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Support Social-Emotional Well-Being

When children practice social-emotional skills throughout their day, they learn to understand emotions and cope with everyday challenges. Use and share these research-based social-emotional learning (SEL) resources to empower children to thrive at school, at home, and everywhere in between.

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SEL Activities and Resources | Second Step

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Use and share these research-based SEL activities and resources to empower children to thrive at school, at home, and everywhere in between.

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Over 1.1 billion simulations delivered

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Founded in 2002 by Nobel Laureate Carl Wieman, the PhET Interactive Simulations project at the University of Colorado Boulder creates free interactive math and science simulations. PhET sims are based on extensive education research and engage students through an intuitive, game-like environment where students learn through exploration and discovery.

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Founded in 2002 by Nobel Laureate Carl Wieman, the PhET Interactive Simulations project at the University of Colorado Boulder creates free interactive math and science simulations. PhET sims are based on extensive education research and engage students through an intuitive, game-like environment where students learn through exploration and discovery.

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Interactive periodic table showing names, electrons, and oxidation states. Visualize trends, 3D orbitals, isotopes, and mix compounds. Fully descriptive writeups.

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Interactive STEM Simulations & Virtual Labs | Gizmos

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Unlock STEM potential with our 550+ virtual labs and interactive math and science simulations. Discover engaging activities and STEM lessons with Gizmos!

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Welcome to our Social Emotional Learning Activities page. Below you will find free resources - lessons, activities, and printables - in the following skill areas: Communication, Cooperation, Emotion Regulation, Empathy, Impulse Control, and Social Initiation.

These resources are age-appropriate for elementary and middle school students and are typically used in a classroom or a small group setting. And in most cases, if materials are required for the activity, they are items that you already have in your classroom or office.

As you will see below, many of the SEL activities and lesson plans include characters from our game-based, social emotional learning curriculum. And if you are using, or plan to use the online games, these activities will reinforce the learning that occurs during gameplay.

Note: You may reproduce or reuse these lessons with students via other platforms like Google Classroom as needed, and if appropriate, please share this page on your school website so other educators may also benefit. We add new lessons on a regular basis, so make sure to check back frequently.

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75 Free Social Emotional Learning Activities

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Welcome to our Social Emotional Learning Activities page. Below you will find free resources - lessons, activities, and printables - in the following skill areas: Communication, Cooperation, Emotion Regulation, Empathy, Impulse Control, and Social Initiation. These resources are age-appropriate for elementary and middle school students and are typically used in a classroom or a small group setting.

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The science of chemistry is the study of matter and the chemical changes that matter undergoes. Research in chemistry not only answers basic questions about nature but also affects people's lives. Chemistry has been used, for example, to make stronger metals, to enrich soil for growing crops, to destroy harmful bacteria, and to measure levels of pollution in the environment. It has also made possible the development of such new substances as plastics, fibers, and new medicines.

Knowledge of chemistry is important in such fields as biology, medicine, agriculture, archaeology, and geology. Chemists themselves are employed by educational and research institutions, government, and industry.

The function of the chemical industry is to create new chemicals and to supply the products of chemical research to the world. Using chemical reactions, the industry converts raw materials such as water, salt, metals and minerals, petroleum, coal, natural gas, plant cellulose and starch, and atmospheric gases into other products. Some of these products are used by manufacturers. They include the chemicals needed to make metal and paper products; wallboard, pipe, insulation, and other construction materials; polymers for plastic toys, bottles, films, paints, and other items; and fibers for carpets and fabrics. Other chemical products that are used by consumers more directly include medicines, dyes, paints, fertilizers, shampoos, detergents and waxes, perfumes, cosmetics, and flavorings.

The work of chemistry is generally described as analysis and synthesis. Chemists analyze substances by taking them apart to find out what they are made of. Chemists synthesize substances by putting them together in different, possibly more useful combinations. Assisted by specialized instruments and computers, chemists study materials as small as single atoms and as large and complex as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which contains millions of atoms. ( See also chemical analysis.)

The chemist wants to understand how the universe is put together and how the substances in it can be changed to the advantage of humans. Chemists and physicists have made great advances in these efforts. They have discovered that all things in the universe can be classified as matter or energy and that matter and energy can be converted from one to the other.

