free rider" problem that can plague group work.

The University of New South Wales describes a variety of ways to assess group work, ranging from shared group grades, to grades that are averages of individual grades, to strictly individual grades, to a combination of these. They also suggest ways to assess not only the product of the group work but also the process. Again, having a portion of a grade that derives from individual contribution helps combat the free rider problem.
Helping groups get started Explain the group's task, including your goals for their academic achievement and social interaction. Explain how the task involves both positive interdependence and individual accountability, and how you will be assessing each.
Assign group roles or give groups prompts to help them articulate effective ways for interaction. The University of New South Wales provides a valuable set of tools to help groups establish good practices when first meeting. The site also provides some exercises for building group dynamics; these may be particularly valuable for groups that will be working on larger projects.

Regularly observe group interactions and progress, either by circulating during group work, collecting in-process documents, or both. When you observe problems, intervene to help students move forward on the task and work together effectively. The University of New South Wales provides handouts that instructors can use to promote effective group interactions, such as a handout to help students listen reflectively or give constructive feedback, or to help groups identify particular problems that they may be encountering.

Assessing and reflecting

In addition to providing feedback on group and individual performance (link to preparation section above), it is also useful to provide a structure for groups to reflect on what worked well in their group and what could be improved. Graham Gibbs (1994) suggests using the checklists shown below.

The University of New South Wales provides other reflective activities that may help students identify effective group practices and avoid ineffective practices in future cooperative learning experiences.

References

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., and Cocking, R.R. (Eds.) (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Bruffee, K. A. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and the authority of knowledge. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Cabrera, A. F., Crissman, J. L., Bernal, E. M., Nora, A., Terenzini, P. T., & Pascarella, E. T. (2002). Collaborative learning: Its impact on college students' development and diversity. Journal of College Student Development, 43(1), 20-34.

Davidson, N., & Major, C. H. (2014). Boundary crossing: Cooperative learning, collaborative learning, and problem-based learning. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25 (3&4), 7-55.

Dees, R. L. (1991). The role of cooperative leaning in increasing problem-solving ability in a college remedial course. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22(5), 409-21.

Gokhale, A. A. (1995). Collaborative Learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology Education, 7(1).

Heller, P., and Hollabaugh, M. (1992) Teaching problem solving through cooperative grouping. Part 2: Designing problems and structuring groups. American Journal of Physics 60, 637-644.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2006). Active learning: Cooperation in the university classroom (3 rd edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Holubec, E.J. (2008). Cooperation in the classroom (8 th edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2014). Cooperative learning: Improving university instruction by basing practice on validated theory. Journl on Excellence in College Teaching 25, 85-118.

Jones, D. J., & Brickner, D. (1996). Implementation of cooperative learning in a large-enrollment basic mechanics course. American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference Proceedings.

Kuh, G.D., Kinzie, J., Buckley, J., Bridges, B., and Hayek, J.C. (2007). Piecing together the student success puzzle: Research, propositions, and recommendations (ASHE Higher Education Report, No. 32). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Love, A. G., Dietrich, A., Fitzgerald, J., & Gordon, D. (2014). Integrating collaborative learning inside and outside the classroom. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25(3&4), 177-196.

Smith, M. E., Hinckley, C. C., & Volk, G. L. (1991). Cooperative learning in the undergraduate laboratory. Journal of Chemical Education 68(5), 413-415.

Springer, L., Stanne, M. E., & Donovan, S. S. (1999). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 96(1), 21-51.

Uribe, D., Klein, J. D., & Sullivan, H. (2003). The effect of computer-mediated collaborative learning on solving ill-defined problems. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(1), 5-19.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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Group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively

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by Cynthia J. Brame and Rachel Biel Print Version Cite this guide: Brame, C.J. & Biel, R. (2015). Setting up and facilitating group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-cooperative-learning-groups-effectively/. Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students' learning.

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Active Learning Classrooms: Sharing responsibility for learning

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Responsibility Song (Learn Responsibility for Kids - Audio)

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In order to create an environment in which cooperative learning can take place, three things are necessary. First, students need to feel safe, but also challenged. Second, groups need to be small enough that everyone can contribute. Third, the task students work together on must be clearly defined.

