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During mitosis, a cell then divides identical daughter cells from a single parent cell (cell division). When a single cell separated into different identical on

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Key steps of Mitosis cellular reproduction:

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Key steps of Mitosis cellular reproduction:

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The first stage of mitosis is known as prophase. Chromosomes in the nucleus condense and form tight structures during this period. Under a microscope, the chromosomes appear as sinuous, black lines because they are so dense . Two identical sister chromatids, known as sister-chromatids, are connected to each other at the centromere, a central place in the genome.( Koonce, 1989)

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When the cell completes prophase, it enters prometaphase. The nuclear membrane breaks down during prometaphase, allowing the mitotic spindle to obtain access to the chromosomes during mitosis. The kinetochore, a protein structure, is attached to the centromere on each of the two sister chromatids during this phase. One microtubule from one side of the spindle connects to one sister chromatid in each chromosome, while the second microtubule from the other side connects to the other sister chromatid in the same chromosome; hence, each chromosome has two microtubules. (Salmon,2001).

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Metaphase begins after prometaphase. The chromosomes are arranged in a line down the equator of the cell at the beginning of metaphase, which is known as the metaphase plate . Separating the chromosome pairs is subsequently done by centrosomes, which are located on opposite sides of the cell, in preparation for the process. (Mazia,1961).

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The cell enters anaphase after metaphase is complete. The kinetochores' microtubules contract during anaphase, pulling the sister chromatids apart and toward the cell's two poles Currently, each chromatid can be thought of as its own chromosome

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Upon completion of anaphase, the cell enters telophase, which is the final step of the division process. A nuclear membrane forms surrounding each set of chromosomes as the newly divided chromosomes arrive at the mitotic spindle, forming two distinct nuclei within the same cell. The cytoplasm then separates into two identical cells.

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How parent cell produces daughter cell in Mitosis: 

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How parent cell produces daughter cell in Mitosis: 

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It is possible for cells to generate identical duplicates of themselves through mitosis, which means that the genetic material is passed down from parent to daughter cells in the process. Mitosis is the process through which one cell divides into two. eukaryotic single-celled organisms like amoeba and yeast reproduce asexually through mitosis. Interphase, nuclear division, and cytokinesis are the three main stages of the cell cycle in mitosis which produces two new cells are formed as a result of cell division. In prokaryotic cells, the cell cycle is regulated by binary fission. (Dunphy,1994)

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Cell division in sexually reproducing organisms known as meiosis is utilized to produce gametes, such as sperm or egg cells. Each chromosome is duplicated in two rounds of cell division, resulting in four cells with only one copy in the final product.(Kleckner, 1996)

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Key steps of Meiosis in Cellular Reproduction:

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Key steps of Meiosis in Cellular Reproduction:

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Differences from mitosis arise at prophase I. In meiosis I, the chromosomes couple up, as they do in mitosis. Each chromosome is meticulously aligned with its homologue companion so that the two match up at corresponding locations along their whole lengths.

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chromosomal pairs, not individual chromosomes, are arranged at the metaphase plate during metaphase I.

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Two sets of homologues are separated and migrate to opposing ends of the cell during anaphase I (phase I). Each chromosome's two sister chromatids, on the other hand, do not separate.

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There are two poles to each cell at telophase I, where the chromosomal strands meet at opposite ends. Although in some organisms, the chromosomes decondense and the nuclear membrane re-forms, this phase is bypassed because cells would soon divide.

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Chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope may be broken down during prophase II, as needed. The spindle forms between the centrosomes, and the spindle microtubules begin to trap chromosomes.( Sandler, 1976).

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The chromosomes in metaphase II are arranged one by one on the metaphase plate.

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In anaphase II, the two sister chromatids split and are drawn toward the cell's two poles.

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After the formation of nuclear membranes around chromosomes, they begin to decondense. The final results of meiosis are four single-celled haploid cells with only one chromosome per cell. Cytokinesis performs this task. Sperm and egg cells are the end products of meiosis in humans.

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How do parent cells produce daughter cells in Meiosis? 

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How do parent cells produce daughter cells in Meiosis? 

