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First signs of weakening

While pinpointing the specific factors that led to the demise of the ancient Egyptian civilization is difficult, several early signs of weakening did emerge, leading to the eventual fall of ancient Egypt.

The first sign of weakening was a loss of military power and lackluster military development due to available natural resources. While other surrounding and growing empires were able to forge iron from resources available locally, Egypt lacked access to ore and other necessary metals. With stronger weapons, Egypt became vulnerable to more powerful competing armies.

Additionally, political conflicts led to the eventual split of the empire into northern and southern areas and a protracted civil war between the two regions. Together, these forces signaled the initial fragmentation of the Egyptian state as it was and opened the door for other growing empires to invade and take Egyptian territory.

© Andrei Nacu, Jeff Dahl - Extent of ancient Egyptian territories 15th century BC

Political context

Coupled with the lack of natural resources to support their military power, several key political events dramatically influenced the power balance in Egypt, eventually dividing the nation.

The first was the shifting role of the Pharaoh. Pharaoh Ramses III was murdered, leaving a power vacuum that allowed King Amenmesse to claim territory and secede from the empire, leaving Egypt divided into two states.

After a long civil war and several attempts to reunite Egypt, the empire remained split with a loose association between the governments of the two regions.

Economic context

Economic factors also contributed to the fall of ancient Egypt. Like many nations that end up losing power, economic disparity in ancient Egypt pushed everyday citizens to their limit.

Throughout the ancient Egyptian society, religion played a major role in nearly all aspects of Egyptian life. However, as economic disparity between the population and the religious elite grew, citizens grew more displeased. At one point religious leaders controlled 30% of Egypt's land, giving them a disproportionate share of the nation's income. Conflicts over wealth distribution led to questions about religion as well.

In addition to the distribution of wealth, military conflicts towards the end of the ancient Egyptian era were incredibly expensive. Funding massive military investments strained the government's capital and further weakened the state. Coupled with other issues, the lack of economic health made Egypt less able to handle other stresses, eventually leading to the fall of ancient Egypt.

Fragment of a Mining Papyrus

Wars at the end of the Egyptian empire

While the devastating civil war significantly influenced the health of the Egyptian state, other military conflicts further weakened the empire and eventually led to its total collapse. In approximately 671 BC the nearby Assyrians invaded Egypt and reigned until about 627 BC.

Egypt in the Assyrian Empire

After the decline of the Assyrian Empire, Egypt was invaded by Persia – a growing power in the region. Unfortunately, Egypt was unable to defend against the Persians and significant land was lost – Egypt came under Persian rule for nearly a century.

Egypt in the First Persian Empire

Climate change and famine

During this time period, the Egyptian climate contributed to the fall of ancient Egypt in other ways. The Nile river, which was the primary source of water for drinking and crop irrigation, was a temperamental river, known for flooding and periods of low water levels.

Over a span of approximately one hundred years, unseasonably cold and dry weather affected Egypt. Colder weather stressed typically warm weather crops and low rainfall caused water levels in the Nile to fall. Both factors together caused widespread hunger and hundreds of thousands of Egyptians died from dehydration and starvation.

While experts believe the low water in the Nile was the primary influence for the fall of ancient Egypt, during the later period of the empire's existence, a two- to three-decade period was marked by erratic flooding of the Nile, destroying crops and starving the people dependent upon them. While years of flood alternated, the inconsistent conditions made life extremely difficult for these ancient people and a significant number died as a result.

Aftermath and re-consolidation

At the end of this extended period of political and economic unrest and devastating climate issues, Egypt had lost most of its land and became a mere province within the Persian empire, hundreds of thousands of its people had died, and the public was increasingly dissatisfied with both their political and religious leaders.

Christianity began to spread through Egypt and with it the Greek alphabet – both transforming key features of the ancient culture that we know and recognize today. Adopting a new religion, where the old religion had been a major cultural force in the Egyptian empire, led to the end of practices such as mummification, that the ancient Egyptians were well known for.

Similarly, adoption of the Greek alphabet led to disuse of hieroglyphics, another key feature of Egypt we have with us today. These shifts signaled the true fall of ancient Egypt, although the forces that drove that decline had been operating for a considerable time period.

© Captain_Blood - Egypt During the Ptolemaic Period

Facts about the fall of ancient Egypt

The factors leading to the decline of ancient Egypt were largely uncontrollable.

A civil war coupled with invasions by the Assyrians weakened the Egyptian military allowing the Persian empire to successfully invade and take over Egypt.

Economic disparity led to unrest among the population, leading to dissatisfaction with both politics and religion.

Severe climatic shifts decimated crops and hundreds of thousands died in the famines that resulted from these changes.

Adoption of Christianity and the Greek alphabet led to the loss of key cultural features such as notable religious traditions and use of hieroglyphics.

The ancient Egyptian empire lasted approximately 3000 years before finally falling from power.

source: https://www.ancient-egypt-online.com/fall-of-ancient-egypt.html

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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of Ancient North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River, situated in the place that is now the country Egypt. Ancient Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3100 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes (often identified with Narmer). The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.