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Fisher and Ellis' theories about working in small groups

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Fisher and Ellis' theories about working in small groups

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Lev Vygotsky and Social Learning Theories

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Social learning theories help us to understand how people learn in social contexts (learn from each other) and informs us on how we, as teachers, construct active learning communities. Lev Vygotsky (1962), a Russian teacher and psychologist, first stated that we learn through our interactions a…

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Theories or Methodologies for Working Together

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Theories or Methodologies for Working Together

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A is for Asking. If you want people to participate, you must ask. The number one reason people cite for not volunteering: "Nobody asked."

B is for Black Hole. People are afraid that if they volunteer, they'll be sucked into a black hole of time commitment from which they can't escape. Let them know up front that your group is not a black hole. Then, make sure you honor their time constraints.

C is for Communication. Use a variety of communication tools to make sure your message gets through. Flyers and e-mails are good for communicating a date and time. Use your newsletter and Web site to let people know about your accomplishments. Invite local media to activities involving kids.

D is for Diversity. Reach out to all parents in your school, not just the ones who are easy to reach. Sponsor multicultural events. Translate parent group materials, if necessary. Organize transportation for those who need it. Your school, your group, and the kids all will benefit tremendously from broad-based parent involvement.

E is for Examine. Look closely at your activities to decide what's working and what isn't. Don't just do something because "that's what we've always done." New ideas can create new excitement for your group.

F is for Fun -don't forget about it! Some special people will dedicate their time and energy to a group because it's the right thing to do. Many, many more will participate if it's fun. Make sure your group has fun. You'll build involvement and fight burnout, too.

G is for Gradual. Introduce parents to participation in the PTO gradually. Parents who participate in family events are the most likely to become volunteers. Those who volunteer occasionally are the most likely to take on more responsibility, such as organizing an event. And those organizers are the most likely to become interested in serving as board members. Moving people from step to step takes the stress out of finding future leaders.

H is for Hour, the length to which you should limit meetings. People worry about time commitments. You have better ways for them to spend their volunteer time than at meetings, so don't hold meetings that go on all night. Use your committees to do the detail work. Limit general meetings to one hour, and limit business to finalizing the work of the committees.

I is for Invitation. The best way to get parents involved is to extend a personal invitation. People are most likely to take part in any group when they know someone who already does. Don't just send flyers home, then wonder why nobody "signed up." Create situations in which you can communicate with people one on one.

J is for Just. Don't use this word to describe your group. You are doing important work. You should know it, and others should, too. So don't think of your organization as "just a PTO." If you do, you'll have a much harder time getting others involved.

K is for Kudos. Awards, compliments, a simple thank-you. Always let people know that you appreciate their help, whether they just organized a smashing fundraiser or spent an hour selling tickets at the carnival.

L is for Leadership. Being a leader means looking beyond today. Does your group have long-term goals? How will you get there? If you want to get parents excited, share your vision and give them something to work toward.

M is for Marketing. Sing the praises of your parent group. Make sure people know what you do. When you donate an item to the school, put a plaque or sticker on it that gives you credit. When you raise money, make sure people know what it was able to buy for their kids. A little basic marketing goes a long way toward building your reputation with parents-and encouraging parent involvement.

N is for New Parents -make a special effort to reach out to them. Parents new to the school need your help. You can provide them with information about the school, teachers, schedules, and more. Reach out to them early-and individually-to give them a positive feeling about the PTO.

O is for Organization. Make sure you have bylaws. Adopt sound financial practices. Obtain an Employer Identification Number from the IRS. Incorporate. Consider applying for tax-exempt status from the IRS. Take your group seriously and others will, too.

P is for Priorities. Make parent involvement, not fundraising, your priority. Run two or three major fundraisers a year. Then concentrate on activities that get parents connected to the school. The kids, teachers and administrators, and the PTO will all benefit.

Q is for Questionnaire. Don't just ask for your volunteers' time; ask for their talents. Use a questionnaire to discover parent interests. You'll find dedicated volunteers more easily if you match skills and talents to the jobs you need done.

R is for Research -share it with parents. Research shows that students with involved parents perform better in school, score better on standardized tests, have fewer behavioral problems, are less likely to use drugs and alcohol, and go to better colleges. Make sure you get the word out!

S is for School Family Nights. These are events that get parents and kids together for a night of fun and, perhaps, learning. These events are parent involvement. They get parents connected to the school more successfully than anything else you do. Don't think of family nights as extras, and don't make them fundraisers. Schedule at least two per semester. For free kits on a variety of family nights, check out PTO Today's School Family Nights.

T is for Training. Don't give anyone, officers or volunteers, a job they're not ready for. Make sure people know what is expected of them and have the resources and knowledge to do the job. If you don't, volunteers won't return.

