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Challenge: The biggest problem we identified in regards to China is how the government is handling pollution and climate change.

Solution: To lower the carbon emission, China needs to first recognize climate change, then work towards using more renewable energy as well as encouraging individual actions to get to achieving carbon neutrality.

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Invisible China: How the Urban-Rural Divide Threatens China’s Rise

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Invisible China: How the Urban-Rural Divide Threatens China’s Rise

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https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/I/bo61544815.html

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As the glittering skyline in Shanghai seemingly attests, China has quickly transformed itself from a place of stark poverty into a modern, urban, technologically savvy economic powerhouse. But as Scott Rozelle and Natalie Hell show in Invisible China, the truth is much more complicated and might be a serious cause for concern.

China's growth has relied heavily on unskilled labor. Most of the workers who have fueled the country's rise come from rural villages and have never been to high school. While this national growth strategy has been effective for three decades, the unskilled wage rate is finally rising, inducing companies inside China to automate at an unprecedented rate and triggering an exodus of companies seeking cheaper labor in other countries. Ten years ago, almost every product for sale in an American Walmart was made in China. Today, that is no longer the case. With the changing demand for labor, China seems to have no good back-up plan. For all of its investment in physical infrastructure, for decades China failed to invest enough in its people. Recent progress may come too late. Drawing on extensive surveys on the ground in China, Rozelle and Hell reveal that while China may be the second-largest economy in the world, its labor force has one of the lowest levels of education of any comparable country. Over half of China's population-as well as a vast majority of its children-are from rural areas. Their low levels of basic education may leave many unable to find work in the formal workplace as China's economy changes and manufacturing jobs move elsewhere.

In Invisible China, Rozelle and Hell speak not only to an urgent humanitarian concern but also a potential economic crisis that could upend economies and foreign relations around the globe. If too many are left structurally unemployable, the implications both inside and outside of China could be serious. Understanding the situation in China today is essential if we are to avoid a potential crisis of international proportions. This book is an urgent and timely call to action that should be read by economists, policymakers, the business community, and general readers alike.

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As the glittering skyline in Shanghai seemingly attests, China has quickly transformed itself from a place of stark poverty into a modern, urban, technologically savvy economic powerhouse. But as Scott Rozelle and Natalie Hell show in Invisible China, the truth is much more complicated and might be a serious cause for concern.China's growth has relied heavily on unskilled labor.

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63 percent of rural students drop out before graduating from high school

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63 percent of rural students drop out before graduating from high school

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"八次大规模调研，来自四省24931名农村中学生的数据，以及与52名样本地区农村学生深入访谈，我们发现，农村地区整个中学阶段的累计辍学率高达63%。"大城市中90%以上的学生都上了高中，而这项调查发现，在农村，上高中的学生不到一半。调查发现，辍学的学生往往具有以下四个特征：学习成绩不好，男孩，年龄比较大，家庭条件差。中国普通高中的学费和杂费是全世界最高的，这对于大多数的农村家庭来说是一个沉重的负担，也是贫困学生更可能辍学的原因。此外，也许更重要的是，进入普通高中的成绩要求（和招生严格限制）成为当今中国农村地区学生入学的严重障碍。

70年代，在薄弱的经济条件下，中国教育和医疗状况曾被联合国高度赞扬，称是发展中国家的楷模；时至今日，中国成为世界第二大经济体，农村中学辍学率却高达六成以上！贫困导致农村孩子受教育程度低下，进一步导致贫困。教育问题何解？两会上，关于乡村教育问题的提案也颇受关注，今天推送的第二篇文章是政协委员汪晖就乡村教育问题的提案，从乡村教育资源和师资问题建言，期望改善乡村教育困境，敬请关注。

正文

长期以来，教育被认为是促进一个国家经济发展的最重要的推动力之一。中国的历史也同样印证了教育在增进经济发展水平上发挥的重大作用：1979年改革开放前的高比例的小学入学率和初中入学率，被认为是中国经济在之后30余年迅速增长的重要原因之一。在东亚其他国家，20世纪下半叶经济增长最快的都是那些中学入学率高的国家。

不幸的是，基于八次大规模调研收集的来自四个省24931名农村中学生的数据，以及与52名样本地区的农村学生的深入访谈，我们发现，农村地区整个中学阶段（初中、高中和中等职业学校）的累计辍学率高达63%。

像其他中等收入国家一样，中国正致力于从低劳动力成本的产业转向高劳动力成本的服务业和工业。随着经济向高附加值产业的转变和工资的上涨，从业者需要接受更多的教育来掌握必须的知识和技能以适应工作要求。如果没有完成中学教育，年轻的从业者将很难从正规部门找到一份收入可观的正式工作。很多人将不得不在非正规部门就业（这些工作的收入很低而且未来也不太可能增加）或者失业。除了上述对个人和家庭的不利影响，如果辍学率继续保持当前水平，整个国家的收入不平等问题将继续存在甚至变得更加严重。从长期来看，不断增长的失业率和持续扩大的不平等问题，将阻碍整个国家的经济发展和社会稳定。

抽样过程和数据收集

本文使用混合方法探索中国农村中学阶段辍学现状、相关因素以及潜在原因。为了实现这一目标，本文将首先基于过去七年在中国的四省展开的一系列定量研究的结果，总结出农村中学各个阶段（初中和高中）的辍学率。接着，我们使用上述研究收集的一个子数据集来识别影响辍学的相关因素。最后，我们使用一套新的定性访谈数据来探究学生之所以选择辍学或是留在学校的原因。

表一汇总了八次调查的基本情况。尽管这些调查在具体的抽样过程和数据收集方法上有些许差别，但所有的调查都至少包含了两轮调查：一次是学年开始时的基线调查，另一次是学年结束时的终期调查。所有学生的辍学情况都通过两个步骤来确认。首先，调查员询问班主任样本学生的辍学情况。接着，对于那些在终期调研时不在学校的学生，调查团队会向他们的同班同学再次确认他们的在校状态。高中入学的数据也通过两个步骤来核实：调查员首先与初中班主任确认样本学生是否上了高中，然后调查员会到每一所高中与学生当面确认他/她已经入学。

除了辍学的信息，基线和终期调研还收集了其他信息。在每一次调研中，调研员不仅收集学生目前的教育水平，还收集他们的人口社会经济特征。在调研中，样本学生还被要求完成一份时长30分钟的标准化数学测试，该测试的题目从国际数学和科学教育成就趋势（TIMSS）测试中抽取，用来量化学生的学业表现。王欢（研究团队成员，下同）等人的研究还对学生进行了由100道题目组成的心理健康测试，该测试方法在中国已被广泛使用，能可靠地度量心理焦虑。

同时，一些研究单独考察了每个班中四名家庭最贫困的学生情况。这些学生通过两个步骤被识别出来：第一步是在基线调研时，调研员请班主任列出该班家庭最贫困学生的名单。第二步是基线调研时，设计一些问题询问每个学生的家庭资产信息，然后对每项资产进行赋值（基于全国家庭收支调查得出，由中国国家统计局出版--CNBS 2007），最后依据每个学生家庭资产总值，对学生进行班内排序。通过匹配班主任的排序和依据学生家庭资产的排序，这些研究识别出每个班里家庭最贫困的四名学生。

辍学现状

八项研究都表明，农村中学各个阶段辍学率都很高（表二）。在初中，第一学年初到第二学年初有4.4%-13.3%的学生辍学；第二学年初到第三学年初有9%的学生辍学； 即便上了初三，还有4.2%-8.7%的学生会在毕业前辍学。

根据这些研究，我们计算出的初中阶段学生累计辍学率在17.6%-31%间，远超出国家最近一次公布的初中辍学率（三年观测值）为2.6%的水平。而其他研究者发现中国农村地区初中学生的辍学率高达56%。

包括在初中阶段就已经辍学的学生和初中毕业后没有进入高中继续上学的学生，中国中学阶段入学率最大的降幅出现在上高中前。我们的研究显示，超 过一半（51.2%-53.5%）的贫困农村地区学生没有上高中 （普通高中或中职）。尽管中国大城市中有超过90%的学生都上了高中，但我们的研究证实，中国农村地区不到一半的学生在初中毕业之后会继续上高中。

即使学生进入了高中，也无法保证他们会上完高中。在那些上高中的学生中--包括普通高中和中职--辍学率依然很高。有4.2%-7.4%的普通高中学生在毕业之前辍学了。尽管这个比例已经很高，但中职学生的辍学率更是高达29%-32%。

借助于普通高中学生和中职学生的比例（2011年，54%的高中生就读于普通高中，46%的高中生就读于中职--CNBS 2014），我们可估计出中学阶段的辍学率在59%（保守估计）到63%（最高估计）。具体来说，假设有100名学生进入初中，我们可以估计出这些学生在中学各个阶段的学业完成情况。如果采用最高估计，我们可以判断出，初中毕业后，仅有（大约31人辍学--初中辍学率为31%）46人进入了高中读书（数据表示53.5%的学生不进入任何高中就读--包括初中时辍学学生）。如果54%的学生上普通高中，46%的学生上中职，那么我们也能够估计出在高中阶段辍学的人数。具体来说，25名学生会进入普通高中，但只有23人能完成学业；21名学生会进入中职，但只有14人能完成学业（辍学率32%）。总的来说，100名初中学生里只有37人能够顺利完成中学阶段的学习（14人从中职毕业，23人从普通高中毕业）。根据这一估计，如果在未来的高工资经济中到正规部门就业需要高中阶段的教育，那么仅有不到40%的农村学生做好了准备。

辍学的相关因素分析

在上述八项研究中，有四项研究还探索了中学阶段不同时期的影响辍学的相关因素。这些研究的目的是更好地理解辍学问题的本质，以及识别出辍学的高风险人群。四项研究的结论非常一致（表三）。辍学的学生往往具有以下四个特征： 学习成绩不好，男孩，年龄比较大，家庭条件差（通过分析他们的家庭财产状况、兄弟姐妹的个数、父母的受教育情况、父母是否外出打工等因素而得出）。这些结果也与国际上已知的辍学相关因素分析一致，包括竞争性的教育体系、贫穷和不断增加的机会成本。

王欢等人首次检验了辍学问题和心理健康之间的关系。该研究发现，辍学不仅与学生和家庭特征相关，而且与学生的心理健康（焦虑）有关。更重要的是，即使是控制了学生及家庭特征之后，心理健康问题还是与辍学有着显著的相关关系。

为了更好理解辍学的原因，我们从上述研究的两项研究中随机抽取了部分样本学生进行访谈。如表四所示，我们访谈的对象中包括18名已经辍学的学生，11名上中职的学生，20名上普通高中的学生，以及3名正在初三复读准备再次中考的学生。2010年调查时，这些学生都是各自班里最贫困的4名学生之一。所有的访谈都是一对一进行的，并有文字和录音记录。所有的受访者都签订了同意书（根据我们的IRB协议），所有涉及个人隐私的信息在转录中都被删去。访谈采用了半结构化的问卷，访谈的时间为30至90分钟。

学生之所以选择辍学，是受以下两种机制其中之一的影响。第一，学生会理性地（有意或无意）考虑继续留在学校读书的成本与收益，然后认定他们选择辍学从长期上来说是有好处的。我们将这种机制称为"理性选择机制"（下文将详细论述）。第二，即使学生经过考虑后认为，从长期看在学校继续读书所获得的收益高于付出的成本，但他们可能当前正面临一些心理压力导致他们不顾今后的前途冲动地选择辍学。我们将这种情况称为"冲动选择机制"。

初中生和普通高中生的理性选择：

对成本和能力的双重担忧

一些事实表明，农村学生选择辍学的至少有一部分是由于对继续上学的直接或间接的担忧。如表三所示，我们相关分析的结果展示了有关于"贫困"的不同指标都与辍学有显著的相关性。 中国及其他国家的研究早已发现，贫困与低水平的教育程度和高辍学率有着密切的相关关系。贫困学生更可能辍学的部分原因也是他们受到上学成本的影响更大。实际上，我们也知道，中国普通高中的学费和杂费是全世界最高的，这对于大多数的农村家庭来说是一个沉重的负担。

如上所述，在中国上高中的机会成本--用非熟练工人的工资展示--很高并快速上升。我们发现，辍学与性别和年龄有着显著的相关关系（表三，男孩和年龄较大的学生更加容易辍学），我们认为这个现象反映了机会成本对于辍学决策产生的重要影响。年龄较大的学生更可能找到一份较高工资的工作，年龄是机会成本所致的辍学问题的一个关键因素。实际上，年龄在许多研究中被当做是机会成本的代理变量。同样，由于农民工工资长期存在性别差异这一事实，男孩在中国也更易找到工资较高的工作。因此，我们认为更高的机会成本会促使学生做出辍学的决策。

我们过去几年在中国农村做的大量试验性研究表明，对成本的担忧在学生辍学决策中发挥着重要作用。研究发现，给学生提供助学金能让他们继续初中学习或是增加高中入学率，或减少辍学率。例如，Mo等人的研究发现，通过提供以继续上学为条件的现金激励将农村初中的辍学率降低了60%（从13%降至5%）。Yi等人的研究发现，在毕业前八个月为贫困的初三学生提供高中三年学费的资助合约将他们的高中入学率提高了9.7个百分点。研究还显示，提供类似的现金激励，显著地提高了在校初中学生上高中的意愿。

我们访谈的结果同样支持上学成本是导致学生做出辍学决策的重要因素。我们所访问的大部分学生都指出，上学所产生的直接成本或是在学校外能容易地找到工作（反映机会成本），这是他们在做出是否继续上学的决策时所考量的主要因素。

"我父母必须努力工作才能供我上学，因为我的成绩差，所以上学就是浪费钱。我想如果我不上学了去工作，即便不能挣到很多钱，至少也能自己养活自己了"【辍学学生-学生编号3328121】

"我不想呆在学校因为我认为我家庭经济不好可能供不起我上学。我妈妈说即便是浪费时间我也应该去上高中，至少我能比家里其他没上过高中的人好一些。我说如果我去上高中我爸爸供得起我吗？因为上高中没有补助，也必须自己买书。我妈妈也知道这个。我说如果我在学校继续上学一年，家里所有的钱都会被花光了。然后谁也没再说什么了。最终我没上高中"【辍学学生-学生编号3106346】

"你不读了真的很容易找到工作。如果你出去在外面花两天时间就能立马找到三到四份工作。然后你可以决定去干哪一份工作"【辍学学生-学生编号1325211】

尽管上学的成本在学生考虑是否继续上普通高中的决策中发挥着至关重要的作用，但我们的研究表明，仅有成本还不能解释整个决策的过程。例如，Mo等人的研究发现，尽管助学金将初中学生的辍学率降低了60%（或8个百分点，从13%降至5%），但仍有40%的七年级学生在接受了助学金后，还是在该学年结束时选择了辍学。当探讨辍学的决定因素时（使用横截面数据），Yi等人发现，传统的经济因素例如贫困，只能解释8%的辍学行为。我们的访谈也有类似的发现：尽管直接和间接的上学成本对促使学生做出辍学的决定起到了很关键的作用，但是很多学生仍然表示成本并不是最主要或决定性的因素。很多学生明确表示，无论花费多少，他们的家长都承诺要供他们上学。这表明至少一部分学生并未面临流动性约束的制约。

"我爸妈态度很坚决。不管怎么说，我妈妈就是不同意我不读了。我爸也说让我不要操心家里，只要我能上高中，家里再困难也会支持我上"【普通高中学生-学生编号3404621】

"如果没有奖学金的话，只要我能考上我应该还是会上，因为我妈妈说是'孩子，只要你能考上，不管什么大学，只要你想上，妈就是借钱，借一辈子爬不起来妈也要让你上大学"【普通高中学生-学生编号1106546】

"爸妈就让我好好学习，不用担心钱，不然就会像爸爸一样给别人打工，受别人欺负，在外面过得不好"【普通高中学生-学生编号3505105】

很可能是尽管预期上学的成本很高，但是学生认为他们远远超过上学的预期收益。继续上初中或者上普通高中的预期收益大小很大程度上取决于学生对自己的学业能力的认识。如表三所示，我们有四项研究检验了辍学的相关因素，结果都显示，辍学和学业表现差显著相关。国际教育文献早已表明，学业表现差是最重要和最可靠的辍学预测变量之一，特别是在类似中国这样的竞争性教育体系下。