Matter itself can be classified according to its physical state: solid, liquid, gas, or plasma. A study of the physical states has led to the conclusion that their characteristics can be explained by assuming that matter consists of particles in motion. This moving-particle theory, called the kinetic-molecular theory of matter, explains many common phenomena such as the evaporation of liquids and the diffusion of gases. Matter can also be grouped according to the nature of its composition: element, compound, or mixture. ( See also heat; physical chemistry.)

The study of matter has helped chemists discover that the whole universe is made up of chemical building blocks called elements. More than 90 elements are known to exist in nature, and scientists have made about 20 additional elements artificially. The science of chemistry involves a study of these elements and of the compounds that are formed when different elements combine.

Chemists also now know that elements are made of atoms. Some early Greek philosophers had suggested that matter was made of atoms, but not until the beginning of the 19th century did physicists and chemists begin to collect the evidence needed to prove the theory and to understand the nature of atoms.

The atomic theory can be summarized as follows: (1) Ordinary matter is made of small particles called atoms. (2) Atoms of the same elements have the same average masses, and atoms of different elements have different average masses. (3) Chemical reactions take place between atoms or groups of atoms. ( See also atomic particles; nuclear energy.)

When gasoline is burned, bread is eaten, or plastics are produced from petroleum, chemical changes occur. When a substance undergoes a chemical change, mass is conserved-that is, the amount of mass in the substance is the same before and after the chemical change takes place. The atoms keep their original identity and their number stays the same, but they are rearranged into new combinations. However, the chemical properties of the starting materials vanish, and the properties of the new materials appear. The process by which substances are changed into other substances is called a chemical reaction.

In addition to chemical change, matter can also undergo two other kinds of changes-physical and nuclear. The boiling of water, the melting of ice, and the dissolving of table sugar in tea are all examples of physical changes. In all these reactions the chemical composition of the substances involved remains the same. As with chemical changes, mass is conserved when matter undergoes a physical change. The only change is in physical form. ( See also conservation of mass.)

The phenomenon of radioactivity, the fission of uranium-235, and the fusion of hydrogen atoms (to form helium atoms), with the resultant release of atomic energy, are examples of nuclear changes. In each case the atomic nucleus changes and one kind of atom is transformed into another. One element may be changed, or transmuted, into one or more other elements, and mass is conserved. ( See also nuclear energy.)

A sample of a pure element contains atoms that are chemically the same, but different from those of all other elements. Pure copper contains only copper atoms, pure oxygen only oxygen atoms. The tendency of atoms of different elements to combine makes possible a great variety and number of compounds. A compound is made up of two or more elements that have undergone a chemical change. Water, sugar, baking soda, and salt are examples of familiar compounds.

Compounds are formed by a process called a chemical reaction. Elements combine, or react, to form compounds that have physical and chemical properties different from those of the original elements. For example, when atoms of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are combined at room temperature, they undergo a chemical reaction and form water. Water is a compound that is liquid at room temperature and is unlike either hydrogen or oxygen. Methane gas, made from carbon and hydrogen, and table sugar, made from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are other examples of compounds.

A compound has a definite composition-its constituent elements always occur in the same proportion, or formula. Water, for example, always contains two hydrogen atoms for every oxygen atom. The number of known compounds, both natural and artificial, is in the millions. Countless others remain to be discovered or synthesized in the laboratory.

Substances such as milk, paint, ink, air, and muddy water are mixtures, as are rocks and metal alloys. The atoms and other particles in a mixture are intermingled, but they have not combined with each other and undergone chemical changes. Unlike compounds, mixtures do not have definite composition; this is why their composition cannot be described by a fixed formula. ( See also colloid; solution.)

Mixtures can usually be separated by physical methods, such as chromatography, evaporation, distillation, or filtration. The choice of method depends largely on the nature of the mixture and the type of substances it contains.

Chromatography
Chromatography consists of a collection of methods that can be used to separate the substances dissolved in a liquid or gas mixture. The process has two main parts, or phases-a stationary phase and a moving, or mobile, phase. The stationary phase is usually a liquid or solid medium; the mobile phase is generally a liquid or gas solvent. The mixture being analyzed is applied to the medium (stationary phase), which is then placed in contact with the solvent (mobile phase). The solvent moves through the medium by capillary action, carrying the mixture substances with it. The individual substances in the mixture move at different rates based on certain properties-such as molecular size. Each substance in the mixture separates out from the moving solvent and adsorbs to the medium at a different point, enabling identification.