U is for Unite. Whenever possible, seek to unite diverse groups. Work together with teachers and administrators, parents of varying ethnic and economic groups, people with a variety of views. Make the parent group a source of strength for the school.

V is for Visibility. Be visible at all events. Set up a table at open house, registration, and school activities. Assign a board member to walk around at parent group functions; she should introduce herself and make sure people are having fun. Put a welcoming face on the PTO.

W is for Welcome, the way you should make people feel. Have a greeter at meetings to welcome newcomers and make sure they feel comfortable. Use name tags so people who don't attend often won't feel left out. Make that first experience a positive one, so people will want to come back.

X is for X-factor. The x-factor in building a successful parent group is balance. You can run a good event or fundraiser without it. But to sustain a group over the long term, you must find balance: work and fun, PTO time and personal time, fundraising and involvement events.

Y is for Year. Plan out your activities for the entire year. Use your checkbook to create a budget, so you'll know how much money you need to raise. Balance your activities throughout the year so you won't burn out your volunteers or yourself. Take the pressure off with good planning.

Z is for Zero In -on building parent involvement!
Originally posted in 2004 and updated regularly. School Family Nights® is a trademark of School Family Media®.
The best PTO advice, ideas, and inspiration delivered weekly. Don't miss it!

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26 Ways To Build Involvement - PTO Today

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A is for Asking. If you want people to participate, you must ask. The number one reason people cite for not volunteering: "Nobody asked." B is for Black Hole. People are afraid that if they volunteer, they'll be sucked into a black hole of time commitment from which they can't escape.

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While increasing participation is an obvious goal in courses that include frequent discussions and small-group work, it is also important in a lecture course. In short, if only a few students participate by volunteering answers, asking questions, or contributing to discussions, class sessions become to some extent a lost opportunity to assess and promote learning. You can improve student participation in your course by devoting time and thought to shaping the environment and planning each class session. Furthermore, the way in which you interact, both verbally and non-verbally, communicates to students your attitude about participation.

Ideally, the goal of increasing participation is not to have every student participate in the same way or at the same rate. Instead, it is to create an environment in which all participants have the opportunity to learn and in which the class explores issues and ideas in depth, from a variety of viewpoints. Some students will raise their voices more than others; this variation is a result of differences in learning preferences as well as differences in personalities. For example, some students who do not speak often in class are reflective learners, who typically develop ideas and questions in their minds before speaking; others are shy students who feel uncomfortable speaking in front of groups (at least initially). Many students who frequently volunteer to contribute are active learners, who typically think while they speak. The instructor's goal is to create conditions that enable students of various learning preferences and personalities to contribute. To reach this goal, you will need to take extra steps to encourage quiet students to speak up and, occasionally, ask the more verbose students to hold back from commenting in order to give others a chance.

This handout is divided into the following sections:

Shaping the Environment
Planning
Listening and Responding
Links and References for Increasing Student Participation

Reserve a classroom that will accommodate the kind of participation you have in mind. Starting on the first day of class, arrange the room in a way that encourages active engagement. When it is time to reserve a classroom, keep in mind not only the number of student chairs you will need, but also whether these chairs should be moveable. If you lead frequent discussions, consider moving the chairs into a circle or "U" to ensure that students can see, and speak to, one another. If you are teaching in a large lecture hall, consider asking students to move so that they are concentrated near the front of the room. Move the chairs back to their standard configuration at the end of class (in University-managed classrooms, see the diagram posted near the door).

Make clear from the beginning your expectation that students will participate. On the first day of class, explain what you see as valuable about class participation. Indicate that you want to do all you can to ensure that the classroom dynamics and activities support full participation, including calling on students who do not raise their hands and sometimes asking frequent contributors to allow others to have a chance. Ask students to inform you if you can make any changes to improve the classroom dynamics and rates of participation.

On the first day of class, give students a clear idea of what to expect regarding participation. If you plan to lecture each day with pauses for questions and discussion, do so on the first day; if you plan to lead more extended discussions, then do so on the first day.

Consider whether you will assign a grade to students' performance in discussions so that they understand the importance of participating. If you do plan to grade participation, inform students of the specific criteria that you will use. For example, will you evaluate the frequency and quality of their contributions, as well as how effectively they each respond to others' comments? Will you include in each participation grade the student's performance on informal writing, online discussions, minor group projects, or other work? Grading student participation is especially important, and usually essential, in discussion courses (see Teaching with Discussions).