一些学生也明确表示，与上学的成本相比，成绩是一个更重要的因素。在这项研究中一部分被采访的学生如果在上普通高中或者中职，他们会得到研究团队提供的助学金。然而，学生说奖学金对他们的上学选择并没有显著的影响，因为他们的成绩是一个更重要的因素。虽然我们事先认为这些贫困学生将从奖学金项目中获益最多，但他们认为，奖学金是否有用取决于他们的学习能力。

"当我得到这个助学金的时候它并没有改变什么。我觉得我仍然考不上普通高中。完全是没门，我的成绩太差了。当我爸听说这个助学金的时候，他也说'你还是考不上'"【辍学学生-学生编号1314308】

"即便我能拿到全额的助学金，我上高中的可能性也是很低的。我的成绩太差了，所以上高中就是浪费钱。最好还是找工作挣点钱"【辍学学生-学生编号3106346】

"当我获得这个奖学金的时候，我感觉这就是浪费。我已经没什么希望考上（普通）高中"【辍学学生-学生编号3305252】

事实上，所有的学生都认为，成绩很可能是决定他们辍学与否的最重要的原因。

"这就是人怎么决定要不上学的。学的会的都上，学不会的就不上学了"【辍学学生-学生编号1314308】

"我有些朋友不上学了，有些朋友还在高中上学。关键在于他们的学习成绩。如果成绩不好就不上了。能考上高中的都去上"【普通高中学生-学生编号1327232】

"初中时打算不上普通高中的人大多数都是成绩差的"【辍学学生-学生编号3106347】

Li等分析了有条件的现金转移支付对减少辍学的异质性影响。他们的研究结果进一步证明了学生学业表现的重要性。他们发现，为学生继续上高中提供助学金，可以显著降低中等成绩学生的辍学率，但对于成绩排名后20%的学生和成绩排名前20%的学生没有显著影响。这表明，学生继续上学的意愿可能首先是由其学业表现决定的：即便上学的花费减少，学业表现差的学生也很可能辍学，而无论上学的花费有多高，学业表现好的学生也不太可能辍学。

此外，几乎每一个我们访谈的辍学学生都强调自己的学习成绩差并且认为这是辍学的首要的原因。这些学生认为：他们的成绩很差，继续上学也是浪费时间，主要是因为他们不知道自己在更高层次的教育中学习会变好。这是与国际研究结果一致的。

中职的理性选择：

普遍对学校质量深感担忧

在中职，入学的学习要求相对比较低、学费也更低。对于那些无法上普通高中的学生，中职是继续上学的一个替代选择。那么为什么从初中辍学和没上普通高中的学生不上中职呢？为什么几乎三分之一的中职学生入学后退学？有些中职辍学学生甚至入学不到一年？

最近的一些研究已经开始质疑职业教育的质量。特别是， Loyalka et al.发现上中职实际上导致学生的文化课成绩退步，而且专业技能也没有提高。 实际上，我们的访谈也表明，农村地区的学生和家长也都认为中职质量差。访谈中很多学生表示，因为中职的质量很差，他们不会考虑去上中职。

"在初中我的成绩很差，所以就原打算去上中职。但我妈妈说没必要去上。她听说上中职没啥用，所以她就不让我去。然后学费也很贵，所以最后我没去上"【辍学-学生编号1325211】

"我想过去上中职，但我不喜欢那个学校。因为各种原因，我认为他们会骗我，大家都说那些学校是骗人的。我想去上普通高中，但我的成绩不够好。能去的话我还是想要去上普通高中"【辍学-学生编号1305146】

"我从未想过去上中职学校，因为我从其他上中职的同学那里听说了：花很多钱去上学结果和初中毕业没啥差别。我想我去不去都一样，所以我没去上中职"【辍学-学生编号3106346】

除了社会上普遍认为中职质量差，许多在校的中职学生举出一些日常生活中的例子表明当前的中职质量确实比较差。学生感知到的糟糕的教育质量可能是中职辍学率高（表二：三年中辍学率从29%到32%）的重要原因。

"我在这所学校不开心，我们的老师不好，甚至比我们的初中老师还差。他们一点不关心我们，如果你想好好学习也可以，但是如果你不想好好学习，老师也不管。我们上专业课和文化课，但是没有人把文化课当回事。老师也从不在这些课上点名。我甚至也不学这些课，我只在乎我的专业课"【中职学生-学生编号1322104】

"我真的很后悔上中职，感觉中职是想方设法地骗我们。课堂很差，老师讲的没有人能听懂。我们就坐在那里，很多人整节课都在睡觉，每天都有一半的同学不来上课，每个人都很后悔来这儿"【中职学生-学生编号1103420】

"我刚开始去那所学校的时候还以为能学到点什么，可是一去那才发现什么都学不到，那里太乱了。一到考试的时候，老师就提前给我们答案，让我们考试时抄，那一刻，我心都凉了。很快就决定不上了"【辍学学生-学生编号3201214】

基于定量和定性分析的结果，我们认为，理性选择机制在学生辍学的决定上起着关键的作用。特别是对于初中和普通高中生，上学成本高与学习能力差都会促使学生选择辍学。同时，出于对中职教育质量的担忧，是学生不去上中职或者决定从中职辍学的主要因素。

冲动选择辍学：

由于短期压力与短期收益辍学

行为经济学领域的研究表明，所有年龄阶段的人有时都会做出不符合本人真正利益的决策。鉴于青春期的心理发展过程，中学阶段的适龄儿童更可能做出辍学这样的冲动决定。经济学领域外的研究也认为，学生辍学不能完全由理性的成本收益分析给出解释。

即使农村学生认为自己上中学的收益大于成本，我们的研究结果也显示，他们也可能面临着短期的心理压力，这些心理压力可能会导致他们冲动地选择辍学，即便他们知道，从长期来看，继续上学比辍学对他们更好。

学生做出冲动决定选择的首要证据是他们做出那个决定之后对辍学的态度。如果学生准确地衡量了从中学辍学的成本与收益，只要上学的成本和收益没有发生重大变化，他们应该不会后悔自己的决定。然而，我们访谈的大多数辍学学生都说他们后悔当初的决定，而且如果可以重新选择的话，他们会做出不一样的决定。而且，这些学生都表示，他们会建议当前的初中学生要继续上学。

"我走的那天我就后悔了。我一直知道我会后悔离开学校，但是即便我后悔了我知道我当时也必须走，必须离开那些女孩"【辍学学生-学生编号1305335】

"不能说我后悔离开学校吧⋯⋯但是回头想两年前我太年轻了。我不知道我辍学之后工作会是什么样子。现在我知道这些工作环境太差了。所以如果我可以现在做决定的话，我就会继续读。只要我可以继续读，无论去什么学校都会去上"【辍学学生-学生编号1314308】

"我不是很后悔离开学校吧。反正有时候我觉得自己有点后悔。怎么不后悔呢？现在我有个朋友，最近他也不读了，来这儿。他告诉我他想离开学校，我问为什么？他说：'我想自己出去。'我说：'你想做什么？'他说：'和你一样。'然后我就劝他回学校。他只有17岁，他应当继续学习"【辍学学生-学生编号1302134】

鉴于许多学生似乎并不能准确地衡量上中学的成本和收益，那么是什么因素导致他们做出草率的决定呢？一个明显的可能就是学生仅仅简单地被告知留在学校与辍学的利弊。因为获取可靠信息的成本高昂或者不可能，导致生活在贫穷农村地区的人往往拥有不完全的信息。

确实，Loyalka等人发现贫困农村地区的学生就得到了关于继续上高中的回报的错误信息。然而，同样的研究也发现，为有可能辍学的农村初中学生提供关于中学阶段教育和教育回报的信息对降低初中辍学率没有显著的效果。而且，我们访谈的一些辍学学生提到，老师和父母曾反复告诫他们辍学的长期成本，但他们还是坚持辍学。

除了信息不通畅，在学校的心理压力也可能会影响学生的短期决策。国际研究表明，心理因素，比如焦虑、沮丧、挑衅和冲动，都会导致学习成绩差和辍学。Wang 等人在陕西农村地区的研究发现，74%的7年级和8年级的受访学生临床上有心理健康问题，比城市学生高12倍。正如表三所示，同样的研究也发现，与辍学相关的特征也与心理健康问题有关。更重要的是，即使在控制了这些背景特征后，心理健康差仍然与辍学有显著相关关系。

我们的访谈表明，学生在学校的一个主要的心理压力来源于与师生关系差。许多学生说跟老师关系紧张，从而导致他们不喜欢学校，甚至考虑辍学。国际研究也表明，学生与老师之间的互动可能是学生学校参与和辍学的一个重要决定因素。

"上课老师让你在黑板上写英语单词，谁不会老师就打谁，当时我也挨打了。然后，我就不想学英语了。初三换了个英语老师，脾气更不好，会经常当着全班同学的面骂学生，具体的记得不太清楚了，反正骂得很难听，我当时被骂的时候就不想读书了。有时候上课就不想听课了"【辍学学生-学生编号3106347】

"我是在初一中途离开学校的，我一直都讨厌学校。我不喜欢我的老师，有一个我特别讨厌，就是我的七年级英语老师，她太凶了，只要你犯一点错误她就打你......我怕她，我们都怕她。很多老师都打我们，我离开学校最主要的原因就是老师打我"【辍学学生-学生编号1302134】

"我不喜欢我的英语老师，她的脾气不好，她经常骂我们，有时候她不让学生进教室，他们不得不回宿舍。她也打学生，很多时候用手打，其他老师有时候也打学生。但是大多数时候其他老师只是骂我们，有些老师也关心我们，但是我不喜欢他们打骂学生"【辍学学生-学生编号1316227】

在中国这样的竞争性教育体系中教师更倾向于将（正面的）注意力投向学业表现更好的学生。因此，老师很可能和学习不好的学生的关系变得特别紧张。这种效应也许可以部分解释学生辍学和学业表现差之间的相关关系：成绩差再加上糟糕的师生关系使学校变成了一个除了辍学便再也呆不下去的地方。我们的访谈也发现这种影响。

"老师总是关心学习好的学生，他们也从不骂这些学生，但他们打那些学习不好的学生"【辍学学生-学生编号3106347】

"我们初中班主任（数学老师）就不喜欢数学成绩不太好的学生，当时职业中专不是招人么，他就给班上数学学得不好的学生做工作，让他们去上职中。还有当时学校不是有贫困补助么，他就不给那些数学成绩差的同学，也不管别人家里是不是真的很贫困"【辍学学生-学生编号3405421】

"老师反正也就那样嘛，我们这些成绩不好的，交不交作业他也不管。我想他们觉得反正我们考不上高中，他们也不想管吧。不像那些成绩好的，老师就经常把他们叫到办公室谈心"【辍学学生-学生编号3106346】

除了师生关系紧张，另外一些学生还指出，与同学的关系不好也是他们考虑辍学时的一个很重要的短期因素。事实上，最近在中国农村进行的一项研究发现，37%的初中生说他们经常被同学欺负。

"我和班里同学的关系很差，这让我不喜欢学校。我不能告诉你他们做了什么，但是这很糟糕，我必须离开学校"【辍学学生-学生编号1305335】

"我和我们班大部分同学的关系很好，但是有些成绩差的学生路上总是欺负别人，让别人给他们买东西，不买的话就打你。其中七年级有三四个人，八年级三四个，九年级也有一些。如果你在路上偶然碰到他们，他们就叫人打你。我三四个同学都被打了，都不敢反抗。如果你反抗就会被打得更厉害。也不敢告诉老师，如果有人告诉老师，那么就会被再打一顿，老师也没有办法管理他们"【辍学学生-学生编号3106347】

学习成绩差以及与老师或同学的关系差让学生心中对学校有一种排斥感，这时任何"一根稻草"（或其他有压力的事件）都可能放大这种排斥感。有学者指出，辍学经常是学生与学校脱离的日积月累的过程最后一步，在最后时刻任何微不足道的因素学生都很容易将学生"推出"或"拉出"学校。许多学生说他们也是在长期考虑后才决定离开学校，他们最终决定辍学是因为听说在校外的生活比在学校的生活好，这让他们相信如果他们离开学校，他们在学校的不愉快很快就能消除。

"我开始讨厌学校。很多和我差不多大的都在外面打工，然后我就心里面有了打工的想法，觉得打工可能比在学校读书轻松。当时是先产生厌学的想法，然后看到有人辍学去外面打工了。有的和我一般大，有的比我大2岁。我看到他们打工回来都玩的那么开心，我就想打工可能不像读书那么累。打工可以自由一点"【辍学学生-学生编号3328121】

"我姐姐总是一句话就是让我上学。但我还是有自己的想法的，初三读完之后打算去社会混一下，增加点阅历。当时我们同学都说外面有钱花、自由。这也是我们从那些辍学的同学那里听说的，他们说工作很好。也跟我妈说过，她就骂我一顿，她就是让我上学，不让我出来，说上学比外面好。我感觉无所谓，我听很多人那样说，我爸爸和我的表哥都这么说。听多了我就对这种说法都麻木了。当时是好奇啊，感觉在外面自己能赚钱"【辍学学生-学生编号3305252】

"快中考的时候我和我的朋友聊天说我们毕业了终于快毕业了，不用再像坐牢一样坐在学校了"【辍学学生-学生编号3106346】

一边在学校面对巨大的心理压力，一边又听到在学校外面生活多么自由的传闻，大部分的农村地区学生在做辍学决定时从家人那里得不到任何积极的指导。在贫穷的农村地区有许多单亲家庭、离异家庭以及留守儿童。这样的孩子往往很少能得到父母的指导，不得不自己去解决青春期的心理压力。一项研究发现，18.1%的初中生的父母一方或父母双方在外打工。不幸的是，外出打工的家长不能够照顾或监督他们孩子的教育，这也增加了这些学生辍学的可能性。此外，外出打工的父母被孩子当作榜样，吸引孩子外出打工，也许还增加孩子找到工作的可能性。事实上，如表三所示Yi et al.和Yao et al.也发现，父母外出打工的农村学生辍学率更高。

即使学生的父母都在家，很大比例的中国农村学生寄宿在离家很远的学校，因此与他们的父母的交流很少。Wang et al.的研究表明，初中生辍学和寄宿有关（表三）。一些访谈的学生说他们很少能得到不在身边的父母的指导。

"我爸对我学习还挺上心的，我妈就没怎么管。我爸经常问我学校的情况，但是我不想跟他们说，因为我在学校经常混嘛，说了他们挺伤心的。以前我回家我爸就监督我做作业，不过他出去打工了我就很少做作业了"【辍学学生-学生编号3510301】

"我爸爸在外地工作，他在我上一年级的时候开始工作，他很少回家所以我们不太聊天，我和我妈妈聊得比较多。我告诉我爸爸我不想上学了，我说'我不想读'，然后他就打了我一顿，我就跑了，跑到西安了"【辍学学生-学生编号1302134】

"我很少跟我爸聊，我妈有时会说让我好好学习，但我真的很少跟他们聊天。我每周五回家然后周日下午就回学校。我在家的时候他们一般都很忙，我就帮他们做些事。或者有的时候我父母不在家。所以我们都不怎么说话"【辍学学生-学生编号1325211】

发达国家的研究表明，导师可以在阻止学生退学方面发挥很大的作用。如果孩子的父母起不到这个作用，这些学生只能基于短期的考虑和一些不完全信息自己做决定。

"我妈妈很多年前就去世了，我爸爸在外面打工建水渠。他认为我应该继续上学，但他说："你学不会，也没办法。"他告诉我如果我后悔辍学不要怪他"【辍学学生-学生编号1314308】

"我爸爸在家照顾我，我妈妈在我两岁的时候走了，和别人结婚了，她从没回来过。现在只有我和我爸爸一起生活，他不能好好的照顾我，他也挣不到很多钱。他已经老了，60多岁了。我和他没有什么好说的。当我决定不参加中考的时候，他只是告诉我不要后悔自己的决定"【中职学生-学生编号1322104】

"我初中的时候我父母觉得我大了，很少管我。最后说我要不念书的时候，他说不上学是我自己决定的，到时候后悔不要找他们"【辍学学生-学生编号3405421】

在这一部分，借助于大规模的定量研究和严格的定性访谈的结果，我们发现虽然有些学生理性地考虑了留在学校的长期成本和收益并最终决定辍学，但也有些学生因一些短期原因在退学之后感到后悔。在校内外巨大的心理压力下，很多学生认为，学校是一个他们无论如何都不想呆下去的痛苦的地方。听到别人讲的校外的"自由"生活，他们中的不少人一时冲动就选择了辍学，去社会上碰运气。可见，缺乏老师和家长的指导也似乎是学生做出辍学决定的关键因素。