The different methods of chromatography include gas chromatography, thin-layer chromatography, and paper chromatography. Paper chromatography is especially useful for separating pigmented mixtures, such as inks and plant material, and identifying their components by color. A small amount of the study mixture is applied near the edge of a special filter paper. The paper is hung over a container of a solvent such as water or alcohol, so that the edge of the paper is in contact with the solvent. The solvent travels up the paper, carrying the mixture with it. Different pigments in the mixture separate out and adhere to the paper at different points, allowing their identification by color. ( See also chemical analysis.)

Evaporation
Evaporation is used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid mixture. In the lab, an open container of the mixture is heated. As the temperature of the mixture rises, the liquid part evaporates, or vaporizes, into the air. The solid part of the mixture is left behind in the container, where it can be collected and analyzed. Evaporation can also occur without heat: if a container of a liquid mixture is left open, the liquid portion will gradually evaporate into the air, leaving the solid component behind. This is the basis of the method used commercially to harvest sea salt from seawater.

Distillation
Distillation is used to separate the liquid from a solution. The liquid is heated to its boiling point, converting it to a vapor, or gas state, which is then cooled and condensed back to its liquid form in a separate apparatus. Distillation methods include simple distillation and fractional distillation.

Simple distillation is used to separate one liquid from a solution. The solution is heated to its boiling point so that the liquid evaporates. The rising vapor is captured in a separate apparatus, where it is cooled and condensed into a liquid state again. The solid material that was in the solution is left behind. Simple distillation can be used to separate and collect the water in a saltwater solution; the water evaporates, and the vapor is cooled and condensed to form liquid water in a separate container, leaving the salt behind.

Fractional distillation is similar to simple distillation but entails more steps. It is used to separate two or more liquids that have different boiling points. The solution is raised first to the lowest of the boiling points, allowing the liquid to vaporize and then condense separately into liquid form. The remaining solution is then heated to the next highest boiling point, allowing vaporization and condensation to take place. Fractional distillation would be used, for example, to separate a solution containing ethanol and water. The solution would first be heated to 173 °F (78 °C), the boiling point of ethanol. The ethanol would vaporize, and its vapor would be cooled and condensed back to liquid ethanol in a separate container. The remaining solution would then be heated to 212 °F (100 °C), the boiling point of water. The water vapor would then be cooled and condensed back to its liquid form. Any other liquids, as well as any solid material, would be left behind.

Filtration
Filtration is a useful method for separating an insoluble solid from a liquid mixture, such as a mixture of sand, pebbles, and water. The mixture is poured through a filtering device such as a sieve or a funnel lined with filter paper. The liquid portion of the mixture passes through the filter paper; even a simple coffee filter can be used. The solid sand and pebbles will not pass through the paper, however, and will be "trapped" and retained in the filter.

Elements vary from those that are highly active to those that are almost completely inert. The tendency of an atom to combine is a chemical property of the atom, and it is controlled by electrical forces at the atomic level. Those forces forge the links, called chemical bonds, that hold two or more atoms together. The groups of atoms formed by chemical bonding are known as molecules. Molecules are the smallest units of a compound that can exist while still keeping the substance's composition and chemical properties. ( See also inorganic chemistry; organic chemistry.)

To make elements and compounds easier to describe in written form, chemists commonly indicate each element with an abbreviation called a chemical symbol. This is usually the initial or the first two letters of the common name or the Latin name of the element. Chemists use such shorthand to represent not only the name of an element but also one atom of that element. The symbols for single atoms of hydrogen, carbon, and iron, for example, are H, C, and Fe. ( See also periodic table.)

Atoms of one element can combine with each other to form molecules. For example, atoms of oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and chlorine (Cl) tend to react with their own kind to form two-atom molecules. These molecules are represented by the abbreviations O ₂, H ₂, N ₂, and Cl ₂, respectively. The subscript 2 shows that two atoms of the element make up one molecule of the element. Oxygen also can form a three-atom molecule called ozone that has the abbreviation O ₃. Abbreviations of molecules written in this way are known as chemical formulas. They show both the kinds of atoms and the number of each kind in the molecule.