Learn and use students' names. Students will be more engaged if they believe that you perceive them as individuals, rather than as anonymous members of a group. Encourage students to learn one another's names, as well; this strategy will increase the possibility that they will address one another by name and direct their comments to one another, not just to you.

In a discussion course, assign to your students some of the responsibility for increasing participation by all. For example, on the first day of class, you might tell students your goals for class participation (e.g., informed and lively discussions in which everyone participates) and ask them to come up with a list of guidelines that will help the class reach this goal. Typically, they will generate excellent guidelines such as "do not interrupt others when they are talking" and "critique the ideas; don't criticize the person." Post this list on the course Web site and hand it out in class. Students who feel invested from the beginning in making the discussions successful will be more likely to work together to increase participation.

Consider requiring students to lead discussions or to submit discussion questions before class. Provide guidance and assess student performance on these tasks (assigning a score, for example, that forms a part of the class participation grade.)

In discussion courses in which you are having trouble getting students to participate, consider asking students to submit anonymous comments on class participation as well as suggestions on how to get more people involved; often, they will let you know that there are problems with the classroom dynamics that you may not see yourself (such as that some students resent the "domination" of discussion by one or two others) or that the structure of the discussions has become too predictable or formulaic.

Use a variety of teaching methods, including lectures, discussions, and small-group work. If you are teaching a lecture course, set aside time during each lecture to ask and answer questions, to ask students to solve a problem, or to discuss an issue. Pause every 15-20 minutes for this purpose. When students learn to expect these opportunities for discussion or questioning, they will listen more actively to the lecture. If you lecture for 45 minutes before you pause for questions or discussion, your students will have been taking notes for so long that they may find it difficult to switch modes quickly. Furthermore, they may well have forgotten questions, comments, or unclear concepts from the earlier parts of class (see Teaching with Lectures).

If you are teaching a discussion course, integrate short lectures into the lesson plan in order to introduce concepts, clarify and order ideas, and help students make connections. Use small-group discussions, informal writing assignments, and online discussions before or at the start of class to prompt student thinking about the discussion topic. These strategies can be effective ways to provide reflective learners and shy students a means of developing ideas that they can then contribute to the class discussion. Commenting on the insights that quieter students contribute in small-group discussions and on informal writing assignments and online discussions can encourage them to speak up in the larger group; you might comment on a student's written work, for example, "this analysis is insightful; the entire class would benefit from hearing your ideas more often" (see Teaching with Discussions).

Organize each class session to include opportunities throughout to ask and answer questions; prepare initial and follow-up questions ahead of time. Use questions to assess student learning, to signal to students which material is the most important, and to help students advance their knowledge and thinking. (For a discussion of strategies for formulating questions, see Asking Questions to Improve Learning). Encourage students to ask questions throughout the class (approximately every 15 minutes), not just at the end.

If grading student participation, plan to give students a preliminary participation grade, as well as a brief written evaluation of their performance. If you will grade class participation, give students preliminary grades as early as 3-4 weeks into the semester and at midterm so that they will know where they stand. Your written evaluation can be designed to encourage the quiet students to talk more often and the verbose students to hold their comments to give others a chance to participate).

Use verbal and non-verbal cues to encourage participation. Do not rely on the same volunteers to answer every question. Respond to frequent volunteers in a way that indicates that you appreciate their responses, but want to hear from others as well. Move to a part of the room where quiet students are sitting; smile at and make eye contact with these students to encourage them to speak up. By the same token, when frequent volunteers speak, look around the room rather than only at them to encourage others to respond (see below).

Reduce students' anxieties by creating an atmosphere in which they feel comfortable "thinking out-loud," taking intellectual risks, asking questions, and admitting when they do not know something; one of the best ways to do this is to model these behaviors yourself.

Give students time to think before they respond to your questions. Do not be afraid of silence. Give students 5-10 seconds to think and formulate a response. If 10-15 seconds pass without anyone volunteering an answer and the students are giving you puzzled looks, rephrase your question. Do not give in to the temptation to answer your own questions, which will condition students to hesitate before answering to see if you will supply "the answer." Patience is key; do not be afraid of silence. The longer you wait for students to respond, the more thoughtful and complex those responses are likely to be.

Often, there is at least one student in every class who will quickly raise her or his hand to answer nearly every question. If you consistently call on this student, those who require more time to formulate answers will simply learn to wait for this student to answer. (See Asking Questions to Improve Learning.)