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There are fewer chromosomes in the parent cell during meiosis, which is why it generates four gametes. Sexual reproduction requires the development of egg and sperm cells through this mechanism. Diploid parent cells are required for meiosis to occur; each chromosome has two copies. (Bennett, 1971).

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A pair of identical chromosomes from each parent is formed during meiosis. At chiasma sites, the chromosomes meet. The chromosomes separate and reunite at each chiasma, trading some of their genetic material. Variation in genetics occurs as a result of this process.

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Mendel's law of independent assortment: (Bennett, 1971)

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Mendel's law of independent assortment: (Bennett, 1971)

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According to Mendel's law of independent assortment, a gene or genes are sorted into gametes in an independent manner. Alternatively, an allele that a gamete inherits for a separate gene has no influence on the allele that the gamete inherits for that gene.

According to Mendel, genes have no influence on each other when it comes to the grouping of alleles into gametes. Different features for the same attributes in their offspring are the consequence of a dihybrid cross, which is a cross between two purebred parents. This is a good example of how genes may be arranged in a variety of ways. Note the differences in seed color and texture between two pea plants, one with green, wrinkled seeds (yyrr) and the other with yellow, spherical seeds (yyrr) (YYRR). For homozygous parents, the green/wrinkled plant has all YR sperm, while the yellow/round plant has all YR sperm, according to the segregation criteria. There are no F1 children who are not YyRr genetically. (Golubovskaya,1979)

In order to comply with the law of segregation, F2 generation gametes must have either a R or a r allele, as well as either Y alleles or Ys. When a gamete carries the R allele, the law of independent assortment states that it has the same chance of carrying a R as it does of carrying an R. Because of this, crossing the YyRr heterozygote with itself will result in four equally likely gametes: YR, R, yR, and R. Self-crossing will result in the four following equally likely gametes: All of the letters are in capitals. Every one of the 16 genotypic combinations that can be created by stacking these gametes in a 4 4 Punnett square has an equal chance of occurring. This collection of genotypes includes nine round/yellow genotypes, three-round/green genotypes, three wrinkled/yellow genotypes, and one wrinkled/green genotype.

Due to distinct assortment and dominance in each monohybrid cross, the phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 dihybrid can be split down into two 3:1 ratios, each of which follows a dominant and recessive pattern. Without considering seed color at all, it is plausible to assume that three-quarters of the F2 generation progeny will be round, with the remaining quarter wrinkled in shape. Three-quarters of the yellow seedlings and one-quarter of the green seedlings are expected to come from the F2 generation. We can apply the product rule to sorting alleles for texture and color because they are separate occurrences. Consequently, the number of spherical and yellow F2 offspring will be (3/4) (3/4) = 9/16, and the number of such offspring will be (1/4) (1/4) = 1/16. It doesn't matter if you use a Punnett square or not. When a parent has one dominant and one recessive trait, the product rule can be used to calculate the number of round/green and wrinkled/yellow children they produce. In this case, the fraction of each is (3/4) / (1/4). (Bennett, 1977)

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·         King, R. W., Jackson, P. K., & Kirschner, M. W. (1994). Mitosis in transition. Cell, 79(4), 563-571.

·         McIntosh, J. R., & Koonce, M. P. (1989). Mitosis. Science, 246(4930), 622-628.

·         Mitchison, T. J., & Salmon, E. D. (2001). Mitosis: a history of division. Nature cell biology, 3(1), E17-E21.

·         Mazia, D. (1961). Mitosis and the physiology of cell division. In The cell (pp. 77-412). Academic Press.

·         Dunphy, W. G. (1994). The decision to enter mitosis. Trends in cell biology, 4(6), 202-207.

·         Kleckner, N. (1996). Meiosis: how could it work?. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(16), 8167-8174.

·         Baker, B. S., Carpenter, A. T., Esposito, M. S., Esposito, R. E., & Sandler, L. (1976). The genetic control of meiosis. Annual review of genetics, 10(1), 53-134.

·         Bennett, M. D. (1971). The duration of meiosis. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences, 178(1052), 277-299.

·         Golubovskaya, I. N. (1979). Genetic control of meiosis. International review of cytology, 58, 247-290.

·         Bennett, M. D. (1977). The time and duration of meiosis. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences, 277(955), 201-226.