Six gaseous elements-helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon-were thought to be completely inactive chemically when they were first discovered and so were named inert gases. All are present in the air as single, uncombined atoms; thus in their gaseous forms their symbols (for example, He for helium) are written without subscripts. Since the early 1960s chemists have found that under proper conditions at least some of them can be made to form compounds. Today the preferred name of this family of elements is noble gases.

Chemical formulas are also used to represent compounds and their molecular compositions. One atom each of hydrogen and chlorine react to form the compound hydrogen chloride ( see hydrochloric acid). The chemical formula for hydrogen chloride is HCl. Hydrogen atoms combined with carbon atoms in a proportion of four to one form the flammable gas methane, which is represented as CH ₄. One atom of chlorine combines with three atoms of aluminum (Al) to form aluminum chloride (AlCl ₃), which in a hydrated form (combined with molecules of water) is used in antiperspirants.

Even in the form of molecules, atoms of elements may still react with other elements. Oxygen molecules in the air (O ₂) undergo a complex reaction with atoms of iron (Fe) when the iron is exposed to moist air. They combine with the iron to form rust, which is a chemical compound called ferric oxide (Fe ₂O ₃). In the same way, molecules of compounds can react with elements and with other compounds. A water molecule and an ammonia molecule (NH ₃), for example, can combine into a new molecule called ammonium hydroxide (NH ₄ OH).

In reading chemical formulas, it is important to keep in mind what they do not show. Formulas usually say little about the chemical bonding of the atoms. In addition, they are necessarily written "flat" on paper or a chalkboard, although molecules actually exist in three dimensions in space. For example, the formula for methane, CH ₄, does not show that all four hydrogen atoms are attached only to the carbon atom, or that the hydrogen atoms are arrayed in space around the carbon atom at equal distances and angles. Thus the molecule resembles a tetrahedron, or four-sided pyramid (including the base), with the carbon atom at the center and the hydrogen atoms at the corners. In solving chemical problems-such as designing a new plastic, for example-chemists often must consider the geometric structures of the molecules that will react and the molecules that will be produced. ( See also polymer.)

To express the reactions that form and break down molecules, chemists write chemical equations. These are shorthand versions of ordinary word description, and they make use of symbols and formulas for elements and compounds. For example:

Word description: Two molecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen to form two molecules of water.

Chemical equation: 2H ₂ + O ₂ → 2H ₂ O

Word description: Two molecules of ammonia react with each other to form one molecule of nitrogen and three molecules of hydrogen.

Chemical equation: 2NH ₃ → N ₂  + 3H ₂

In chemical equations, the substances on the left side of the arrow-those undergoing the chemical change-are called reactants. The substances on the right side-the result of the reaction-are called products. The arrow can be read as "give," "form," or "yield."

Modern chemistry is only about two centuries old. The earlier history of chemistry may be divided into three periods: magic; alchemy; and "primitive modern," a period of transition between alchemy and truly modern chemistry.

The Period of Magic
The period of magic extended from prehistoric times to about the beginning of the 1st century ad. Most people believed that natural processes were controlled by spirits, and they relied on magic to persuade the spirits to help while they conducted practical operations. Very little progress was made toward understanding how the universe is made, but much practical knowledge was gathered. Perhaps 9,000 years ago, people devised reliable techniques for making and sustaining fire. Gradually they learned to use fire to harden pottery, extract metals from ores, make alloys, and develop materials such as glass. Certain elements that occur naturally in a pure state, such as gold, copper, and sulfur, were recognized and valued for their properties. This was the period of the Sumerian, Babylonian, Egyptian, and Greek cultures.

About 400 bc the Greek philosopher Democritus theorized that all matter was made up of tiny, indivisible units he called atoms, but his idea was not based on scientific evidence. Other Greek philosophers, including Thales and Aristotle, also speculated on the nature of matter, though their theories, too, had little in common with modern chemical knowledge. They believed that earth, air, fire, and water (some imagined a fifth substance called "quintessence") were the basic elements of all matter. They speculated on the possibility of removing such qualities as hardness, heat or cold, and color from common materials and combining them to make rarer or more valuable substances. They knew that iron could be drawn from a dirty, brown earthen rock and that bronze was made by combining copper and tin. Therefore it seemed possible that if yellowness, hardness, and other qualities could be properly combined, the product would be gold. Such speculations gave rise to alchemy.