结论

在这篇文章中，我们首次把过去七年在中国农村地区进行的八次调查研究的结果汇总到一起。结果显示中学阶段的辍学率很高。其中17.6%-31%的农村学生没有读完初中；算上这些早期就辍学的学生，只有不足一半的农村学生进入普通高中或者中职上学；同样在普通高中或者中职的辍学现象也很严重。总的来说，我们的研究结果认为，农村地区整个中学阶段的累计辍学率高达63%。也就是，如果最初有100名学生进入初中，那么其中只有37名学生会从普通高中或中职毕业。

我们发现，辍学与学业表现差、机会成本高以及社会经济地位低有显著的相关关系，同时也与心理健康状况差（即焦虑水平高）、寄宿状况以及父母外出打工有关。

根据对众多类型学生的访谈，我们认为，农村地区的辍学主要由两种机制驱动。第一种机制是理性的成本-收益分析。一些学生由于成本高、初中和普通高中学业要求高，以及中职教育质量差这些原因理性地选择辍学。第二种机制是冲动的，压力胁迫下的决策。即使有些辍学学生懂得继续上学的长期收益超过了上学的成本，但还是选择了辍学。我们认为这些学生可能是因为一时冲动退学，其原因包括他们可能在课堂上有心理压力，或者他们听信一些朋友们讲离开学校的短期好处，也有可能是缺少老师和家长的鼓励和指导。

基于以上研究结果，我们提出三条建议：

第一，如果中职的质量不能改进，中职的入学率和毕业率不可能上升。我们采访的许多在初中或者初中一毕业就辍学的学生表示如果能上质量高的中职的话，他们就愿意去学习一些职业技能。只要对进入普通高中仍然有严格的限制，高质量的职业培训就会有很高的需求。近年来政府改善职业教育的失败说明，中职教育需要一个新的投资和监管策略。此外，如果中职的学生想要在中国未来更高工资的劳动力市场上竞争的话，他们可能需要学习一些文化课（如数学、语文、科学）。这意味着，中国的教育政策制定者如果想要继续或扩大目前的职业教育，应当优先提高专业技能教学和文化课教育的质量。

我们的研究结果还表明，阻碍农村地区普通高中入学率提高的原因主要有两个。首先，上普通高中需要支付高额的学费，而且上学的机会成本不断上升，使得辍学更加具有吸引力。这表明，降低普通高中的学费（或增加助学金的普及性）会大大提高入学率。第二，也许更重要的是，进入普通高中的成绩要求（和招生严格限制）成为当今中国农村地区学生入学的严重障碍。许多学生无法考上普通高中，还有一些学生因前途有限而泄气，中国提高普通高中教育对所有学生的可获得性至关重要。我们建议：中国可以效仿其他大多数发达国家一样，在整个中学阶段实现义务教育。

最后，我们认为，即使上学的长期收益超过了上学的成本，辍学可能仍然存在。我们发现，农村的学生在初中和高中阶段面临着一系列的心理压力，这可能会促使他们辍学。国际研究表明，许多最成功的干预措施都是通过增加辅导和监控有可能辍学的学生来减少中学学生辍学。我们的研究团队目前正在进行研究，通过随机干预实验分析为农村初中生提供"生活咨询老师"。"生活咨询老师"每周给学生上一次心理健康课程叫他们如何应对心理压力，并随时为学生提供指导。初步结果表明，该干预显著的降低了初中学生的辍学率。因此，我们建议在贫困农村地区为学生提供更多这样的辅导项目。

责任编辑：

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中国农村中学调查：辍学率竟然高达63%！

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"八次大规模调研，来自四省24931名农村中学生的数据，以及与52名样本地区农村学生深入访谈，我们发现，农村地区整个中学阶段的累计辍学率高达63%。"大城市中90%以上的学生都上了高中，而这项调查发现，在农村，上高中的学生不到一半。调查发现，辍学的学生往往具有以下四个特征：学习成绩不好，男孩，年龄比较大，家庭条件差。中国普通高中的学费和杂费是全世界最高的，这对于大多数的农村家庭来说是一个沉重...

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Is poverty completely eliminated in China? 

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Is poverty completely eliminated in China? 

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-Poverty cannot be eliminated if the roots are not seen and changed accordingly.

-“Over half of rural babies in China face malnutrition and over half of rural children are developmentally stunted, with an IQ lower than 90, because of a lack of early childhood education. Forty percent of schoolchildren in rural China have intestinal worms, and over 30 percent of rural students have vision problems but do not have glasses.“

-Over 63 percent of people in poverty in China quit high school. Meaning that those people are only suitable for labor-intensive jobs, such as assembly line workers, and cannot be retrained for higher value-add jobs because of their lack of learning ability.

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How Successful Was China’s Poverty Alleviation Drive? 

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How Successful Was China’s Poverty Alleviation Drive? 

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China eliminated extreme poverty, a monumental achievement. But the root causes of poverty persist.

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In February 2021, in the middle of the COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing global economic downturn, President Xi Jinping declared that China had eliminated poverty in 2020. Poverty elimination was one of Xi's most signature national policies. Since Xi took power in 2012, China lifted over 100 million members of its rural population out of poverty. Xi called this campaign a "complete victory," a "miracle for humankind," and China's great contribution to the world. Chinese media credited the tremendous success to the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), stating that such a success would be impossible without the "institutional advantage" of the Chinese party-state political system.

Poverty elimination was a mass mobilization campaign. Since Mao Zedong developed the Mass Line during the Yan'an era, mass mobilization has been the CCP's key to success, ranging from its civil war victory to its management of the COVID-19 pandemic. Since the campaign started in 2015, the Chinese government has spent over $80 billion to end poverty. The government has relocated millions of households from remote rural regions to new villages more suitable for economic development; constructed new roads, houses, and other infrastructure projects; and offered direct cash transfers.

Beijing has dispatched over 775,000 cadres to survey all rural families to determine which households were living in poverty. Then, the government paired each poor household with a cadre to monitor the poverty elimination process. Many ordinary citizens also became involved in the campaign by donating money and goods to rural households and helping farmers to sell their products. The campaign even revived some old Maoist methods, such as sending medical workers to rural areas for checkups and treatments.

The poverty elimination campaign indeed improved the livelihood of numerous poor peasants in rural China. After building a new house paid for by government grants and no-interest loans, a farmer in a remote part of Yunnan province said, "Three years ago, we didn't have these nice houses.... Now we have good places to live and health care."

This tremendous living-standard improvement generates significant supports for the CCP's regime legitimacy. A recent report from Harvard University's Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation found that the biggest boost in government satisfaction came in low-income and inland regions, where the poverty elimination campaign was active. As a result, many rural residents attributed their living standard improvement to Xi himself and strongly supported Xi's removal of term limits in 2018. One peasant even said, "Twenty years of Xi is better than ten!"
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Despite the tremendous achievements, the poverty elimination campaign failed to address the root cause of rural poverty: the underdeveloped rural human capital. Poor rural education has long plagued China. Research shows that 63 percent of rural students drop out before graduating from high school. Furthermore, the problem runs beyond schools; it includes malnutrition, health problems, and lack of early childhood development. Over half of rural babies in China face malnutrition and over half of rural children are developmentally stunted, with an IQ lower than 90, because of a lack of early childhood education. Forty percent of schoolchildren in rural China have intestinal worms, and over 30 percent of rural students have vision problems but do not have glasses. (For an in-depth discussion of rural poverty in China, read "Invisible China" by Scott Rozelle and Natalie Hell.)

This stunning failure in human capital development will have profoundly negative impacts on the future of China. Currently, about 70 percent of the Chinese labor force not only has no high school education but also lacks the potential for human capital development, as Rozelle and Hell note. These workers are only suitable for labor-intensive jobs, such as assembly line workers, and cannot be retrained for higher value-add jobs because of their lack of learning ability.

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As China moves toward an innovation-driven economy and loses its comparative advantage for labor-intensive jobs to lower income countries, between 200 and 300 million working age Chinese might become structurally unemployable. They will get left behind by the rapidly developing Chinese economy and soon fall into poverty. High levels of structural unemployment will lead to social chaos. Jobless working-age people will become dissatisfied with the status quo and demand changes. Their anger will become a ticking bomb for the regime.
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Facing this tremendous challenge, the Chinese government is not doing enough to address the rural human capital development problem. The poverty elimination campaign primarily focuses on lifting poor households above the poverty line of 4,000 renminbi ($619) per person per year and providing basic needs such as food, closing, medical services, education, and housing. The 2015 CCP Central Committee and State Council Decision to Achieve Victory in the Poverty Elimination Campaign identified job training, migration, social welfare expansion, and business support as primary means to lift the rural population out of poverty. The Decision also declared the expansion of central and local government spending on infrastructure constructions to expand networks of roads, electricity, and internet connections.

In contrast, the campaign did not focus on human capital development. Local cadres were not incentivized to improve rural education. Chinese local officials operate under the cadre responsibility system. This system assigns policy goals as targets, which local cadres need to achieve. Higher officials evaluate local cadre performance by measuring how well they met their targets. Local leaders always prefer accomplishing hard targets over soft targets because they weigh more in assessing their performances.

In the Rural Revitalization Plan (2018-2022), only one out of 22 targets for local cadres relates to education. In addition, the plan labels this target as "predictive" rather than "binding," implying that it is a soft target. It explains why cadres focus almost exclusively on infrastructure construction and providing material goods, as these targets are measurable and binding hard targets. Meanwhile, human capital development is ignored.

The existing rural education policy creates a distortion because it focuses on quantity rather than quality. The 2015 Decision calls for expanding secondary education by enrolling all students who cannot attend academic high schools in newly constructed vocational high schools to receive professional job training. The government pledges to eliminate vocational school tuition and provide financial aid to poor students. The Chinese government reiterated this vocational school expansion policy in all Agricultural Number One Documents between 2015 and 2021.

According to Rozelle and Hell, 91 percent of students scored the same or worse in math exams after attending a vocational school for a year, showing that rural vocational school students are not learning at all. Most students are not even receiving proper job training in vocational high schools, as 56 percent of students spend their job training sessions working in low-level manufacturing. The low-quality education offered by vocational high schools will not develop China's rural human capital. Despite receiving a high school diploma, these students will still face the future of structural unemployment.

This problem is not confined to vocational schools. China's top policy design incentivizes local governments to maximize student enrollment in all levels of schooling. In the County Socioeconomic Statistic Statement, another document measuring the progress of the Rural Revitalization Plan, only two out of 24 targets are about education, and these two targets are the numbers of students in elementary and middle schools. Secondary school enrollment is also a measurement for education policy implementation. Rural cadres are incentivized to reach enrollment targets because they are measurable; cadres can demonstrate their competence by hitting these numerical targets quickly. However, they often disregard student outcomes, something that is harder to measure.
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Deng Xiaoping defined the core value of socialism with Chinese characteristics as "productivity development to achieve common prosperity." The poverty elimination campaign is a solid step toward the "common prosperity" ideal. The elimination of poverty symbolizes China's achievement of a moderately prosperous society, a goal for generations of Chinese leaders, on the 100th anniversary of the Chinese Communist Party. However, how sustainable is this tremendous achievement?

Without real gains in rural human capital development, the elimination of poverty might be fragile and ephemeral. As opportunities close because of China's slowing economic growth, finding low-skill jobs will become increasingly difficult. Without the capability to learn and upgrade their skill sets, rural peasant workers will soon find themselves stuck at the bottom rungs of the social ladder. In the worst-case scenario, they will find themselves falling back into poverty again once the campaign ends.

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How Successful Was China's Poverty Alleviation Drive?

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Advertisement In February 2021, in the middle of the COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing global economic downturn, President Xi Jinping declared that China had eliminated poverty in 2020. Poverty elimination was one of Xi's most signature national policies. Since Xi took power in 2012, China lifted over 100 million members of its rural population out of poverty.

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-In impoverished and thus less developed areas, fixed and stereotypical gender roles can be a lot more commonly seen than in more urbanized areas.

-Married women who later become widows cannot bring their children with them when they marry again. However, women have to marry because they are not educated and cannot afford livings on their own in most cases.

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China's Poor Have to Pay the Price When Natural Disasters Hit

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China's Poor Have to Pay the Price When Natural Disasters Hit

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An example of of how natural disaster worsens life of people in impoverished area

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Natural disasters in China cause tens of billions of dollars in economic loss and hundreds of deaths every year. While people accept most of the disasters as unpreventable, the losses worsen already stark social inequality.

This summer, Mengwa, a region in the eastern Chinese province of Anhui, became one of the worst-hit areas during China's record flooding, not because of the abundant rainfall but because it is one of the country's biggest flood diversion zones. For decades, whenever floods threaten the industrial zones and key transportation hubs downstream, this region becomes submerged when officials release the Wangjia dam upstream. For the authorities, it makes sense to flood a vast rural area that contributes less to the country's gross domestic product.

Last month, the dam released 375 million cubic meters of water to Mengwa to ease flooding elsewhere. Dozens of villages were underwater and thousands of hectares of crops were impacted. A popular saying in China encourages people to "make a small sacrifice to achieve a bigger goal," and local officials in Anhui, proud of their region's sacrifice, like to say that the people there are the embodiment of this spirit.

It's a big sacrifice: The government compensates the agricultural loss at only 40 percent to 70 percent of the previous year's income. China's rural population, dependent on agriculture, is poorer than urban residents, and insurance that covers losses from natural disasters is too expensive for most people outside cities.

Wanzhou, a town near the Yangtze River and not far away from Mengwa, also struggles with overwhelming water every summer. Many shop owners said the damages from a recent flood has cost them years of savings. A single flood has pushed many rural working class people into poverty overnight. "It only takes one downpour to press me back into a poor street beggar," said 58-year-old Yang Cheng, whose grocery shop was ruined in a flood last month.

"The less-developed regions will sacrifice for more social-economically important cities or industrial regions when the floods threaten the latter," said Ma Jun, director the Institute of Public and Environmental Affairs. "The poor regions are damaged worse from natural disasters and have more difficulties in developing. It becomes a vicious circle."

This is also a global issue. According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, research over the past 30 years has shown that poor people are more likely to live in hazard-exposed areas and are less able to invest in risk-reducing measures. Poverty makes you more vulnerable to disaster, and disaster exacerbates poverty.

"Climate change is not only an environmental issue, but also one of equality and justice because the most vulnerable communities bear the most cost of the climate change," said Li Shuo, a climate analyst for Greenpeace. "The floods in southern China this summer have made this point abundantly clear."

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China's poor have to pay the price when natural disasters hit

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Natural disasters in China cause tens of billions of dollars in economic loss and hundreds of deaths every year. While people accept most of the disasters as unpreventable, the losses worsen already stark social inequality.

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Education and Ethnicity among the Liangshan Yi

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Education and Ethnicity among the Liangshan Yi

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https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=kt896nd0h7&chunk.id=ch14&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch14&brand=ucpress

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Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China

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Government-Funded Education and Its Impact on The Identity & Culture of Yi Ethnic Group in Liangshan

-To the minority, being assimilated very likely leads to more access to wealth, power and/or higher social status. It also offers a sense of pride for being associated with the dominant segment of the society.

-"Gradual loss of cultural heritage by the minority group because of those who leave it, and loss of those who reject its cultural ways, can give rise to increased feelings of alienation and inadequacy among minority group members."

-Many Yi students are feeling cultural and individual tension in school, as receiving education could be a form of assimilation. They also feel

-However, due to how the traditional Chinese education is conducted, questions such as "Who am I?" or "Am I, and is my culture, worthy?" are seldom being asked in school. Ethnic identities are therefore not politicized even in multiethnic school environment.

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Poverty Alleviation Plan-Improving Education in Impoverished Regions

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Poverty Alleviation Plan-Improving Education in Impoverished Regions

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- “More than 8 million middle and high school graduates from poor families have received vocational training, 5.14 million poor students have received higher education, and key institutions of higher learning have admitted some 700,000 students from designated rural and poor areas.”