Listen fully to your students' questions and answers; avoid interrupting. Resist the urge to interrupt when you think you know what the student is going to say or ask. Often, well-meaning and enthusiastic instructors make incorrect assumptions and leave their students' actual questions unanswered or misrepresent what the students had planned to say.

Provide specific, encouraging, varied responses. Point out what is helpful or interesting about student contributions. Pick up on comments that were made but not discussed. Do not use the same, standard praise to respond to every comment. When students hear "good point" again and again, they start to lose motivation. Ask follow-up questions to prompt students to clarify, refine, and support their ideas. When a student gives an incorrect or ill-conceived answer, respond in way that challenges the student to think more deeply or to reconsider the evidence. The best way to shut down participation, and learning, is to embarrass a student.

Repeat student responses to summarize or clarify ideas. Use this strategy when a student's comments are vague or "all over the map," but do not over-use it, leading students to rely on you to "translate" or validate their ideas.

Redirect comments and questions to other students. Encourage students to respond to one another, rather than merely to you. When a student is speaking, look around the room, not just at the student who is speaking; making eye contact with other students lets them know that you expect them to be listening and formulating responses. Provide students with a model of civil discourse by demonstrating respect for, and interest in, the views of others. Learn to limit your own comments. Particularly when facilitating a discussion, hold back from responding to every comment; otherwise, students will learn to wait for you to respond rather than formulating their own responses.

Place the emphasis on student ideas. Encourage students to share their ideas and use those ideas (with attribution) whenever you can. Referring back to a comment made by a student in an earlier class demonstrates that you have thought about and appreciated what your students have to say.

Active student participation does not happen naturally in university courses; it must be carefully planned and encouraged. Set aside time throughout the semester to assess student participation in your course and to develop strategies for improvement; administer midterm student evaluations to help you with this process. Consider asking a colleague to observe your class; often, outside observers can discern patterns that hinder participation but that may not be apparent to participants. Take notes during and after a semester so that you have a record of what went well and what you would like to change the next time you teach the course in order to increase student participation.

Davis, Barbara Gross. Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993.

"Questioning Strategies." Center for Teaching Excellence. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. http://cte.illinois.edu/resources/topics/methods/strateg.html.

"Encouraging Interaction in Science and Engineering Classes." The McGraw Center. Princeton University. https://mcgraw.princeton.edu/node/661.

"Facilitating Discussions in Humanities and Social Science." The McGraw Center. Princeton University. https://mcgraw.princeton.edu/node/656.

McKeachie, Wilbert, et al. McKeachie's Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers. 12th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. © 2009, Washington University.

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While increasing participation is an obvious goal in courses that include frequent discussions and small-group work, it is also important in a lecture course. In short, if only a few students participate by volunteering answers, asking questions, or contributing to discussions, class sessions become

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Call it "active learning," or "classroom participation" -- every teacher wants to know how to motivate students to particpate, and how to nurture more involved students and fewer apathetic ones. With a little extra planning, that is possible.

Below are four common reasons students don't participate and techniques to solve those problems and spice up your lessons.

Maybe it needs to be repetitive because the students don't really "get it," or maybe you're reviewing for a test. In any case, they're tuning out.

Solution #1: Assess their prior knowledge.

This could be as simple as asking students, "What do you know about (topic)?" and writing their responses on the board. You could also try a pre-test or a graphic organizer like a K-W-L chart . The goal is to find out what they already know (or think they know). You create buy-in for the students because they feel smart, and you can tailor your lesson to the information they don't know or don't remember correctly.

Solution #2: Try skills grouping.

Divide the class into groups based on what skills they need to practice - not forever, but for a class period or two, so they can focus on what they really need help with. So have a group that works on multiplying fractions, one on dividing fractions, and one on converting fractions to decimals. Make a group of "already got 100% on the test" kids and give them an extra credit activity or let them preview the next lesson. Then take time to move between the other groups and help them review. You'll have more students engaged in the lesson and they'll get specific, focused practice time.

Solution #3: Let them teach each other.

Especially good when reviewing before a test: divide the class into groups and give each group a topic. Set some guidelines and then let them teach each other. Encourage them to do interesting activities - write tests for each other, design review games, etc. - and evaluate each group on the accuracy of their content, the creativity of their approach, and how well they work together as a team. This is also a great way to discover how to motivate students.

This is really half the problem. The other half - especially with older students - is their fear of "looking stupid" by asking questions.

Solution #1: Allow anonymous questions.