The Sterile Period of Alchemy
The span of time from about the beginning of the 1st century ad to about the 17th century is considered the period of alchemy. The alchemists believed that metals could be converted into gold with the aid of a marvelous mineral called the philosopher's stone, which they never succeeded in finding or making. They did discover new elements, and they invented basic laboratory equipment and techniques that are still used by chemists. However, the alchemists learned very little that was worthwhile concerning the fundamental nature of matter or of chemical behavior. They failed because their basic theories had almost nothing to do with what actually happens in chemical reactions.

In the 13th century such men as Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, and Raymond Lully began to realize how futile it was to search for the philosopher's stone. They suggested that alchemists might rather seek to help the world with useful new products and methods.

In the 16th century, another important leader in the new trend was Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, an aggressive, talented Swiss who used the Latin name Paracelsus. He insisted that the object of alchemy should be the cure of the sick. The elements, he said, were salt, sulfur, and mercury (long connected with the "elixir of life," another nonexistent alchemical substance), and they would give health if present in the body in the proper proportions. On this basis he practiced medicine and attracted many followers. Thus began iatrochemistry, or chemistry applied to the study of medicine and the treatment of disease.

One of the first scientific chemists was Robert Boyle. In 1660 he helped found one of the first scientific organizations in Europe, the Royal Society of London. In a book called The Sceptical Chymist (1661) he rejected previous theories of the composition of matter and compiled the first list of the elements that are recognized today. He also discovered the relationship between the volume and the pressure of a gas.

The Beginnings of Modern Chemistry
For about two centuries after Boyle, scientists continued to make useful discoveries but made little progress in understanding the true nature of matter or chemical behavior. Perhaps the greatest source of confusion and defeat in these centuries was a theory of burning (combustion) called the phlogiston theory. It was originated by the German chemists Johann Joachim Becher and Georg Ernst Stahl in the late 1600s. According to this theory, phlogiston, an "essence" like yellowness or hardness in the theories of the ancient philosophers, escaped from substances during the burning process. By this time, chemists were learning to gain knowledge the modern way: by testing theories with experiments ( see science). But such tests failed to confirm the existence of phlogiston.

The first clue to a more useful theory came when an English chemist, Joseph Priestley, discovered in 1774 that a gas (now known as oxygen) was essential to the burning process. (Oxygen was also discovered by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele at about the same time.) A few years earlier another English scientist, Henry Cavendish, had identified hydrogen as an element. The French chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier used the discoveries of Priestley and Cavendish in a series of experiments from which he formulated the presently accepted theory of combustion. He also showed that burning, the rusting of metals, and the breathing of animals are all processes in which oxygen combines chemically with other substances. Lavoisier's most significant finding was that the products of a chemical reaction have the same total mass as the reactants, no matter how much the substances are changed. This means that, even when chemical changes take place, something essential stays the same. These contributions are often considered to mark the beginning of modern chemistry.

Dalton's Theory of Atoms
Lavoisier's results gave chemists their first sound understanding concerning the nature of chemical reactions. The next milestone was the atomic theory, advanced in 1805 by an English schoolteacher, John Dalton. This theory states that matter is made up of small particles called atoms, that each chemical element has its own kind of atoms (in contrast to earlier ideas that atoms are essentially alike), and that chemical changes take place between atoms or groups of atoms. To support his theory Dalton set about calculating the relative weights of the atoms of several elements. The Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius greatly expanded this work in a long series of experiments in which he found accurate atomic weights for about 40 elements. He also found chemical formulas for most of the inorganic compounds known at that time.