- The government also offered training on standard spoken and written Chinese language (mandarin) to 3.5 million rural teachers, young farmers and herdsmen in ethnic minority areas.

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Has China lifted 100 million people out of poverty?

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Has China lifted 100 million people out of poverty?

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https://www.bbc.com/news/56213271

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Chinese President Xi Jinping says his country has reached the ambitious goal set when he assumed office in 2012 of lifting 100 million people out of poverty.

But what has China actually achieved?

We've compared the Chinese data with global poverty figures compiled by the World Bank.

China's poverty figures

Poverty is defined by China as anyone in rural areas earning less than about $2.30 a day (adjusted for inflation). It was fixed in 2010 and looks at income but also living conditions, healthcare and education.

Provinces have been racing to reach the goal. Jiangsu, for example, announced in January last year that only 17 of its 80 million residents still lived in poverty.

The national benchmark used by the Chinese government is slightly higher than the $1.90 a day poverty line used by the World Bank to look at poverty globally.

World Bank data

Using these figures gives us a better standard measurement used by the World Bank across all countries.

In 1990 there were more than 750 million people in China living below the international poverty line - about two-thirds of the population.

By 2012, that had fallen to fewer than 90 million, and by 2016 - the most recent year for which World Bank figures are available - it had fallen to 7.2 million people (0.5% of the population).

So clearly, even in 2016 China was well on the way to reaching its target.

This suggests that overall, 745 million fewer people were living in extreme poverty in China than were 30 years ago.

World Bank figures do not take us to the present day, but the trend is certainly in line with the Chinese government's announcement.

Elsewhere in the region, Vietnam has also seen a dramatic fall in extreme poverty rates over a similar period.

Another large country, India, had 22% of its population living below the international poverty line in 2011 (the most recent data available).

Brazil has 4.4% of its people earning less than $1.90 a day.

China's rapid growth

China's rapid reduction in poverty went hand in hand with a long period of sustained economic growth. Much of the focus has been on the poorest rural areas.

The government has relocated millions of people from remote villages into apartment complexes. Sometimes these were built in towns and cities, but sometimes new villages were built near the old ones.

But there has been criticism that people had little choice over whether to move homes, or jobs.

Some also point out that the reason rural poverty was so widespread was because of Communist Party policies in the first place.

"There is no doubt something absolutely extraordinary has happened over the last 40 years," says the Economist's David Rennie.

However, this success in bringing people out of abject poverty is not simply down to the government, he says.

"Chinese people, by working extremely hard, lifted themselves out of poverty - in part because some of the stupidest economic policies ever created, by Chairman Mao, were abandoned in favour of versions of capitalism."

Mao Zedong, who founded the People's Republic of China in 1949, oversaw attempts to industrialise the country's peasant economy in the 1950s. His disastrous Great Leap Forward, which began in 1958, forced farmers into communes, leading to mass starvation in the countryside.

While China has made substantial work of tackling the deepest poverty first, should it be holding itself to a higher standard?

For example, the World Bank draws a higher poverty line for upper-middle-income countries, which tries to reflect economic conditions. It sets this at $5.50 a day. China is now an upper-middle-income country, says the bank.

About a quarter of China's population is in poverty, according to this metric. For comparison, this is slightly higher than Brazil.

And there is widespread income inequality. Last year, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang said China still had 600 million people whose monthly income was barely 1,000 yuan ($154). He said that was not enough to rent a room in a city.

However, by any measure China has made huge strides to lift millions out of the toughest standards of living over the last few decades.

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Has China lifted 100 million people out of poverty?

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President Xi says China has achieved his poverty reduction pledge - but has it?

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Poverty Alleviation: China's Experience and Contribution

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Poverty Alleviation: China's Experience and Contribution

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BEIJING, April 6 (Xinhua) -- China's State Council Information Office on Tuesday issued a white paper titled "Poverty Alleviation: China's Experience and Contribution."

Poverty Alleviation: China's Experience and Contribution

The State Council Information Office of the People's Republic of China

April 2021

First Edition 2021

ISBN 978-7-119-12645-6

© Foreign Languages Press Co. Ltd., Beijing, China, 2021

Published by Foreign Languages Press Co. Ltd.

24 Baiwanzhuang Road, Beijing 100037, China

Distributed by China International Book Trading Corporation

35 Chegongzhuang Xilu, Beijing 100044, China

P.O. Box 399, Beijing, China
Printed in the People's Republic of China Contents
Preface

I. The Solemn Commitment of the CPC

II. Final Victory in the Fight Against Extreme Poverty

III. The Strategy of Targeted Poverty Alleviation

IV. Exploring a New Path of Poverty Alleviation

V. A Global Community of Shared Future Free from Poverty

Conclusion
Preface
Poverty is a chronic affliction of human society and a common challenge faced by the whole world. Poverty and its associated problems, including hunger, diseases, and social conflicts, are serious impediments to people's pursuit of a better life, so the eradication of poverty has always been a wish to be fulfilled. The history of humankind is the history of relentless struggle against poverty.

China is the world's largest developing country, with a population of 1.4 billion. In addition to its weak foundations and uneven development, the nation had long been plagued by poverty at a scale and a level of severity that has rarely been seen anywhere else in the world. As a result, the challenge of poverty alleviation in China almost defies imagination.

This year marks the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Communist Party of China (CPC). Over the past century, the Party has united and led the Chinese people in the battle against poverty with unwavering faith and will. Since the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012, the Party Central Committee, with General Secretary Xi Jinping at the core, has fought a decisive battle against poverty that is unprecedented in scale and intensity, and has benefited the largest number of people in human history. At a grand gathering held on February 25, 2021, to mark China's achievements in poverty alleviation and to honor its model fighters against poverty, General Secretary Xi solemnly declared: Victory in the battle against poverty is complete, and China completed the arduous task of eliminating extreme poverty.

China is home to nearly one fifth of the world's population. Its complete eradication of extreme poverty - the first target of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development - 10 years ahead of schedule, is a milestone in the history of the Chinese nation and the history of humankind, making an important contribution to the cause of global poverty alleviation.

Poverty is not predestined, nor is it unconquerable. China's experience in poverty alleviation indicates that courage, vision, sense of responsibility, and the eagerness to take on challenges are the most essential. With strong will and determination, as well as practical action, one can make steady progress towards overcoming poverty and realizing common prosperity.

This white paper is being issued to record the course of the Chinese people's great fight in eliminating extreme poverty, introduce China's approach, and share its experience and actions in poverty alleviation.
I. The Solemn Commitment of the CPC
The Chinese nation has a long history, diligent and intelligent people and splendid civilization. Over the history of thousands of years, eliminating poverty has been the persistent goal of the Chinese people, who suffered hardships and difficulties frequently. From the middle of the 19th century, foreign aggression and the decadence of the imperial dynasty reduced China to a semi-colonial, semi-feudal society, and hundreds of millions of its people were plunged into poverty or even extreme poverty. But the Chinese people have fought with fortitude to realize their dream - achieving economic prosperity, national rejuvenation, and a happy and better life.
1. The CPC Led the People to Win Victory in the Revolution, Build the People's Republic of China (PRC), Opening a New Journey Towards Prosperity
The founding of the CPC in July 1921 was an epochal event in China's history. The CPC has taken the happiness of the people and rejuvenation of the nation as its aspiration since its founding, and united and led the people to fight for a better life over the decades. The Party's first generation of central collective leadership under Mao Zedong regarded the liberation of peasants as the fundamental issue of the revolution, led the people to launch the Agrarian Revolution to realize the goal of "the land to the tiller", overthrew the rule of imperialism, feudalism, and bureaucrat-capitalism, and won victory in the New Democratic Revolution and established the PRC, bringing an end to sustained oppression, exploitation of the people, frequent wars, and partitioning of the country, and realizing the goals of national independence and people's liberation. This helped to remove the obstacles to China's progress, and created the political conditions it needed to eradicate poverty, regain national strength, and realize prosperity for everyone.

The founding of the PRC on October 1, 1949, allowed the Chinese people to stand upright and become the true masters of the country. To change the backward situation starting from scratch, the CPC united and led the people to rely on themselves and strived to build their homeland with strong determination and concerted effort. Land reform was rolled out across the country, abolishing the feudal land system that had endured for over 2,000 years. This removed the major institutional obstacle to eliminating poverty. Socialist transformation was carried out in agriculture, individual craft industries, and capitalist industry and commerce. The establishment of the socialist system provided a basic institutional guarantee for addressing the root causes of poverty. Socialist development was carried out on all fronts, creating an independent and rather complete industrial system and economic system. Efforts were made to develop the collective economy, improve farmland irrigation and water conservation, and develop rural education and cooperative medical services. A preliminary social security system took shape, with the collective economy at the base, and the "five guarantees"[ The National Agricultural Development Program (1956-1967) specified that agricultural cooperatives should give proper care to commune members who could not work and had no family to support them, by providing them with proper food, clothing, fuel, and education (for children and teenagers), and by paying their burial expenses. ] and relief for people in extreme poverty as the core. The Chinese people - including the farmers - who made up nearly one quarter of the world's population, saw their basic living needs met. Their living standards and educational level improved. Socialist building during this period pressed ahead amidst successes and setbacks.
2. Reform and Opening Up Accelerated Development and Poverty Alleviation in China
Held in December 1978, the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee ushered in a new chapter of reform and opening up and socialist modernization in China. Reform and opening up has been another great revolution in the history of the Chinese people and Chinese nation, injecting momentum and innovation. The rapid socioeconomic development that ensued gave a vigorous boost to poverty alleviation, and resulted in a sharp decline in the impoverished population.

In the initial period of reform and opening up, confronted by the grim challenge of a large rural impoverished population base and a high incidence of poverty, the second generation of the central collective leadership headed by Deng Xiaoping issued a declaration that "Poverty is not socialism; socialism means eliminating poverty". It set the goal of ensuring the people a moderately prosperous life by the end of the 20th century, formulated a three-step strategic plan[ The 13th CPC National Congress proposed that a three-step strategic plan for China's economic development would be laid out after the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee: doubling the 1980 GNP by the end of the 1980s and ensuring that the people would have adequate food and clothing as the first step; doubling the 1990 GNP by the end of the 20th century and ensuring the people a moderately prosperous life as the second step; and increasing the per capita GNP level to that of moderately developed countries, ensuring the people a relatively affluent life, and realizing basic modernization by the middle of the 21st century as the third step. ], and articulated the vision of "Two Development Strategies"[ In 1988, Deng Xiaoping proposed that "The coastal areas, which comprise a vast region with a population of 200 million, should accelerate their opening to the outside world, and we should help them develop rapidly first; afterwards they can promote the development of the interior. The development of the coastal areas is of overriding importance, and the interior provinces should subordinate themselves to it. When the coastal areas have developed to a certain extent, they will be required to give more help to the interior. Then, the development of the interior provinces will be of overriding importance, and the coastal areas will in turn have to subordinate themselves to it." (Source: "The Central Leadership Must Have Authority", Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Vol III.) ]. A swathe of major reforms involving agriculture and rural areas were launched, providing for a massive, planned, well-organized poverty alleviation effort at the national level. The two-tier management system adopted in the rural areas, integrating cooperative management with household contract management, clarified the most basic production relations and inspired the farmers' enthusiasm, bringing an end to a period of protracted stagnation in agricultural output. Reform of the distribution system for agricultural products was enacted. A major effort was made to develop township enterprises in order to increase overall incomes in rural areas. Special poverty alleviation agencies were set up, poverty standards were set, key impoverished areas and counties were identified, and a special plan for agricultural development in the three western regions[ The three western regions were Hexi Region and Dingxi Region in Gansu Province and the mountainous region in southern Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, the most impoverished contiguous areas in the country at the beginning of reform and opening up. In December 1982, China launched poverty alleviation initiatives in these regions to boost their agricultural development. This involved 47 counties, cities and districts (which expanded to 57 in 1992). It was a groundbreaking project in China's poverty alleviation efforts. It set a precedent in regional poverty alleviation, accumulating rich experience in moving from relief-based poverty alleviation to development-driven poverty alleviation, pooling resources for the development of impoverished areas, for poverty alleviation through relocation, and for combining development-driven poverty alleviation with developing the eco-economy. These successful measures have had a profound influence on massive, planned, well-organized poverty alleviation efforts across the country starting from 1986. ] was launched. These measures liberated the rural productive forces, released vitality, boosted economic development, increased farmers' incomes, and updated their mindsets. Development-driven poverty alleviation opened a new chapter in China.

By the early 1990s, there had been visible progress in poverty alleviation in rural areas. In the meantime, poverty had evolved from a widespread problem into one afflicting particular regions, groups and populations, highlighting the problem of uneven regional development. The Party's third generation of central collective leadership with Comrade Jiang Zemin at the core formulated a three-step development strategic plan[ The 15th CPC National Congress held in 1997 drew up a new three-step strategic plan. The first step involved doubling the 2000 GNP, giving the people greater prosperity, and putting in place a relatively complete socialist market economy system, all by the end of 2010. The second step involved working hard for another decade to further develop the economy by the centenary of the CPC, and to improve all relevant systems. The third step involved realizing basic modernization and developing China into a modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, and culturally advanced by the time we celebrate the centenary of the PRC in the middle of the 21st century. ], put forward the goal of achieving moderate prosperity in all respects, and continued to press ahead with massive national campaigns on poverty alleviation. In 1994, the State Council launched the Priority Poverty Alleviation Program (1994-2000), China's first ever national poverty alleviation program with definite goals, targets, measures and deadlines. It committed to ensuring that the basic needs of 80 million impoverished rural residents would be met in the seven years from 1994 to 2000. In 1996, the central authorities held the National Conference on Development-driven Poverty Alleviation, further clarifying the steadfast commitment to the goal of being able to provide adequate food and clothing for the impoverished people by the end of the 20th century and confirming the shift from relief-based poverty alleviation to development-driven poverty alleviation. In 1999, the central authorities held the National Conference on Development-driven Poverty Alleviation, making plans to ensure success of the Priority Poverty Alleviation Program. Another conference on poverty alleviation was convened in 2001, and the State Council issued the Outline of Development-driven Poverty Alleviation in Rural Areas (2001-2010). On the basis of initial progress of China's poverty alleviation, the campaign continued with further measures. By the end of 2000, the impoverished population in rural areas had been reduced to 32.09 million and the incidence of poverty down to 3.5%, based on the poverty alleviation standard at the time.

In the 21st century, the CPC Central Committee with Comrade Hu Jintao as General Secretary embraced the Scientific Outlook on Development. Its goals were to advance the development of a harmonious society, build a moderately prosperous society in all respects, and facilitate the development of a new socialist countryside.

It enacted a new series of poverty alleviation policies and measures. This resulted in major adjustments to the focus and targets of poverty alleviation work, listing the central and western regions as the priority region, and choosing as individual targets 150,000 impoverished villages besides the 592 key counties, where the full participation of villagers in poverty alleviation efforts was encouraged.

A whole range of efforts were directed to business development, the training and transfer of rural labor, poverty alleviation through relocation, and relocation for the development of the eco-economy. State strategy of regional development was implemented, such as developing west China, revitalizing old industrial bases in the northeast, and stimulating the rise of the central region. These achieved coordinated development between regions and between rural and urban areas. The Agricultural Tax was abolished and a series of rural social security systems such as the new cooperative medical care system were established, greatly easing the burden on farmers. The National Conference on Development-driven Poverty Alleviation in 2011 made plans for a new phase in the battle against poverty to ensure that moderate prosperity in all respects would be achieved by 2020. After the meeting, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council issued the Outline of Development-driven Poverty Alleviation in Rural Areas (2011-2020). China's poverty alleviation effort had evolved from its primary mission - meeting the basic needs of the poor - to a new stage of consolidating this achievement, accelerating poverty alleviation, improving the eco-environment, increasing development capacity, and bridging the development gap. By the end of 2010, according to the poverty standard, the impoverished rural population had been reduced to 26.88 million, and the incidence of poverty had fallen to 2.8%. In 2011, the standard was raised to RMB2,300, and accordingly the poor population was 122 million.