Source:https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt

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Few written records or artifacts have been found from the Predynastic Period, which encompassed at least 2,000 years of gradual development of the Egyptian civilization.

Did you know? During the rule of Akhenaton, his wife Nefertiti played an important political and religious role in the monotheistic cult of the sun god Aton. Images and sculptures of Nefertiti depict her famous beauty and role as a living goddess of fertility.

Neolithic (late Stone Age) communities in northeastern Africa exchanged hunting for agriculture and made early advances that paved the way for the later development of Egyptian arts and crafts, technology, politics and religion (including a great reverence for the dead and possibly a belief in life after death).

Around 3400 B.C., two separate kingdoms were established near the Fertile Crescent, an area home to some of the world’s oldest civilizations: the Red Land to the north, based in the Nile River Delta and extending along the Nile perhaps to Atfih; and the White Land in the south, stretching from Atfih to Gebel es-Silsila. A southern king, Scorpion, made the first attempts to conquer the northern kingdom around 3200 B.C. A century later, King Menes would subdue the north and unify the country, becoming the first king of the first dynasty.

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Archaic (Early Dynastic) Period (c. 3100-2686 B.C.)

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Archaic (Early Dynastic) Period (c. 3100-2686 B.C.)

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King Menes founded the capital of ancient Egypt at White Walls (later known as Memphis), in the north, near the apex of the Nile River delta. The capital would grow into a great metropolis that dominated Egyptian society during the Old Kingdom period. The Archaic Period saw the development of the foundations of Egyptian society, including the all-important ideology of kingship. To the ancient Egyptians, the king was a godlike being, closely identified with the all-powerful god Horus. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing also dates to this period.

In the Archaic Period, as in all other periods, most ancient Egyptians were farmers living in small villages, and agriculture (largely wheat and barley) formed the economic base of the Egyptian state. The annual flooding of the great Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization each year; farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and harvested it before the season of high temperatures and drought returned.

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Old Kingdom: Age of the Pyramid Builders (c. 2686-2181 B.C.)

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Old Kingdom: Age of the Pyramid Builders (c. 2686-2181 B.C.)

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The Old Kingdom began with the third dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2630 B.C., the third dynasty’s King Djoser asked Imhotep, an architect, priest and healer, to design a funerary monument for him; the result was the world’s first major stone building, the Step-Pyramid at Saqqara, near Memphis. Egyptian pyramid-building reached its zenith with the construction of the Great Pyramid at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Built for Khufu (or Cheops, in Greek), who ruled from 2589 to 2566 B.C., the pyramid was later named by classical historians as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus estimated that it took 100,00 men 20 years to build it. Two other pyramids were built at Giza for Khufu’s successo (2558-2532 B.C) and Menkaura (2532-2503 B.C.).

During the third and fourth dynasties, Egypt enjoyed a golden age of peace and prosperity. The pharaohs held absolute power and provided a stable central government; the kingdom faced no serious threats from abroad; and successful military campaigns in foreign countries like Nubia and Libya added to its considerable economic prosperity. Over the course of the fifth and sixth dynasties, the king’s wealth was steadily depleted, partially due to the huge expense of pyramid-building, and his absolute power faltered in the face of the growing influence of the nobility and the priesthood that grew up around the sun god Ra (Re). After the death of the sixth dynasty’s King Pepy II, who ruled for some 94 years, the Old Kingdom period ended in chaos.

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First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 B.C.)

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First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 B.C.)

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On the heels of the Old Kingdom’s collapse, the seventh and eighth dynasties consisted of a rapid succession of Memphis-based rulers until about 2160 B.C., when the central authority completely dissolved, leading to civil war between provincial governors. This chaotic situation was intensified by Bedouin invasions and accompanied by famine and disease.

From this era of conflict emerged two different kingdoms: A line of 17 rulers (dynasties nine and 10) based in Heracleopolis ruled Middle Egypt between Memphis and Thebes, while another family of rulers arose in Thebes to challenge Heracleopolitan power. Around 2055 B.C., the Theban prince Mentuhotep managed to topple Heracleopolis and reunited Egypt, beginning the 11th dynasty and ending the First Intermediate Period.

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Under Ahmose I, the first king of the 18th dynasty, Egypt was once again reunited. During the 18th dynasty, Egypt restored its control over Nubia and began military campaigns in Palestine, clashing with other powers in the area such as the Mitannians and the Hittites. The country went on to establish the world’s first great empire, stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River in Asia. In addition to powerful kings such as Amenhotep I (1546-1526 B.C.), Thutmose I (1525-1512 B.C.) and Amenhotep III (1417-1379 B.C.), the New Kingdom was notable for the role of royal women such as Queen Hatshepsut (1503-1482 B.C.), who began ruling as a regent for her young stepson (he later became Thutmose III, Egypt’s greatest military hero), but rose to wield all the powers of a pharaoh.