Put out a "question box" where students can submit questions any time. Give each student an index card and ask them to write something about the reading assignment they did for homework. If they don't have a question, instruct them to write a comment on the reading. Collect the cards and use them to lead a class discussion. You'll easily recognize what parts of the reading confused a lot of students and they won't feel embarrassed.

Solution #2: Allow them to work together.

We can't do this all the time; individual students need to be assessed. Ask yourself: is the goal of this activity for them to learn the content, or for them to be assessed? If you want them to learn the content, why not let them work together? When they bring in their homework, do a quick survey for completeness, then put them in pairs and let them review the homework together. Encourage them to make changes if their partner's answer looks right. When they've finished, review as a class. Students may be less embarrassed to share a group's answer than their own and you may be able to complete the review more quickly.

Solution #3: Try a jigsaw approach.

No, we're not talking about puzzles or scary movies. If you're introducing new, difficult content, divide the class into groups and ask each group to master only one portion of it at a time. If, for example, you're teaching the American Revolution, have one group focus on the Continental Congress, one on Washington's Army, one on French support for the war, and so on.

Ask them to do a reading on their topic - to become the class "experts" on that subject. Then split up the class into new groups that include one "expert" on each topic. Ask these new groups to work together to write an essay or complete a worksheet that requires information about all the topics. They will teach each other in the process. Learn more about the Jigsaw Approach.

Problem: There's too much information to present in too short a time.

Sometimes there's no way around it: you simply have to get a lot of information out there in a short amount of time. So you opt for a lecture and just want your students to absorb the content. Instead, they fall asleep or stare out the window. What can you do?

Solution #1: Keep it "bite-sized."

Remember: research shows the average student's attention span is as long as her age. So even high school kids can only handle about 15 minutes. If you have a lot of information to convey, re-arrange your lesson plans so you never lecture for more than 10-15 minutes.

Break up large concepts into smaller sections - give a brief lecture, then do an activity to help it "sink in." Repeat this process over several days. You'll increase participation - and improve comprehension, too.

Solution #2: Keep them busy.

Don't allow students to stare into space while you talk. Give them something to stay connected. Try "fill in the blank" lecture notes. Delete key words and phrases in your lecture notes to create a "fill in the blank" worksheet. Then ask students to fill in the worksheet while you lecture. Another fun variation - lecture bingo .

Solution #3: Look into the future.

Before a lecture, give students a prediction activity. For example, tell them you will be lecturing on Shakespeare and ask them to predict what you will say, or give them a set of true/false statements and ask them to take their best guess.

As you lecture, instruct students to compare their guesses with what you actually say.

When the lecture is over, have a class discussion and evaluate how accurate student predictions were.

Problem: The lesson emphasizes the teacher, not the students.

Solution #1: Keep them busier than you are.

The traditional classroom of yesteryear had the teacher at the front of the room, droning on while students doze. Re-imagine your classroom as a place where students are busier than you are.

Keep the "sit still and let me talk to you" moments as brief as possible; get those kids working! Give them worksheets, activities, discussions, and projects. That doesn't mean you get to sit around -- you will still be busy, moving from student to student or group to group, correcting, evaluating, or providing feedback. But now everyone is busy and involved.

Homogeneous grouping? Heterogeneous grouping? Tracking? Forget the buzz words: having students work in groups is one of the best ways to increase student participation. Don't keep them in the same groups all the time -give them a chance to be the "smart kid" who can help someone one day and the kid who needs help the next.

Take a traditional worksheet or activity and give it to students in groups. Offer a reward to the group who finishes first with the most answers correct and watch them go! Note: it helps to have additional prizes available to keep groups motivated after the first group "wins." Even high school students enjoy these competitions.

Solution #3: Give them a voice and a choice.

Do students ever get a "say" in your classroom? Of course you need to make most decisions, but there must be some things you could leave up to them - whether it's what color chalk you use today or how long they practice a specific activity.

Kids tune out because they feel like their ideas don't matter. Show them their opinions are important and they'll pay better attention and speak up more in class.

There will always be some unreachable student who won't respond, even with these efforts. But if you give these a try, you may be presently surprised at the previously unreachable students who just might join in!

How do you encourage participation in your class? In what ways did you discover how to motivate students? Share in the comments section!

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top 12 ways to increase student participation

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Top 12 Ways to Increase Student Participation

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Call it "active learning," or "classroom participation" -- every teacher wants to know how to motivate students to particpate, and how to nurture more involved students and fewer apathetic ones. With a little extra planning, that is possible. Below are four common reasons students don't participate and techniques to solve those problems and spice up your lessons.