3. China in a New Era and a New Battle Against Poverty

China marched into a new era after the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. The country reached a critical stage in building a moderately prosperous society in all respects and achieving the First Centenary Goal. Rapid economic and social development, a marked increase in comprehensive national strength, a better social security system, and progress in modernizing China's system and capacity for governance provided solid manpower, material, and financial foundations and strong institutional support for its poverty alleviation efforts. But the country still faced a daunting challenge since it had to solve the most difficult problems in raising the poorest population out of poverty in the coming period. China's battle against extreme poverty had entered the toughest stage. It was hard to complete the task with conventional approaches and ideas. To achieve the goal of poverty alleviation, the nation had to pull together with greater determination, sharper thinking, more targeted measures, and extraordinary efforts.

The CPC Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at the core takes the desire of the people for a better life as its goal. It has committed to realizing the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation and securing a decisive victory in building a moderately prosperous society in all respects. Poverty alleviation, a key task and index of the realization of the First Centenary Goal, has been included in the Five-sphere Integrated Plan and the Four-pronged Comprehensive Strategy. The CPC set the goals that by 2020 it would help all the rural population out of poverty as defined by the existing standard, raise all impoverished counties out of poverty, and eliminate poverty over entire regions - mobilizing the whole Party, the whole country, and all sectors of society to engage in this battle. President Xi Jinping, always concerned about impoverished regions and families in straitened circumstances, has always put poverty alleviation at the top of his work agenda and devoted much of his energy to it. He has presented a series of important ideas and proposals, and made some major policy decisions. The 18th CPC National Congress in 2012 set the goal of building a moderately prosperous society in all respects. Soon after that, Xi enunciated, "To achieve initial prosperity in the countryside, it is essential to raise rural living standards and particularly those of impoverished villagers." Launching the campaign against poverty in the new era, he also emphasized, "No single poor area or single poor person should be left behind in achieving this goal." In 2013, on his inspection tour to Shibadong Village, Huayuan County, Hunan Province, Xi proposed for the first time the concept of "giving differentiated guidance for targeted poverty alleviation in line with local conditions by seeking truth from facts". In 2014, while attending the deliberation session of the Guizhou delegation at the Second Plenary Session of the 12th National People's Congress, Xi stated, "Inspection tours must be conducted to identify the truly poor. Poverty alleviation must reach those who truly need it, and poverty must be fully eliminated." In 2015, at the National Conference on Development-driven Poverty Alleviation, he sounded the bugle call to battle, "We should be determined, dedicate ourselves, and work hard towards the goal." In 2017, in the report to the 19th CPC National Congress, Xi emphasized the need to mobilize the energies of the whole Party, the whole country, and the whole of society to win the battle against extreme poverty and eradicate it, "Ensuring that poor people and poor areas will enter the moderately prosperous society together with the rest of the country is a solemn promise made by our Party... We must win the battle against poverty." In 2020, faced with the sudden attack of Covid-19, Xi mapped out new plans for mobilization at a seminar on poverty alleviation, emphasizing that lifting poor people in the rural areas out of poverty "must be achieved as scheduled". "It is non-negotiable. This is a tough battle with no route of retreat. We must double our efforts till the last minute. We must not pause, slacken off or be negligent." He asked the whole Party to perform well in this "difficult test", to apply more determination and more vigor, and to be confident of bringing the battle to a successful end.

President Xi Jinping has assumed leadership, made plans, and directed the battle in person.

He has attended the National Conference on Development-driven Poverty Alleviation, and presided over seven seminars on poverty elimination. He has made over 50 fact-finding trips. In every one of the last five years, he has reviewed the evaluation reports of the poverty alleviation work. In every one of the last seven years, he has attended important events or issued directives on the National Poverty Alleviation Day. In every one of the last seven years, he has expounded on the fight against extreme poverty in his New Year address. In every one of the last eight years, he has discussed plans for the battle against poverty with delegates during the Two Sessions and written letters to encourage grassroots officials and communities to engage in the great fight. He has visited every one of the 14 contiguous poor areas across the country and over 20 poor villages, and sat in the homes of impoverished households to hear of their difficulties, suggestions, and needs, building up their confidence and determination, and their belief that they can work their way out of poverty. On February 25, 2021, at the National Poverty Alleviation Summary and Commendation Conference, he declared that China had secured a comprehensive victory in the fight against poverty, and completed the arduous task of eradicating extreme poverty - an outstanding and historic achievement.

The strenuous process whereby the CPC has led the Chinese people in the battle against poverty has been extraordinary and difficult. Over the past 100 years, the Party has committed itself to the original aspiration of seeking happiness for the people, taken on its responsibility for the people, honored its promise to the people, and made huge sacrifices in fighting to win national independence and people's liberation, to make China prosperous and strong, and to bring common prosperity to all. In the process it has won the support and trust of the people.

Over the past 100 years the Chinese people, under the leadership of the CPC, have never faltered in pursuit of progress, have put in unimaginable efforts, and have relied on themselves to eradicate extreme poverty, and march towards shared all-round prosperity.

Over the past 100 years, under the leadership of the CPC, China has stood tall, become prosperous, and grown in overall national strength. The protection of the rights to subsistence and development, and the promotion of equality and justice have laid solid foundations for well-rounded human development.
II. Final Victory in the Fight Against Extreme Poverty
China's fight against poverty entered a critical stage after the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012. At the end of 2020, through eight years of hard work, China achieved the goal of eliminating extreme poverty - a key goal for the new era of building socialism with Chinese characteristics. The 98.99 million people in rural areas who were living below the current poverty threshold all shook off poverty (Figure 1); all the 128,000 impoverished villages and 832 designated poor counties got rid of poverty (Figure 2). China has eliminated poverty over entire regions and eradicated extreme poverty.

The battle against poverty has been another great revolution in rural China, leading to historic and comprehensive changes. The campaign saw an end to the backwardness of poverty-stricken areas, boosted overall rural development, resolved the greatest threat to success in achieving moderate prosperity in all respects, and laid a solid foundation for building a modern socialist China and realizing the Second Centenary Goal. China has secured a complete victory in the battle against extreme poverty, eliminating overall and extreme poverty for the first time in its history of thousands of years, and realizing a century-long aspiration of the Chinese people.

1. Significant Improvement in the Living Standards of the Poor

Through poverty alleviation, there has been a substantial improvement in the incomes and welfare of the poor. The Two Assurances and Three Guarantees[ This refers to assurances of adequate food and clothing, and guarantees of access to compulsory education, basic medical services and safe housing for impoverished rural residents. ] have been realized; education, healthcare, housing and drinking water supplies are much improved. These provisions have covered all basic needs and laid the foundations for future development. The fight against poverty has led to dramatic changes in the lives of the impoverished.

The incomes of the impoverished are increasing (Figure 3). The per capita disposable income of the rural poor increased from RMB6,079 in 2013 to RMB12,588 in 2020, up by 11.6% per annum on average. The growth rate was 2.3 percentage points higher than the national rural average. Their salary income and operative income kept increasing over the years in proportion to their transfer income, showing a stronger ability to shake off poverty through their own efforts.

Ethnic minority areas have made notable progress in fighting poverty. From 2016 to 2020, in the five autonomous regions (Inner Mongolia, Guangxi, Tibet, Ningxia and Xinjiang) and three provinces with a large multi-ethnic population (Guizhou, Yunnan and Qinghai), the number of the poor dropped by 15.6 million. Extreme poverty was eliminated in all 28 of the minority ethnic groups with a small population. Some ethnic groups, still at the later stage of primitive society when the PRC was founded in 1949, leapfrogged to socialism and then again made great strides towards moderate prosperity in all respects.

The Two Assurances and Three Guarantees have been realized. According to the national survey of poverty alleviation[ The national survey of poverty alleviation is a full review of China's progress in fighting poverty and has a fundamental importance for targeted poverty alleviation. From 2020 to 2021, the survey was conducted in 22 provinces and equivalent administrative units in central and western China, focusing on the veracity of poverty alleviation results, particularly the overall progress in designated poor counties. The survey includes registration of poverty-stricken populations, progress in the Two Assurances and Three Guarantees, participation of the impoverished in poverty alleviation programs, and basic public services in poor counties and villages. ], poor households now have adequate food and clothing all year round and a proper supply of nutritious food. They have clothing for all four seasons and comforters that protect them from cold weather.

Access to good quality education for the impoverished has improved remarkably; there are no dropouts in the countryside due to financial difficulties; nine-year compulsory education is now available to all children from rural poor households, and the completion rate in 2020 was 94.8%.

The three-tier healthcare system at village, township and county levels has been improved. All poverty-stricken populations now have access to basic medical insurance, critical illness insurance, and medical assistance, to ensure medical treatment to the impoverished with major illnesses, contracted healthcare to the impoverished with chronic diseases, and guaranteed medical services for the impoverished with critical illnesses. Basic medical insurance coverage of the poor is now over 99.9%. All the impoverished have been guaranteed medical services and medical insurance. Through these measures, China has resolved the problem of difficult and expensive access to medical treatment for poverty-stricken residents.

The program of renovation of dilapidated rural homes has ensured safe housing for all the impoverished (Box 1). The program of safe drinking water for rural residents has secured supplies to 28.89 million poor in terms of both quantity and quality, and benefited 382 million rural population; tap water coverage increased from 70% in 2015 to 83% in 2020.
2. Poverty-stricken Areas Rid of Backwardness
Poor areas have long suffered from weak infrastructure, inadequate public services, and social and economic underdevelopment. In the final stages of fighting poverty, China succeeded in raising all the rural poor out of extreme poverty and the impoverished areas achieved a big stride in economic and social development, taking on a brand new look.

Infrastructure has been improved. Lack of access to transport, electricity, drinking water and communications hinders the development of poverty-stricken areas. Infrastructure construction is a basic element in the battle against poverty; through an intensified effort and further investment, new infrastructure in poor areas boosted their social and economic development.

The construction, management, maintenance and operation of roads in rural areas have all seen significant improvement (Box 2). Transport networks now connect all villages with other local villages and with the outside world, and provide them with safe and easy access to bus services. By the end of 2020, impoverished areas had gained 1.1 million km of reconstructed highways and 35,000 km of new railways; all the villages, townships and towns in poverty-stricken areas with the right conditions were accessible by paved road and provided with bus and mail routes, which facilitated more economic development.

Water infrastructure in impoverished areas has been improved in many ways. Since 2016, the effective irrigated area has increased by more than 5.35 million ha and water supply capacity has increased by 18.1 billion cu m. Better water infrastructure is also a provider of strong support for the development of poverty-stricken areas.

Electricity access in poor areas has been improved through power grid construction projects such as power supply to areas without electricity, upgrading of rural power grids, and construction of trunk power grids and power transmission channels. Now, more remote areas are connected to power grids, and almost all rural areas enjoy a steady power supply (Box 3).

Communications infrastructure has been extended in poverty-stricken areas. Now, over 98% of poor villages have access to optical fiber communications (OFC) and 4G technology; distance education is available at more schools in impoverished areas; telemedicine and e-commerce cover all designated poor counties. All of this represents an unprecedented pace of development of IT application in poverty-stricken areas.

This comprehensive range of infrastructure improvements has resolved many historical problems trapping poor areas in poverty, facilitated the flows of personnel, logistics, knowledge and information between poor areas and the outside world, and provided solid support for social and economic development in impoverished areas.

Basic public services have been improved. In addition to providing adequate food, clothing and safe housing for the impoverished, China has intensified efforts to improve basic public services covering education, healthcare, culture and social security. The goal is to guarantee impoverished people access to education, medical services, elderly care and social assistance, so as to support development in poverty-stricken areas.

Since 2013, China has renovated 108,000 schools to strengthen the provision of compulsory education in poor areas, and ensured that all school-age rural children receive kindergarten and elementary education within their own villages.

Public cultural services in poor areas have also been improved. By the end of 2020, 99.48% of villages in 22 provinces and equivalent administrative units in central and western China had seen their own cultural centers completed. The campaign of bringing culture to the countryside has enriched the cultural life of the rural poor.

There has been a notable improvement in healthcare provision in poor areas. This program has remedied the shortfall in medical workers and institutions at village and township level. 98% of the designated poor counties now have at least one grade-two hospital. The county-level hospitals in impoverished areas can treat 90% of the diseases that general county-level hospitals can. The impoverished can now have common ailments and chronic diseases treated at nearby medical institutions in a timely manner, and more major illnesses can be effectively treated at county-level hospitals.

Comprehensive social security systems are now in place in poor areas. The standards of eligibility for rural subsistence allowances in designated poor counties are all higher than the national poverty threshold.

Some 19.36 million impoverished people have been covered by rural subsistence allowances or extreme poverty relief funds, and 60.98 million by basic pension schemes for rural and non-working urban residents, achieving nearly 100% coverage.

The economy has achieved sustained and rapid growth. The battle against poverty has released the potential of poor areas, and injected vigor into their economic development.

Poverty-stricken areas have seen notable improvements in their economic structure. Businesses that leverage local strengths have been growing and thriving, including such new forms as e-commerce, photovoltaic technology, and tourism. The economy in poor areas has diversified, and effective market supply has increased. These developments provide solid foundations for economic growth.

The GDP of impoverished areas has maintained rapid growth. Since 2015, the average annual increment in per capita revenue from the national general public budget has been seven percentage points higher than the national average. A steady increase in incomes has created higher demand for life quality and cultural activities. This has stimulated a surge in consumption in rural areas, and provided support for the domestic economy.

Cultural heritage has been protected. China has strengthened the protection and promotion of traditional culture, folk culture and ethnic culture in poor areas to maintain a wealth of cultural diversity. It has implemented the Plan on the Revitalization of Traditional Chinese Craftsmanship to protect and develop fine craftsmanship in old revolutionary base areas, areas with large ethnic minority populations, border areas, and poverty-stricken areas. It has supported poor areas to develop cultural resources with local characteristics, including ethnic culture, revolutionary sites, folk culture, and intangible cultural heritage. Local governments in poor areas have developed tourism there by conserving and promoting these cultural resources and training support staff. China has paid attention to keeping a record of the experiences of ordinary people in poverty alleviation, such as archives of poor villages, films, TV programs and literary works themed on poverty alleviation. Through the protection and promotion of cultural heritage in poor areas, the impoverished have gained additional income while retaining their cultural roots.

The eco-environment has improved. China has integrated development-driven poverty alleviation with soil and water conservation and eco-environmental conservation. By developing the eco-economy, improving the rural living environment, and relocating the impoverished from inhospitable areas to places with better economic prospects, there have been remarkable improvements in the eco-environment of poverty-stricken areas. Lucid waters and lush mountains have become their invaluable assets. Through the fight against poverty, China has increased the incomes of the impoverished, improved the eco-environment of poor areas, and made the vast rural areas more livable spaces for their inhabitants.

Severely impoverished areas are the top priority in China's battle against poverty. The "three areas and three prefectures"[ The "three areas" refer to the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Hotan, Aksu, Kashgar prefectures and the Kizilsu Kirgiz Autonomous Prefecture in southern Xinjiang, and prefectures and counties with large Tibetan populations in the provinces of Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu and Qinghai. The "three prefectures" refer to the Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan Province, the Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan Province, and the Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture in Gansu Province. ] in extreme poverty have seen notable improvements in infrastructure, public services, and civil communal behavior, as well as rapid development in industries and businesses that leverage local strengths. All of these efforts have brought an end to regional and overall poverty (Box 4).
3. Those Who Have Been Lifted Out of Poverty Adopt a New Mindset
The battle against poverty is a profound revolution and complete victory on both material and theoretical level. Through this battle, the mindset of the poor has been enriched and sublimed - they have greater confidence, more active minds, and higher aspirations; they have experienced a thorough transformation from the inside to the outside.

The impoverished have a deep desire to rid themselves of the shackles of poverty and achieve prosperity. The poverty relief efforts have not only widened channels for the impoverished to improve their material welfare but rekindled their desire to seek a better life as well. Impoverished people have been inspired to seek prosperity through hard work, self-reliance, frugality and entrepreneurship, and strive for excellence. They are highly motivated and have more confidence about getting rid of poverty. As the Chinese people always say, "Good days come after hard work". They are ready to compete in the race to prosperity.

The impoverished have a stronger sense of self-reliance. The poverty alleviation work has set up a new platform for the impoverished to participate in collective affairs. When making major decisions on the implementation of poverty relief projects and the use of funds at the village level, villagers have carried out a "4+2" system[ "4+2" system refers to the democratic policy-making process on village affairs under the leadership of village Party organizations. "4" means four steps: Proposals should be put forward by the Party branch, jointly discussed by the village committee and the Party branch, and deliberated by Party members, and resolutions should be adopted by villagers' representatives; "2" means transparency on two levels - resolutions and implementation results should be made known to the public. ]. The oversight mechanisms for village affairs and villagers' councils and poverty relief councils have been improved to ensure that public affairs are discussed and handled by everyone. Under these arrangements, the impoverished have participated more in the decision making and implementation process in the battle against poverty. They have been more motivated to participate actively in collective affairs, more enthusiastic to build up their hometown, and more cohesive to develop the countryside.