The controversial Amenhotep IV (c. 1379-1362), of the late 18th dynasty, undertook a religious revolution, disbanding the priesthoods dedicated to Amon-Re (a combination of the local Theban god Amon and the sun god Re) and forcing the exclusive worship of another sun-god, Aton. Renaming himself Akhenaton (“servant of the Aton”), he built a new capital in Middle Egypt called Akhetaton, known later as Amarna. Upon Akhenaton’s death, the capital returned to Thebes and Egyptians returned to worshiping a multitude of gods. The 19th and 20th dynasties, known as the Ramesside period (for the line of kings named Ramses) saw the restoration of the weakened Egyptian empire and an impressive amount of building, including great temples and cities. According to biblical chronology, the exodus of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt possibly occurred during the reign of Ramses II (1304-1237 B.C.).

All of the New Kingdom rulers (with the exception of Akhenaton) were laid to rest in deep, rock-cut tombs (not pyramids) in the Valley of the Kings, a burial site on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes. Most of them were raided and destroyed, with the exception of the tomb and treasure of Tutankhamen (c.1361-1352 B.C.), discovered largely intact in A.D. 1922. The splendid mortuary temple of the last great king of the 20th dynasty, Ramses III (c. 1187-1156 B.C.), was also relatively well preserved, and indicated the prosperity Egypt still enjoyed during his reign. The kings who followed Ramses III were less successful: Egypt lost its provinces in Palestine and Syria for good and suffered from foreign invasions (notably by the Libyans), while its wealth was being steadily but inevitably depleted.

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After the last ruler of the 11th dynasty, Mentuhotep IV, was assassinated, the throne passed to his vizier, or chief minister, who became King Amenemhet I, founder of dynasty 12. A new capital was established at It-towy, south of Memphis, while Thebes remained a great religious center. During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt once again flourished, as it had during the Old Kingdom. The 12th dynasty kings ensured the smooth succession of their line by making each successor co-regent, a custom that began with Amenemhet I.

Middle-Kingdom Egypt pursued an aggressive foreign policy, colonizing Nubia (with its rich supply of gold, ebony, ivory and other resources) and repelling the Bedouins who had infiltrated Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. The kingdom also built diplomatic and trade relations with Syria, Palestine and other countries; undertook building projects including military fortresses and mining quarries; and returned to pyramid-building in the tradition of the Old Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom reached its peak under Amenemhet III (1842-1797 B.C.); its decline began under Amenenhet IV (1798-1790 B.C.) and continued under his sister and regent, Queen Sobekneferu (1789-1786 B.C.), who was the first confirmed female ruler of Egypt and the last ruler of the 12th dynasty.

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Third Intermediate Period (c. 1085-664 B.C.)

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Third Intermediate Period (c. 1085-664 B.C.)

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The next 400 years–known as the Third Intermediate Period–saw important changes in Egyptian politics, society and culture. Centralized government under the 21st dynasty pharaohs gave way to the resurgence of local officials, while foreigners from Libya and Nubia grabbed power for themselves and left a lasting imprint on Egypt’s population. The 22nd dynasty began around 945 B.C. with King Sheshonq, a descendant of Libyans who had invaded Egypt during the late 20th dynasty and settled there. Many local rulers were virtually autonomous during this period and dynasties 23-24 are poorly documented.

In the eighth century B.C., Nubian pharaohs beginning with Shabako, ruler of the Nubian kingdom of Kush, established their own dynasty–the 25th–at Thebes. Under Kushite rule, Egypt clashed with the growing Assyrian empire. In 671 B.C., the Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon drove the Kushite king Taharka out of Memphis and destroyed the city; he then appointed his own rulers out of local governors and officials loyal to the Assyrians. One of them, Necho of Sais, ruled briefly as the first king of the 26th dynasty before being killed by the Kushite leader Tanuatamun, in a final, unsuccessful grab for power.

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From the Late Period to Alexander’s Conquest (c.664-332 B.C.)

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From the Late Period to Alexander’s Conquest (c.664-332 B.C.)

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Beginning with Necho’s son, Psammetichus, the Saite dynasty ruled a reunified Egypt for less than two centuries. In 525 B.C., Cambyses, king of Persia, defeated Psammetichus III, the last Saite king, at the Battle of Pelusium, and Egypt became part of the Persian Empire. Persian rulers such as Darius (522-485 B.C.) ruled the country largely under the same terms as native Egyptian kings: Darius supported Egypt’s religious cults and undertook the building and restoration of its temples. The tyrannical rule of Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) sparked increased uprisings under him and his successors. One of these rebellions triumphed in 404 B.C., beginning one last period of Egyptian independence under native rulers (dynasties 28-30).

In the mid-fourth century B.C., the Persians again attacked Egypt, reviving their empire under Ataxerxes III in 343 B.C. Barely a decade later, in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated the armies of the Persian Empire and conquered Egypt. After Alexander’s death, Egypt was ruled by a line of Macedonian kings, beginning with Alexander’s general Ptolemy and continuing with his descendants. The last ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt–the legendary Cleopatra VII–surrendered Egypt to the armies of Octavian (later Augustus) in 31 B.C. Six centuries of Roman rule followed, during which Christianity became the official religion of Rome and the Roman Empire’s provinces (including Egypt). The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs in the seventh century A.D. and the introduction of Islam would do away with the last outward aspects of ancient Egyptian culture and propel the country towards its modern incarnation.

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