Equipped at last with sound views about the nature of matter and of chemical reactions, chemistry made rapid advances. About 1811 came the hypothesis of Amedeo Avogadro, an Italian chemist, about the number of molecules in a given volume of gas. To Dalton's theory that the atoms of a single element all have the same weight, Avogadro added the following notions: that equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules, and that some of the gaseous elements are found in two-atom molecules rather than as independent atoms. These theories explained why only half a volume of oxygen was needed to combine with a volume of carbon monoxide (CO) to form carbon dioxide (CO ₂). Oxygen gas is made of two-atom molecules, and one oxygen molecule reacts with two molecules of carbon monoxide: O ₂ + 2CO→2CO ₂.

The Rise of Organic Chemistry
The vast new field of organic chemistry was opened in 1828 with Friedrich Wöhler's synthesis of urea, a compound present in certain body fluids of mammals, from inorganic materials in his laboratory. This disproved the assumption that such compounds could be formed only through the operation of a "life force" present in animals and plants. About this time chemists also began to realize that a molecule's geometric structure had a great effect on its chemical and biological properties. This applied especially to the structure of organic compounds, in which carbon atoms provide the basic framework. Chemists found, for example, that two organic compounds can have the same kinds and numbers of atoms but different properties because their molecules are put together differently. Such compounds are called isomers. The French chemist Louis Pasteur opened the way for the study of carbon's special three-dimensional bonding geometry in his investigation of the isomers of tartaric acid, an organic compound found in grapes.

The German chemist Friedrich Kekulé showed in 1858 that carbon atoms can combine with four other atoms and link with each other to form long chains. He also proposed the cyclic (ring) structure of benzene about this time. Another important field, electrochemistry, was born in the 1830s when Michael Faraday formulated its laws.

More New Fields of Investigation
By the middle of the 19th century, about 60 elements were known. A few chemists had noticed that certain elements were much alike in their properties and saw a pattern emerge when elements were arranged according to atomic weight. The work of these men enabled the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, in 1869, to publish the first periodic table. Mendeleev predicted correctly that the gaps left in his table would be filled by as yet undiscovered elements with properties that he also predicted. This table became the foundation of theoretical chemistry.

To this period belongs Robert Bunsen, whose most important contribution to chemistry was the organization of the field of spectroscopy, based on observations that each element when heated emits light having a characteristic color, or wavelength. To aid his research, he invented many instruments, including the spectroscope and the Bunsen burner.

In the second half of the 19th century, Pasteur, who had done his research on isomers as a young man, became interested in how yeast and bacteria are involved in chemical reactions and in causing illness. He invented the process of pasteurization to prevent foods and beverages from spoiling, and he proved that microorganisms are responsible for the chemical changes called fermentation in beer and wine and for several diseases of humans and other animals. He was also the first to use vaccines against anthrax, chicken cholera, and rabies. His achievements helped lay the groundwork for both biochemistry and microbiology.

The Development of Physical Chemistry
The area where physics and chemistry overlap, which had been explored by Avogadro in his investigations of gas volumes, became prominent in the last quarter of the 19th century. Wilhelm Ostwald and Jacobus van't Hoff used physical principles to describe the energy changes accompanying reactions in solution that go on simultaneously in opposite directions (reactants to products and products to reactants). Svante August Arrhenius proposed the idea that compounds such as acids and bases form ions (electrically charged particles) when they dissolve in water, and that these ions allow the solutions to conduct electricity.

The American chemist Willard Gibbs developed the "phase rule," a mathematical formula showing how temperature and pressure affect the capacity of substances to exist in equilibrium in as many as three different states of matter, or phases (solid, liquid, and gas). Accurate atomic weight determinations were the work of Theodore Richards. Between 1894 and 1898, the efforts of the chemist William Ramsay and the physicist Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt) resulted in the isolation of helium on Earth (the element previously had been detected in the sun) and the discovery of the other noble gases.

After 1900, chemists began receiving invaluable aid from discoveries made in physics about the electrical nature of the atom. Henry Moseley, working with X-rays emitted from atoms of the different elements, reorganized the elements using atomic number-a quantity equal to the positive charge of the atomic nucleus-rather than atomic weight. Max von Laue and Sir William Bragg and his son Lawrence Bragg laid the basis for determining the atomic structure of substances in crystal form by means of X-rays. Francis W. Aston developed the mass spectrograph, a device that separates atoms or molecular fragments of different mass, and used it to discover isotopes of many elements. Later Harold C. Urey isolated deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen with one neutron. Deuterium has become important as a chemical tracer, in thermonuclear weapons, and in fusion power research. ( See also nuclear energy; radioactivity.)