The impoverished have been constantly upgrading their mindsets. The battle against poverty has opened the door to the outside world for poverty-stricken areas. Improvements in transport infrastructure have established links between poor areas and the outside world; development of public cultural undertakings has enriched the cultural life of impoverished people; with better access to the internet, the poor have greater knowledge, broader horizons, and a deeper understanding of openness, innovation, technology, rules and markets. They are capable of generating more ideas and opening wider channels for poverty alleviation.

Cultural and ethical work has been advancing in impoverished regions. Civility villages and towns are being built in poverty-stricken areas, and civil families cultivated under the "Five Family Virtues" program (encouraging respect for the law, diligent study, family planning, domestic harmony, and industrious and thrifty management of the household). Social etiquette, village rules, agreements among villagers, and councils on moral issues, weddings and funerals have been promoted, to update outmoded and undesirable habits and customs. Activities, such as competition for best households and families, have been organized to carry forward cherished family traditions, spread core socialist values, and enhance social etiquette and civility. Scientific, healthy and civilized new ways of life which are simple, green, eco-friendly, and hygienic have been embraced by the villagers. Good social practices, including modest weddings and funerals, filial piety, harmonious neighborhoods, and helping the needy, the weak and the disabled, have been promoted. In the new era, new cultural practices with a local and modern essence are developing in rural areas.

4. Protecting the Rights of Special Groups to Basic Needs and Development

China prioritizes the basic rights of subsistence and development of the disadvantaged groups among women, children, the elderly, and the disabled. The nation has enacted favorable policies and provided more assistance to raise the welfare level of these groups.

Living conditions of impoverished women have been improving. China adheres to the fundamental national policy of gender equality, and sees women as a key target in poverty alleviation. Among nearly 100 million who have shaken off poverty, women account for half. By implementing the Outline of Women's Development in China (2011-2020), China has given priority to helping women alleviate poverty and reducing the number of women in poverty, given preferential treatment to women when making poverty alleviation policies, allocated funds and taken measures, and helped them solve the most difficult, most worrying and most pressing problems. A total of 10.21 million impoverished women have received skills training, over 5 million of whom have increased their incomes through activities such as handicrafts, crop and animal husbandry, housekeeping and e-business. Small-sum guaranteed loans and micro credit amounting to more than RMB450 billion have been provided to impoverished women, which have helped 8.7 million women to start businesses and increase their incomes. China has assisted 192,000 women who suffer from poverty and diseases and launched a program of free cervical and breast cancer checkups to cover all women in poverty-stricken areas. RMB4.17 billion has been invested in titled campaigns to provide 50 million impoverished mothers in impoverished areas with infrastructure and health benefits, as well as daily necessities.

Extending greater care to deprived children. China has implemented the Outline on the Development of Chinese Children (2011-2020) and the National Development Plan for Children in Poor Areas (2014-2020) to provide security for children's education and health and deliver interventions when required. Efforts have been made to popularize knowledge on children's nutrition and health. Following the implementation of nutritional improvement projects for children in impoverished areas, children in these regions now enjoy better health. The government gives a free daily pack of nutritional dietary supplements to every baby and toddler aged 6-24 months in contiguous destitute areas. By the end of 2020, a total of 11.2 million children in those areas had benefitted from this project. Birth defect prevention & relief programs have been launched to help cover medical expenses for children who suffer from poverty and serious diseases such as congenital malformations, some inherited metabolic disorders, and thalassemia. A total of RMB470 million has been allocated for the care of 41,000 sick children. China has organized volunteers to pair up with orphans, deprived children, and children of migrant workers left at home in the countryside, providing care and help to 25.19 million children and parents. More than 280,000 children's homes and over 1,200 children's happy homes have been built to give entertainment, psychological counseling, life care and tutoring to deprived children and children of migrant workers left at home in the countryside. China continues to improve the protection of orphans' rights and interests, with monthly allowance for orphans in welfare institutions and families that provide temporary care totaling RMB1,611 and RMB1,184 per person respectively. China has invested RMB1.7 billion in the Tomorrow Plan for Rehabilitation of Handicapped Orphans to offer operations and rehabilitation to 223,000 orphans with disabilities. RMB540 million from the public welfare has been used to carry out a program to support school education for 54,000 orphans. A support system for de facto orphans has been established in China to cover 253,000 such children.

Continuing to provide services and improve the lives of impoverished senior citizens. China has raised the amount of basic pension in rural areas and subsidies for basic medical insurance for poor seniors to further reduce poverty among the elderly in rural areas. The subsidy system for the poor population of advanced age and incapacitated seniors has been put in place, benefiting 36.89 million people. The government has initiated a program for the elderly in the western regions to promote health awareness among seniors in poverty-stricken areas, and organized medical workers and volunteers to provide free medical services and offer advice on health matters. China has developed a system to support and care for elderly people left behind by their families in the countryside after their grown-up children have moved to the cities in search of employment. It has shifted the focus of medical security for the impoverished elderly from medical treatment to health services. More care has been provided for incapacitated seniors living below the poverty line. On the basis of an overall inspection, China has verified 627,000 impoverished seniors who lost the ability to take care of themselves and extended contracted family doctor services to 590,000 of them, significantly improving their health.

Strengthening the protection of impoverished people with disabilities in an all-round way. More than 7 million poor people with disabilities have been lifted out of poverty as scheduled. This is a historic achievement in poverty alleviation among groups with special difficulties. The systems for providing living allowances for poor people with disabilities and nursing subsidies for severely disabled persons cover more than 24 million. China includes 10.67 million people with disabilities in the system of subsistence allowances. Poor people with disabilities are now all covered by basic medical insurance and serious illness insurance. Among them, 547,000 people have received medical assistance. China has made efforts to ensure 1.79 million poor households with one or more disabled members live in secure housing. The special needs of impoverished people with disabilities are being met. More than 80,000 disadvantaged children with disabilities have received generally beneficiary pre-school education. The houses of 653,000 impoverished households with severely disabled members have been upgraded for better accessibility. New progress has been made in nursing care for poor and severely disabled people.

5. Significantly Improving Grassroots Social Governance in Poverty-stricken Areas

The fight against poverty is a successful exercise in the modernization of China's system and capacity for governance. Our success in this battle has improved our poverty governance, and significantly improved China's systems and capacity for grassroots social governance in impoverished areas.

Stronger grassroots Party organizations in rural areas. Grassroots Party organizations are the cornerstone of the CPC's rural work, playing a key role in ensuring that decisions and plans on poverty alleviation are implemented. China has strengthened the leading group to win this battle against poverty. Weak and slack grassroots Party organizations have been rectified and consolidated, and first Party secretaries and resident working teams are carefully selected and dispatched to poverty-stricken villages. We select a range of people as village leaders to hold the post of secretary of village Party organizations - hard-working, dedicated, and innovative Party members from those who have lifted themselves out of poverty in rural areas, veterans, returning migrant workers and business people, heads of farmer cooperatives, and college graduates. Village Party branches perform a decisive role in this battle, and continue to enhance their cohesion and skills. With closer relations between the villagers and village officials, and between the Party and the people, people in poverty-stricken areas have greater trust and confidence in the Party and the government, laying solid foundations for the Party's governance in rural areas.

Grassroots governance is becoming more effective. Grassroots democracy has advanced in poverty-stricken areas as a result of the battle against poverty, inspiring vitality in local communities. Villagers and residents committees are more actively involved, while the poor are able to do more in improving their own management, education, services and supervision. Village affairs have become more transparent, so that villagers can discuss and direct their own affairs and engage in democratic decision-making on issues of importance. The public are becoming increasingly active and are breaking new ground in grassroots governance. At the beginning of poverty alleviation, many poor villages had little collective income. By the end of 2020, the average collective income in impoverished villages across the country had exceeded RMB120,000. With a steady collective income, many village organizations have become more capable of keeping operations running and serving the people.

Increasing the number of rural service personnel who have a good knowledge of agriculture, love our rural areas, and care about rural people. Since 2013, more than 3 million first Party secretaries and resident working team members have been selected and dispatched to carry out targeted poverty alleviation. Officials working at the grassroots and poverty relief officials always concern themselves first and foremost with the interests of the poor. They dedicate themselves to practical actions and solving tough problems for the poor, and thereby win public approval. Going through hardships in the battle against poverty, persistent, optimistic, hard-working grassroots officials and poverty relief officials have become more confident in motivating people to shake off poverty and more capable of doing it. A large number of professionals and entrepreneurs in fields such as education, science and technology, healthcare and culture have gone to poverty-stricken regions to aid construction and make investments. Many college graduates have resisted the temptation of much better pay and benefits in cities to go back and help their hometowns in rural areas. Becoming more prosperous and attractive, rural areas are better able to attract and retain talented professionals who love the countryside, encouraging them to take roots and assist with agricultural and rural modernization.

Notable progress made in strengthening China's capacity for social governance. China's poverty relief efforts have brought advanced concepts of development, modern technology, and scientific management models to impoverished areas, significantly improving social governance. In the process, China has explored new ways in grassroots social governance, and put in place an open and information-based grassroots system to provide a gridded management model and better services for everyone. All these have strengthened public participation and rule of law in social governance, and made it smarter and more specialized, improving the ability of the grassroots to prevent and resolve conflicts, and helping maintain harmony, stability and order in impoverished areas.

Our complete victory over extreme poverty is an outstanding achievement in the history of both China and humanity. It has reinforced the Chinese nation's self-belief and its sense of pride, cohesiveness and affinity. It has strengthened the people's confidence in the path, theory, system, and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and given them trust in their ability to build a better life. This great victory shows that the CPC has held fast to its original aspiration and mission, and demonstrates its ability to lead politically, to guide through theory, to organize the people, and to inspire society. It shows the strength of socialism with Chinese characteristics in pooling resources to solve major problems. It highlights China's spirit, China's values, China's strength, and the willpower of the Chinese people to strive to realize dreams with bold resolve which dares to make sun and moon shine in new skies. It exemplifies the fearless and indomitable character of the Chinese nation, determined to struggle and resolutely overcome all difficulties and challenges along the way. A will to unite as one, do our best, set targets, adopt a pragmatic approach, be pioneers, innovate, tackle tough issues head-on, and live up to our people's trust, has formed in the great endeavors of poverty alleviation. It has fostered a Chinese ethos and a readiness to respond to the call of our times, and will continue to inspire our people to create a better future.
III. The Strategy of Targeted Poverty Alleviation
Identifying those truly in need is a universal problem in countries with a large population in poverty. Accurate identification of the poor and targeted measures is central to any effort to eradicate poverty. In its poverty elimination effort, China has actively learned from international experience, fully considered its actual conditions, and launched a series of guidelines and measures to increase efficiency, summarized as accomplishing "Targeted Efforts in Six Areas"[ This refers to efforts to identify the poor accurately, arrange targeted programs, utilize capital efficiently, take household-based measures, dispatch first Party secretaries based on village conditions, and achieve the set goals.], taking "Five Measures for Poverty Eradication"[ The measures include: boosting the economy to provide more job opportunities, relocating poor people from inhospitable areas, compensating for economic losses associated with reducing ecological damage, improving education in impoverished areas, and providing subsistence allowances for those unable to shake off poverty through their own efforts alone. ], and addressing "Five Questions in Poverty Alleviation"[ This refers to these questions: who should help, who should be helped, how to help, how to evaluate whether someone has emerged from poverty, and how to ensure those people stay free from poverty. ].
1. Identifying People in Need to Know Whom to Help
To help the poor, we must know who they are. China had a large poor population, which was complex in composition. China has developed a set of standards and procedures to accurately identify the poor, and grassroots officials have spent time in villages analyzing the distribution of the poor population, the causes of their poverty, and their needs. Poor households are identified primarily based on their incomes, with consideration given to other factors such as housing, education and health. Household applications for poverty registration are discussed and reviewed, disclosed for public supervision, and then evaluated by each level of administration. For administrative villages applying to be registered, consideration is given to the incidence of poverty, the per capita net income of the villagers, and income from businesses run by village collectives. Applications are filed by the village committee, reviewed and disclosed by the township government, and examined by the county government before the results are made public. The individuals and villages confirmed as poor are then registered and a file is created in the national poverty alleviation information system. Dynamic management of the poor population has been strengthened to remove those who have been wrongly identified and to add those newly identified, with an emphasis on accuracy. Through this registration system, for the first time in the history of poverty alleviation, China has identified every poor individual in every village, every poor household has the causes of their poverty and their needs registered with the government. The national information platform on poverty alleviation provides powerful IT support for targeted measures to realize the set goals.

2. Strengthening Leadership and Team-building to Know How to Offer Help

Poverty eradication work covers a wide range of areas and is extremely complex, thus requiring rigorous organization, leadership, and implementation. Relying on the CPC's political and organizational strength, China has established a poverty eradication management network with the central government acting as coordinator, provincial governments taking overall responsibility, and city and county governments overseeing implementation. The network covers all poor areas and officials are sent to villages to help every needy household. Party committees at all levels have assumed an overall coordinating role and assigned top officials to take charge of poverty eradication affairs. The leading officials of 22 provinces and equivalent administrative units in central and western China signed written pledges to the Party Central Committee, and Party secretaries at the five administrative levels of province, city, county, township and village have worked towards the same goal. During the poverty eradication campaign, Party committee secretaries and county governors have been required to remain unchanged in their posts. Areas tasked with poverty elimination worked out timetables with a clear division of responsibilities and pressed forward with implementation. In places where the work was particularly difficult, the fight against poverty became the top priority of social and economic development. Through the strictest possible evaluation and supervision, as well as specialized inspection tours, China has addressed any corruption and misconduct in poverty alleviation with rigor (Box 5), and strengthened the evaluation and supervision of results to ensure solid and authentic outcomes (Box 6) that can survive the test of time and practice. China has improved the incentives for encouraging officials to fulfill responsibilities and undertake initiatives, and the relevant mechanisms to protect their position. By giving more attention to and caring for officials and establishing the right approach to their selection and appointment, the government has given them the incentive to fulfill their duties and do their best in the final fight against poverty. China has strengthened its team of grassroots officials working in poverty alleviation, and formed resident working teams to assign officials to villages where they could be most useful. Officials on the resident working teams must be politically reliable and professional, and have a can-do approach to their work. Officials on these teams have dedicated themselves to their mission and fulfilled their duties, committing themselves to helping those in need on the front line of fighting poverty, and giving their all to help the poor find ways to emerge from poverty and seek development. The first group of first secretaries and resident working teams were dispatched to poor villages in 2013. By 2015, all poor villages had resident working teams, and every poor household a contact official in charge of poverty elimination. As of the end of 2020, 255,000 resident teams and more than 3 million officials had been dispatched as first secretaries and resident officials to poor villages, fighting on the front line of poverty alleviation alongside nearly 2 million township officials and millions of village officials.
3. Applying Targeted Measures for Different Groups to Know How to Help
There are many different types of poverty and the causes vary from case to case. We cannot address the root cause without the right remedies. In practice, China has adopted categorized and targeted measures to reduce poverty, based on the situation of individual households, local conditions, and the causes for and types of poverty. These targeted measures include: boosting the economy to provide more job opportunities, relocating poor people from inhospitable areas, compensating for economic losses associated with reducing ecological damage, improving education in impoverished areas, and providing subsistence allowances for those unable to shake off poverty through their own efforts alone.

First, boosting the economy to provide more job opportunities. Poverty alleviation through economic development is the most direct and effective method, the fundamental way to give poor areas the capacity for independent development and help the poor find employment locally. With this in mind, China has supported and guided poor areas in developing economic activities geared to their available resources, and encouraged poverty alleviation through new forms of business and new industries such as e-commerce, photovoltaic (PV) power generation and tourism, and through the consumption of products and services from poor areas (Box 7). Relying on collaboration on poverty alleviation between the eastern and western regions, China has facilitated the transfer of food processing, clothes manufacturing, and other labor-intensive industries from the east to the west. With the growth of such specialty industries, poor areas have gained economic momentum. More than 300,000 industrial bases have been built, leading to the creation of new industries with distinctive features and greater capacity to facilitate poverty alleviation efforts. China has created 12,000 local agroproduct brands, 14,400 leading enterprises above the city level, and 719,000 rural cooperatives operated by farmers. A total of 72.6% of poor households have formed close ties with new types of agribusiness entities, and almost every poor household has been covered by policy support for boosting the economy. Almost all poor people with the ability and intention to work have joined the collective endeavor. Solid progress has been made in poverty alleviation through the development of science and technology. A total of 1,290 innovative platforms and business startups have been set up, and 77,000 people have been paired up with professionals to receive guidance on new technology in impoverished regions. With a team of 289,800 technicians and a fund of over RMB20 billion, China has launched 37,600 high-tech programs of all kinds and at all levels and introduced more than 50,000 advanced applied technologies and new, improved breeds. Poor households have received financial support such as small loans (Box 8). In poor villages, entrepreneurial individuals have been encouraged to start businesses and given support to help and lead others out of poverty.

Second, relocating poor people from inhospitable areas. Some people lived in uninhabitable areas suffering from harsh natural conditions and subject to frequent natural disasters. It would be very hard for them to shake off poverty if they remained where they were, so the government relocated them to other areas (Box 9). The government respected these people's wishes, and only relocated those who were eligible and agreed to move. The reasons for relocation were explained to them but no coercion was used. The conditions and needs of target relocation groups were given full consideration, the scale of relocation was determined through research, and feasible plans were worked out and implemented in steps. As a result, more than 9.6 million people from inhospitable areas have shaken off poverty through relocation. Their former homes have been turned into farmland or planted with trees, to improve the eco-environment in these areas. In the resettlement sites, support facilities, industrial parks, and workshops have been built to create jobs for the relocated population, to ensure that they have stable incomes and equitable access to basic public services. Measures have been taken to ensure smooth relocation and resettlement, and make sure that those involved have the means to better themselves.

Third, shaking off poverty through compensations for economic losses associated with reducing ecological damage and getting eco-jobs. Clear waters and green mountains are invaluable assets. Laying equal emphasis on poverty alleviation and eco-conservation, China has strengthened ecological restoration and environmental protection in poor areas, increased government transfer payments to key eco-areas, and expanded the scope of those eligible for preferential policies. Poor people with the ability to work have thus been employed in eco-work, for example as forest rangers. Since 2013, a total of 4.97 million ha of farmland in poor areas has been returned to forest and grassland. A total of 1.1 million poor people have become forest rangers, and 23,000 poverty alleviation afforestation cooperatives/teams have been formed. By participating in projects for afforestation, turning reclaimed farmlands into forests or grasslands, restoring and protecting forests, grasslands and wetlands, and growing woody oil plants and working in forest tourism, the poor population have increased their incomes and made a major contribution to improving the eco-environment in poor areas, with mutually beneficial results.

Fourth, improving education in impoverished areas. Through education, poverty can be prevented from passing down from generation to generation (Box 10). The government has continued to increase support for schools in poor areas to improve their conditions, standard of teaching, faculties and financial resources. The state ensures compulsory education for all school-age children. All the 200,000 dropouts from compulsory education coming from poor families have returned to school. Favorable policies have been leveraged to enroll more poor students from designated areas, expand employment for graduates, and help students shake off poverty through vocational education. More than 8 million middle and high school graduates from poor families have received vocational training, 5.14 million poor students have received higher education, and key institutions of higher learning have admitted some 700,000 students from designated rural and poor areas. All this has opened up more channels for poor students to emerge from poverty and move upwards in society. The government has offered training on standard spoken and written Chinese language to 3.5 million rural teachers and young farmers and herdsmen in ethnic minority areas, in an effort to make poor people from these areas more competitive in the job market. A pilot campaign has been launched to teach standard Chinese to preschool children in Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, and Mabian Yi Autonomous County, Ebian Yi Autonomous County and Jinkouhe District in Leshan City, Sichuan Province, involving 430,000 children.

Fifth, providing subsistence allowances for those unable to shake off poverty through their own efforts alone. China focuses on the needs of the most vulnerable groups and provides them with subsistence allowances. Services and facilities to support people living in extreme poverty have been upgraded, with a greater capacity to provide care in service centers. The rural subsistence allowances framework has been effectively dovetailed with poverty alleviation policies, and the per capita yearly subsistence allowances in rural areas had grown from RMB2,068 in 2012 to RMB5,962 in 2020, an increase of 188.3%. The departments in charge of poverty alleviation and civil affairs compare data and verify information on a regular basis, to ensure full coverage of support for eligible groups.

China has also implemented many other forms of support for poverty alleviation that are consistent with local conditions. The government has redoubled its efforts to boost employment for the poor, through means such as offering free training on vocational skills, strengthening collaboration in the labor market between the eastern and western regions, supporting leading enterprises and workshops in poverty alleviation to create more jobs, encouraging entrepreneurial individuals to start businesses in their hometowns or villages, and creating public welfare jobs for the rest of the unemployed. Poor people who have the ability to work are encouraged to find employment locally or elsewhere, or start their own businesses. In 2015, 12.27 million poor laborers found employment; the figure had risen to 32.43 million in 2020. China has made efforts to improve healthcare service to the poor, considering it an important part of poverty alleviation in order to prevent the poor from sinking back into poverty due to illness (Box 11). China has launched a project to connect poor areas to the internet, introducing the "internet+" model for poverty alleviation in poor areas, especially in the extremely impoverished "three areas and three prefectures". The earnings from poverty alleviation funds and assets have been used to support the poor. The assets generated from facility agriculture - agriculture making extensive use of polytents and other similar equipment - PV power stations, and rural tourism using central government funds for poverty alleviation and other agriculture-related funds have been converted into shares and allocated proportionately to poor villages in order to give a boost to businesses, increase villagers' incomes and more importantly help solve the problem of generating revenue for the villages' collective economy. Since Covid-19 struck in 2020, China has adopted a series of support measures, such as measures to stabilize employment and encourage consumption of products from poor areas, effectively minimizing the impact of the virus.
4. Adopting Strict Criteria to Know When and How to Deregister Those Who Have Emerged from Poverty
A poverty exit mechanism has been established, with clear provisions on the standards and procedures for deregistering from the list poor counties, villages, and individuals. This prevents misconduct such as manipulation and falsification of data, and also prevents those who have emerged from poverty from keeping the label in order to continue accessing preferential treatment. The government has worked out a poverty deregistration plan and an annual poverty alleviation plan to ensure procedure-based, rational and orderly exit from the registers. The criteria and procedures have been strictly enforced, for example, by conducting public review in the case of individuals and government examination in the case of villages and counties. The results of poverty exit have been disclosed for public evaluation and review, based on transparent procedures, accurate data and complete files, to ensure fairness. Supervision and inspection have been strengthened, including annual evaluations by third parties of the deregistered population and counties, with a focus on remote areas with weaker economic foundations. Three parameters - the accuracy of decisions, the poverty incidence of recurrence among deregistered counties, and public rating of assistance measures - are emphasized in evaluation, to ensure accurate results. From 2020 to early 2021, China conducted a general survey of poverty elimination, collecting accurate data on progress in helping the poor out of poverty. A "grace period" is allowed for previously impoverished population, villages and counties, during which time poverty alleviation policies and government supervision are continued until their status is secure.
5. Conducting Follow-up Monitoring to Help People Stay Out of Poverty
People and locations will only be considered to have shaken off poverty when they have stayed out of it and have not fallen back in after a certain period. Counties have been given a five-year period of grace from the day they emerged from poverty. During this period they will continue to enjoy the main support policies, which will be adjusted and optimized by category. Over time the resources leveraged for intensive poverty elimination will be redirected towards an extensive drive for rural revitalization. China will improve its dynamic monitoring of any trends indicating a return to poverty, and improve associated support measures. It will regularly check on key groups, such as those who have just emerged from poverty but whose position is far from secure, those on the verge of poverty who can fall back in again easily, and those experiencing difficulties in meeting their basic needs due to expenditure induced by illness, disaster or accident, or due to a sharp drop in income, and exercise dynamic management to spot these trends early and intervene through support measures, so that these people do not fall back into poverty. China will continue to support formerly impoverished areas in developing their specialty industries and help those who have emerged from poverty have stable employment. Follow-up support will be given to the resettled population whose employment will be promoted through multiple means. The government will improve social management to help them integrate into society, so that they will stay out of poverty, remain employed and have a promising future. Systems and practices that have proven effective, such as resident first secretaries and working teams, eastern-western collaboration, paired-up assistance, and social assistance, will be continued and improved. Efforts will be intensified to help those who have emerged from poverty build up self-belief and have access to education, so that they can create a better life through their own hard work. More evaluation will be carried out over the status of formerly impoverished people and areas, and Party committees and governments at all levels will continue to take responsibility to ensure that people do not sink back into poverty in large numbers.

The strategy of targeted poverty alleviation is China's strongest weapon in its final battle to secure victory against poverty, and a major innovation in the theory and practice of poverty alleviation. It highlights the CPC's sound approach whereby all actions are based on actual conditions and conform to the needs of development; it is a manifestation of its courage to face up to new challenges and find solutions through trial and error; of its tireless exploration of the characteristics of governance by the CPC, the development of socialism, and the evolution of human society; and of its pursuit of all-round development of the people and common prosperity for all. In addition to securing a sweeping victory in the final battle against poverty, the strategy has also given a powerful boost to modernizing China's national governance system and capacity, and to enriching and developing the CPC's guiding philosophies and governance strategies in the new era.
IV. Exploring a New Path of Poverty Alleviation
Eliminating poverty is a challenge for all countries. Each subject to different national conditions and at different stages of development, they adopt different poverty reduction criteria, methods and approaches. Bearing in mind its prevailing reality and understanding the nature of poverty and the status of poverty alleviation, China has embarked on a path of poverty alleviation and designed an approach with Chinese characteristics. In this battle, the nation has upheld the CPC leadership and the people-centered philosophy. It has taken advantage of one of the strengths of its socialist system - the ability to pool resources on major endeavors. It has adopted targeted measures and stimulated the enthusiasm, initiative, and creativity of the people in poverty. It has carried forward the great tradition of working together and offering mutual support, and it has adopted a down-to-earth and pragmatic style of work. In this approach, China has accumulated valuable experience, which belongs both to China itself and to the rest of the world, and offers enlightenment to the international community in its battle to reduce poverty.
1. People-centered Philosophy
The CPC is an ambitious party with a grand but simple goal: to ensure a happy life for the Chinese people. In the face of all the changes in the international landscape and the domestic situation over the past century, the Party has always followed a people-centered philosophy. It has borne in mind its founding mission to seek happiness for the Chinese people and national rejuvenation, and united and led the people in fighting poverty armed with firm convictions and a strong will. In the new era, the CPC has adopted a series of bold policies and measures to advance the cause, trying to ensure higher incomes and better education, healthcare, and living conditions for the poor. Taking public satisfaction as an important yardstick to judge the effectiveness of poverty elimination, the Party has concentrated its efforts on guaranteeing the basic needs of the poor. It would rather cut down on the number of major projects in favor of investment in poverty elimination; it would rather penalize short-term, partial or local interests to ensure the cause is well served and guaranteed; and it would rather slow the pace of economic growth to ensure the task of poverty alleviation is accomplished on schedule.

In the fight against poverty, officials including first Party secretaries and resident working teams, grassroots officials and Party members, and volunteers have worked with diligence and a spirit of dedication in support of the poor, fulfilling their mission and their pledge to the people. Some of them have been fighting on the front line for a long time, without time or energy to take care of their own families; some have been traveling around or braving harsh natural conditions; some have fallen sick from overwork all the year round; some have continued work even after getting injured at work. More than 1,800 Party members and officials have lost their lives in the cause of poverty alleviation.

China's poverty elimination effort in the new era is a full and vivid expression of its people-centered philosophy and the CPC's mission of serving the people wholeheartedly. Success in poverty alleviation has proven that the problem of poverty, in essence, is how the people should be treated: the people-centered philosophy is the fundamental driving force behind this cause. Only with this philosophy, can a country identify those who are poor, adopt concrete measures, and deliver genuine outcomes; only with this philosophy, can it draw on inexhaustible motivation, set a clear direction, and find the right approach.
2. Highlighting Poverty Alleviation in the Governance of China
Poor conditions for development in impoverished areas and a lack of capacity for self-improvement among the poor population determine that poverty cannot be eliminated by relying solely on the efforts of individuals, local governments, or non-governmental forces. Poverty elimination must be taken on as a responsibility of the ruling party and the country; it requires will and action at national level, and it must be elevated to a national strategy.

The CPC has always regarded poverty alleviation as an important task for ensuring national peace and stability. It has highlighted poverty alleviation at national level when setting its guidelines, principles and policies, and when formulating national plans for medium- and long-term development. The Party has pooled national resources to advance this cause and motivated generations of its members to devote themselves to this cause.

Since the 18th National Congress in 2012, the CPC has prioritized poverty elimination in its governance, and planned and advanced this cause under its centralized and unified leadership. All Party members, from top leaders to the grassroots officials, are concerned about the poor and the cause of poverty alleviation, and work together towards the same goal.

China has strengthened top-level design and strategic planning. It has issued policy documents such as Decision on Winning the Battle Against Extreme Poverty and Guidelines on the Three-Year Action Plan to Win the Battle Against Extreme Poverty, setting specific aims, defining approaches and detailed measures, and carrying them out with consistent efforts. Investment has been increased by governments at all levels (Figure 4) and a multiple investment system has been established (Box 12), guaranteeing financial support for poverty alleviation. Leveraging the strength of its socialist system - the ability to pool resources on major endeavors - China has mobilized forces from all quarters to participate in poverty alleviation. Systems have been established, covering responsibilities, policies, organization, inputs, mobilization, supervision, assessment and evaluation, and many other aspects of poverty elimination, providing an institutional guarantee for the nation to advance the battle against poverty.

The success in poverty alleviation has proven that governance of a country starts with the needs of the people, and that their prosperity is the responsibility of the government. Poverty alleviation is a pioneering and arduous trek. To achieve success, it is of utmost importance that the leadership have devotion, strong will and determination, and the ruling party and government assume their responsibilities to the people, play a leading role, mobilize forces from all quarters, and ensure policies are consistent and stable.

3. Eradicating Poverty Through Development
The root cause of poverty is inadequate development. As the world's largest developing country with a population of 1.4 billion, China is aware that development is essential to solving many of its problems, including poverty. The CPC has always regarded this as the top priority in governing and rejuvenating the country. It has concentrated its efforts in particular on the economy, to address the problem of unbalanced and inadequate development. Through development, the economy has been growing rapidly and the country has enjoyed a long period of social stability. China has regarded reform as an important driving force for poverty eradication and worked constantly to remove institutional and structural causes of poverty:

* By launching land reform and establishing the socialist system after the founding of the PRC in 1949;

* By implementing the household contract responsibility system with remuneration linked to output after the launch of reform and opening up in 1978;

* By establishing the socialist market economy and rescinding all agricultural taxes;

* By separating the ownership rights, contracting rights, and management rights for contracted rural land and further reforming the rural collective property rights system since the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012.

These measures have contributed to rural development and increased farmers' incomes. In addition, China has opened wider to the world amidst economic globalization and seen sustained and rapid growth in its foreign trade, creating many employment opportunities and more sources of higher incomes for rural labor.

Since the founding of the PRC in 1949, and especially since the launch of reform and opening up in 1978, the country has witnessed rapid economic and social development, with the economy and national strength growing steadily. This has provided solid support for large-scale development-driven poverty alleviation effort.

China's experience with poverty alleviation has proven that development is the most effective way to eradicate poverty and the most reliable path towards a more prosperous life. Only development can lead to economic growth, social progress and higher living standards. Only development can better guarantee people's basic rights and meet their desire for a better life.
4. Pressing Ahead with Poverty Alleviation Based on Reality
Poverty problems, as well as their causes, are diverse and complex. China's poverty alleviation efforts are based on a realistic appraisal of the situation. China has set its poverty line and its poverty alleviation goals and strategies, and worked to create better ideas and methods based on its national conditions and stage of development, and on the changes in the demographics, distribution, and structure of the poor population. It has advanced this undertaking step by step and with a steady effort.