Nuclear Chemistry and Atomic Structure
In 1896 Henri Becquerel with Marie Curie and Pierre Curie discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity. Thus, other scientists were shown that atoms were not permanent and changeless, and the basis was laid for nuclear chemistry and nuclear physics. Having found that atoms sometimes transmuted into other elements on their own, scientists attempted to do the same in the laboratory. In 1919 Ernest Rutherford became the first to succeed, using natural radioactivity to transmute nitrogen atoms into atoms of oxygen and hydrogen. In 1934 Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie made radioactive isotopes of elements that were not normally radioactive. Five years later Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, and Lise Meitner discovered that the uranium nucleus could be made to fission, or split into the nuclei of lighter elements, by bombarding it with uncharged particles called neutrons.

By the early 1940s nuclear reactions had been used to make radioactive isotopes of all elements; Glenn Seaborg contributed much to this work. In the 1940s and '50s Seaborg and his co-workers also made several elements not known to exist in nature. The new elements had atomic numbers greater than 92, the atomic number of uranium. By the early 21st century nuclear scientists were adding new elements to the periodic tale with atomic numbers higher than 110.

Rutherford's discovery in 1911 that the atom has a tiny massive nucleus at its center allowed chemists and physicists such as Gilbert Lewis, Irving Langmuir, and Niels Bohr over the next 20 years to explain chemical bonding and atomic structure in terms of the behavior of electrons orbiting the nucleus. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Linus Pauling contributed much to knowledge of the nature of the chemical bond and of the relationship between the structure of atoms and molecules and their properties.

New Synthetic Materials
Some of the most notable achievements in modern chemistry have come from efforts to create whole new classes of materials. Early plastics such as celluloid, invented in the late 1860s, relied on large molecules found in natural substances. In 1909, however, the Belgian-born inventor Leo H. Baekeland took out a United States patent for a hard, chemically resistant, electrically nonconductive plastic that he called Bakelite. Made from the chemical combination of synthetic compounds called formaldehydes and phenols, Bakelite proved to be exceptionally useful as an electrical insulator and as a structural material for such consumer goods as radio cabinets, telephone housings, and even jewelry.

The commercial success of Bakelite sparked great interest and investment in the plastics industry, in the study of coal-tar products and other organic compounds, and in the theoretical understanding of complex molecules. These research activities led not only to new dyes, drugs, and detergents but also to the successful manipulation of molecules to produce dozens of materials with particular qualities such as hardness, flexibility, or transparency.

Techniques were developed, often requiring catalysts and elaborate equipment, to make these polymers-that is, complex molecules built up from simpler structures. From the field of polymer chemistry, the synthetic rubber and synthetic fiber industries have grown. Synthetic fibers are used in fabrics, carpets, rope, and brush bristles and for producing synthetic rubber. ( See also coal-tar product; man-made fiber; plastics; natural and synthetic rubber.)

Another dramatic result of the growth in chemical knowledge has been the expansion of the modern pharmaceutical industry. Notable early achievements include the development of the synthetic drugs acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) in 1897, Salvarsan (for treating the bacterial disease syphilis) in 1910, and Prontosil (the first sulfa drug for treating bacterial infections) in 1932, as well as the discovery of the antibiotic penicillin (produced naturally by a mold) in 1928.

Since the late 20th century the rapid growth in the understanding of chemical processes in general, and of organic and biochemical reactions in particular, has revolutionized the treatment of disease. Most drugs available today do not occur naturally but are made in the laboratory from elements and inorganic and organic compounds. Others are derived from animals, plants, microorganisms, and minerals, by pharmaceutical researchers who often use chemical reactions to modify molecular structures in order to make drugs that are more effective and have fewer harmful side effects.