Immediately after its founding in 1949, the PRC addressed the problem of poverty mainly through reform of the social system and large-scale economic development. After the launch of reform and opening up in 1978, China drove poverty alleviation mainly through rural economic reform and economic growth. It adopted development-oriented measures, guiding people in impoverished areas to increase their capacity for accumulation of wealth and endogenous development by adjusting the local economic structure, tapping into local resources, and developing production in response to market demand. In the new era, China has continued previous measures, and at the same time carried out a strategy of targeted poverty alleviation. The approach has changed from generalized broad-brush policies to targeted measures based on specific conditions. Before, resources for poverty alleviation came from multiple sources and were used by scattering them among the impoverished areas; now they are concentrated and better coordinated. The model of poverty alleviation has changed from mainly relying on external support like a blood transfusion to a more sustained effort from self-motivation. The assessment system has shifted focus from regional GDP as the main indicator to the genuine result of poverty alleviation. China has gradually lifted its poverty line based on its economic and social advances and progress in the cause of poverty alleviation to share the fruits of development with more people.

The occurrence and evolution of poverty has its own features and trends. To achieve success in reducing poverty, a country must follow a path in line with its national conditions, identify and remove obstacles to poverty alleviation, find driving forces for this cause, and constantly adjust and reform its strategies and policies as circumstances and local conditions change.

5. Letting the Poor Play the Principal Role

Poor people are the main players in eliminating poverty. Poverty alleviation requires both external and internal forces to form a synergy. China fully respects the principal role of the poor and encourages them to play their part, inspires them with the motivation to fight poverty, and enhances their ability to participate in development, share the fruits of development, and achieve endogenous development. They benefit from success in the undertaking of poverty alleviation and at the same time contribute to development in China.

China has inspired its people in poverty to strive for prosperity and provided them necessary education, so that they have the ambition to emerge from poverty and the tools to succeed. People in poverty have had better access to education opportunities, such as farmers' night schools and training workshops, to improve their skills and abilities in work and business.

A significant improvement in the battle against poverty is an effective mechanism of positive incentives encouraging the poor to learn from and keep pace with each other. Through this mechanism, productive activities are rewarded and subsidized and jobs instead of grants are provided, to encourage poor people to rely on their own efforts rather than wait for external assistance.

China has promoted stories of role models who escaped poverty through their hard work. It has also carried out various activities to establish the idea that "It is better to work hard than to endure poverty." The people in poverty have followed suit and eventually shaken off poverty and backwardness.

The fight against poverty shows that the people are the creators and drivers of history, and the true heroes. As long as a country serves the people, relies on them, respects their principal status and pioneering spirit, and motivates the poor to rely on their own hard work, it is sure to defeat poverty.
6. Pooling All Resources to Create Synergy
Poverty alleviation is an arduous, complex, and systematic endeavor, requiring the active participation of all parties. In the fight against poverty, the CPC has mobilized and pooled all possible forces on the basis of its rigorous organizational system and efficient work mechanism. A large-scale poverty alleviation network has been established, with the government, society and the market working in coordination, and government-sponsored projects, sector-specific programs, and corporate and societal assistance supplementing each other. It is a framework with the full participation of multiple players from different regions, sectors, departments and businesses.

China has strengthened collaboration and paired assistance between the eastern and western regions (Box 13) at provincial, city and county levels to encourage the flow of talent, capital, and technology to poor areas so that they can complement each other and narrow the gaps between them.

Poverty alleviation assistance has been directed to designated targets. Party and government institutions, people's organizations, state-owned enterprises and public institutions, and the military have assisted poor counties or villages (Box 14).

Other political parties, federations of industry and commerce and prominent individuals without party affiliation have leveraged their strengths to contribute intellectual and material support.

Various industries have been encouraged to offer assistance with their professional advantages by launching sector-specific programs, providing technological support, improving education, cultural undertakings and healthcare, and boosting consumption.

Private enterprises have been urged to participate in development-driven poverty alleviation. Businesses skilled in resource extraction have been encouraged to enter regions with great resource potential, which benefit both the businesses and those regions (Box 15).

Social organizations and individual citizens have been mobilized to participate in poverty alleviation and related public benefit activities. China has designated a National Poverty Alleviation Day and established a national system to commend models in fighting poverty. All these measures have created an atmosphere where everyone who is interested can join in poverty alleviation.

China's experience has proven that only when a country mobilizes all sectors of society to unite with common purpose and act in unison, can poverty be finally defeated.

Under the CPC leadership, the Chinese people have created an approach to poverty alleviation with their own hard work. China's successful practice and valuable experience in eliminating extreme poverty have deepened human understanding of poverty alleviation trends, enriched and extended the theory of international poverty alleviation, and boosted the confidence of other countries, especially developing ones, in eradicating extreme poverty. They serve as reference for other countries to choose a suitable path of poverty alleviation, and offer China's approach to solving the problem of modern national governance and creating brighter prospects for social progress.
V. A Global Community of Shared Future Free from Poverty
China will prosper only when the world prospers, and vice versa. The country has always closely linked its future with that of the rest of the world. While committed to eradicating its own poverty, China has actively participated in international cooperation on poverty alleviation, acted as an advocate, facilitator of and contributor to the international cause of poverty alleviation, and worked with other countries to build a global community of shared future that is free from poverty and pursues common prosperity.
1. China as a Facilitator of the Global Cause of Poverty Alleviation
Over the past 100 years, China has contributed to global poverty alleviation under the leadership of the CPC through its own development - from winning the people's liberation to meeting their basic needs, from ensuring them a moderately prosperous life to building a moderately prosperous society in all respects. Since reform and opening up, more than 770 million of China's rural population living below the current poverty line have been raised from poverty, accounting for more than 70 percent of the global total over the same period according to the World Bank's international poverty standard. Against the backdrop of severe global poverty and a widening gap between the rich and the poor in some countries, China has won the battle against extreme poverty and achieved the poverty alleviation goal set on the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 10 years ahead of schedule. This has significantly reduced the world's poor population and made a significant contribution towards realizing a better and more prosperous world, as envisioned by the Agenda[ UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres extended congratulations to Chinese President Xi Jinping in February 2021 on the occasion of the announcement of China's success in the fight against extreme poverty. Noting this moment is a notable achievement and a significant contribution towards realizing a better and more prosperous world, as envisioned by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the secretary-general said, "This extraordinary result is a reason for hope and inspiration to the entire community of nations."]. As the largest developing country, China has achieved rapid development in step with large-scale poverty alleviation, and economic transformation in step with the elimination of extreme poverty. It has completed all poverty eradication targets and tasks on schedule, which, as a new chapter in the history of the fight against poverty, has greatly accelerated global poverty alleviation.
2. International Support and Assistance
In the early years after the founding of the PRC, China made great efforts to break an external blockade and carry out international exchanges and cooperation in order to win the support of the international community. Since reform and opening up, China has conducted extensive cooperation with the UN development system and the World Bank in the field of poverty alleviation, while accepting assistance from some developed countries and carrying out cooperation projects. It has received support in financial input, knowledge transfer, and technical assistance, and learned from the advanced concepts and methods of the international community in poverty alleviation. All this has provided support to its poverty alleviation effort. In cooperation with the United Nations Development Program, the World Bank and other international organizations, China has implemented foreign-funded poverty alleviation projects in some poverty-stricken counties, bringing in various forms of concessional loan and grant aid. These international poverty-alleviation exchange and cooperation projects have alleviated poverty, improved China's institutional innovation and management, and laid a foundation for sustainable development in the project areas. The Chinese people will always remember the valuable support and assistance received from the international community. The Chinese nation never forgets the help and generosity it receives, and always reciprocates with the same goodwill; China has always supported other countries in poverty alleviation and development to the full extent of its ability.
3. International Exchanges and Cooperation
To improve the wellbeing of all peoples, China has taken an active part in global poverty management, furthered exchanges and cooperation with other countries, and promoted a new model of international exchanges and cooperation on poverty alleviation, with mutual respect and mutually-beneficial cooperation at its core.

China has supported other developing countries in poverty alleviation. Immediately after the founding of the PRC, China began to provide assistance to other developing countries in support of their struggle for national independence and liberation and for economic and social development, despite the fact that China had to address its own difficulties with limited financial resources. Since reform and opening up, China's foreign aid approach has diversified, which has promoted the common development of China and other developing countries. Entering the new era, China has fulfilled its responsibilities as a major country and upgraded its foreign aid into international development cooperation, contributing its vision and approaches to the resolution of global development challenges and the implementation of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. President Xi Jinping has announced on many major international occasions that China's practical measures for international development cooperation have been implemented on schedule or are progressing in an orderly manner (Box 16).

China has launched the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) to expand deep and high-level regional cooperation on economic and social development, and to help eligible countries better achieve poverty alleviation. According to a World Bank study, the initiative will help 7.6 million people out of extreme poverty and 32 million out of moderate poverty in these countries. Over the past 70 years and more, China has provided assistance in various forms to over 160 countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Oceania, and Europe, and international organizations, reduced or exempted the debts of eligible countries, and helped developing countries in their efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals.

China has launched international poverty alleviation cooperation projects for the benefit of all. In Asia, China and ASEAN countries have jointly launched a rural poverty alleviation plan, and carried out the East Asia Poverty Reduction Demonstration Cooperation Technical Assistance Projects program in rural communities of Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar (Box 17). In Africa, China has helped African countries build water conservancy infrastructure, vocational and technical schools, government-subsidized housing, and other facilities, set up demonstration zones for agricultural cooperation, and carried out China-Africa cooperation projects involving a Chinese-invented technology using grass to grow mushrooms, China-Africa friendship hospitals, and the headquarters of the African Center for Disease Control and Prevention (Box 18). In the South Pacific region, China has promoted measures such as grant aid and concessional loans to Pacific island countries, and carried out technical cooperation assistance projects in infrastructure construction, agriculture, and medical care. In Latin America, China has built agricultural technology demonstration centers to help local people in recipient countries shake off poverty. China has also set up the International Research and Training Centre for Rural Education and other institutions in cooperation with UNESCO, and carried out projects on rural education transformation and teacher training for countries in Africa, Southeast Asia and other regions.

China has shared its experience on poverty reduction. It has carried out exchanges and cooperation in various forms, including building platforms, organizing training, and conducting think tank exchanges. Together with UN agencies in China, the Chinese government has convened sessions of the Global Poverty Reduction and Development Forum on the International Day for the Eradication of Poverty. China has initiated the China-ASEAN Forum on Social Development and Poverty Reduction, and the International Forum on Sharing Poverty Reduction Experience, and has hosted a series of discussion and exchange activities including the China-Africa Poverty Reduction and Development Conference, the International Seminar on Poverty Eradication and Responsibility of Political Parties, and the International Forum on Reform and Opening Up and Poverty Reduction in China. In cooperation with the ASEAN Secretariat and relevant ASEAN countries, China has launched the ASEAN Plus Three (China, Japan and the ROK) village official exchange program for grassroots village officials and community officials. China conducts international training on poverty reduction with relevant countries and regional organizations. Since 2012, it has held over 130 international training sessions, attended by officials from 116 countries and organizations.

The world today is experiencing a scale of change unseen in a century. The Covid-19 pandemic is still spreading around the world, and poverty, hunger and disease are undermining people's pursuit for a better life. The kind of world we should build and the future direction of human civilization, are issues that have a bearing on every country and every person. Everyone has the right to a decent life. All countries need to shoulder their responsibilities and work on poverty reduction, so that the sunshine of equity and justice can break through the haze of poverty and backwardness and illuminate a future of prosperity and development. China is ready to strengthen exchanges and cooperation with other countries on poverty reduction, support international poverty reduction, and make a greater contribution to building a global community of shared future that is free from poverty and blessed with common prosperity.
Conclusion
China has won the final battle against extreme poverty. By achieving the goals of the poverty elimination campaign as scheduled, the Chinese people have made solid strides towards a better life and common prosperity. Yet China remains the world's largest developing country, still confronted by the gap between unbalanced and inadequate development and the people's growing desire for a better life, and by the gaps between urban and rural areas and between regions. China still has much to do in order to realize people's all-round development and common prosperity for all.

Removing the label of extreme poverty is not the end, but the beginning of a new life and a new journey. The CPC will always remain committed to its founding mission, striving for the people's wellbeing and the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. It will always put the people before everything else, and continue to work for people's all-round development, and common prosperity and a better life for all.

There will be no national rejuvenation without a thriving countryside. Following the victory in the final battle against extreme poverty, China will continue to consolidate the results of poverty elimination, dovetail new measures with rural revitalization, and shift its focus in work related to agriculture, rural areas and rural people. In the new era, China will act on its new development philosophy and build on its new development paradigm. It will prioritize affairs related to agriculture, rural areas and rural people, and follow a socialist path with Chinese characteristics in revitalizing the countryside by introducing more vigorous measures and pooling more resources.

By 2035, China will have achieved basic socialist modernization. With decisive progress in rural revitalization by that time, agriculture and rural areas will be modernized and fundamentally restructured. Farmers will benefit from the quality employment which comes with better jobs, relative poverty will be further alleviated, and concrete progress will be made in achieving common prosperity for all. Rural areas will enjoy the same basic public services as urban areas, brought about by improved systems and mechanisms for urban-rural integration. Farmers will enjoy a better cultural environment in civil and neighborly communities, and benefit from improved rural governance. There will be a fundamental improvement in the eco-environment; the goal of building a beautiful, livable countryside will be basically realized.

By 2050, China will have become a great modern socialist country in every dimension, realizing the Second Centenary Goal and fully revitalizing the countryside. At that time, China will have a strong agriculture, a beautiful and revitalized countryside, and prosperous farmers, enjoying across-the-board progress in society and the economy, and thriving endeavors in every sector. At that time, the Chinese people will embrace a happier life in common prosperity, and the nation will continue to march towards higher goals of all-round development of the people and common prosperity for all.

China cannot develop in isolation from the rest of the world; and the world needs China for further development. With this in mind, China has always been a builder of global peace, a contributor to global growth, and a guardian of the international order. In the future, a more prosperous China will also be more open and inclusive; it will interact more constructively with the international community, and make a greater contribution to building a better world.
Adjustments of China's Poverty Standards
China has implemented large-scale planned and organized poverty alleviation programs. Standards for poverty alleviation were formulated according to its social and economic development and the basic living needs of its poor populations.

In 1986, China set its first poverty standard at RMB206, designed to provide adequate food and clothing for 125 million poor. In 2001, when formulating the Outline of Development-driven Poverty Alleviation in Rural Areas (2001-2010), the nation raised the standard to RMB865 for 94.23 million poor. In 2011, when formulating the Outline of Development-driven Poverty Alleviation in Rural Areas (2011-2020), China readjusted the standard to RMB2,300 (based on the 2010 price index) to help 122 million poor.

In the final stage of fighting extreme poverty, impoverished people in China were registered and deregistered by household. The criteria are personal incomes, and the household's situation with reference to the Two Assurances and Three Guarantees. The former requires that the annual average per capita income for a household remains steady above China's current poverty line. The latter refers to guarantees of adequate food and clothing, and access to compulsory education, basic medical services, and safe housing for impoverished rural residents.

China's standards for deregistering those who have emerged from poverty are comprehensive, including income, and the extent to which they are assured the rights to subsistence and development. These standards reflect the realities of China's social and economic development as well as the basic requirements for achieving moderate prosperity in all respects.

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Poverty Alleviation: China's Experience and Contribution

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BEIJING, April 6 (Xinhua) -- China's State Council Information Office on Tuesday issued a white paper titled "Poverty Alleviation: China's Experience and Contribution." Poverty Alleviation: China's Experience and Contribution The State Council Information Office of the People's Republic of China April 2021 First Edition 2021 ISBN 978-7-119-12645-6 © Foreign Languages Press Co.

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China's Targeted Poverty Alleviation Plan

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China's Targeted Poverty Alleviation Plan

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- Starting from 2013, China has been sending resident working teams to poor villages, and every household has a contact official in charge of poverty alleviation

-By 2020, there are 255,000 resident teams and more than 3 million officials dispatched to poor villages and towns

-Different strategies are applied based on people's location, and causes and levels of poverty. Examples of strategies: 1) Finding employment 2) Relocating 3) Providing education for school-age children

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By China's definition, poverty is as anyone in rural areas earning less than about $2.30 a day.