The Merging of Chemistry and Other Disciplines
© Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Technological advances in chemistry, physics, and biology in the past few decades have resulted in the breakdown of distinctions between these formerly separate disciplines. Biochemists and biophysicists, for example, have made great advances in understanding photosynthesis, the chemical process by which plants use the energy in sunlight to make food, and in unraveling the role of the complex molecules DNA and RNA in heredity and the synthesis of proteins. Biochemists and molecular biologists have also learned how to transfer DNA from one kind of organism into another kind and modify the code that it carries for guiding the synthesis of proteins. Microorganisms, plants, and animals that have been given segments of human DNA are employed as living "drug factories" to make large quantities of valuable human proteins such as insulin. Researchers are also investigating how to insert DNA molecules into human cells or to chemically modify the DNA present in order to cure diseases in people who have missing or defective DNA.

atom. The smallest part of an element that retains the element's properties. An atom cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means.

chemical bond. Any of the forces involving electrons that hold atoms together in molecules, crystals, and other stable forms of matter.

compound. A substance containing two or more kinds of atoms in chemical combination. The atoms in a compound can be separated by chemical means.

Debye-Hückel equation. A mathematical expression derived to elucidate certain properties of solutions of electrolytes, that is, substances present in the solutions in the form of charged particles (ions). Such solutions often behave as if the number of dissolved particles were greater or less than the number actually present; the Debye-Hückel equation takes into account the interactions between the various ions, which are the principal cause of the discrepancies between the properties of dilute solutions of electrolytes and those of so-called ideal solutions.

element. A substance composed entirely of atoms of one kind. It cannot be broken down chemically.

Henry's law. A statement that the weight of a gas dissolved by a liquid is proportional to the pressure of the gas upon the liquid. The law, which was first formulated in 1803 by the English physician and chemist William Henry, holds only for dilute solutions and low gas pressures.

mass. The quantity of matter in an object or body.

matter. Anything that has mass and takes up space.

mixture. A substance composed of two or more elements or compounds, each of which retains its individual properties.

molecule. The smallest part of a compound that retains that compound's properties. Also, two or more atoms of the same element that are chemically combined. The atoms in a molecule can be separated by chemical means.

physical change. A change in form (solid, liquid, gas, or plasma) but not in chemical composition.

properties. The characteristics of a substance. The physical properties (mass, melting point, hardness, etc.) can be measured and expressed in numbers. The chemical properties (valence, ionization, etc.) determine how a substance reacts chemically.

reaction (or chemical change). A change in the chemical composition of a substance.

The broad divisions such as inorganic, organic, physical, and analytical chemistry emerged early in the history of the subject. Fields such as polymer and environmental chemistry developed during the 20th century, and new ones continue to appear. Major fields of specialization include those below.

analytical chemistry. A field concerned with determining the identity (kind) and quantity of each element or compound present in a sample. Qualitative analysis is concerned with identifying the kinds of elements or compounds in a sample. Quantitative analysis indicates the amounts of the elements present. The tools and techniques of analytical chemistry include the spectroscope, the mass spectograph, X-ray bombardment, ultraviolet fluorescence, and radioisotopes.

biochemistry. The study of the chemical composition of living matter and of the chemical processes that occur in living organisms. This field is particularly important in agriculture, biology, bacteriology, pharmacology, medicine, and dentistry.

chemical engineering. A combination of chemistry and engineering that develops or improves industrial processes for making commercial amounts of desirable chemicals that have been produced only in small quantities or in the laboratory.

colloid chemistry. The study of the behavior of particles of matter that are larger than ordinary molecules but much too small to be seen with the unaided eye. Particles in this size range have many unique properties. Colloid chemistry is concerned with substances such as rubber, plastics, fabrics, viruses, chromosomes, and gases. Tools used in this field include the ultracentrifuge, the ultramicroscope, and the electron microscope.

electrochemistry. The study of chemical reactions that are produced by or that produce an electric current. Also studied are the electrical conductivity of solutions and the phenomena that occur at electrodes. Electrochemistry provides methods for chemical analysis and the production of chemicals by electrical means.

environmental chemistry. The study of the natural chemical processes that occur in Earth's water, soil, and atmosphere; their relationship to living things; and the ways human beings can affect them. Chemists in this field often apply their knowledge to monitoring and controlling the effects of human activities that may harm the environment.

femtochemistry. Egyptian-born chemist Ahmed H. Zewail developed a rapid laser technique that enabled scientists to study the action of atoms during chemical reactions. The breakthrough created a new field of physical chemistry.

green chemistry. Also called sustainable chemistry, the emerging field of green chemistry seeks to prevent or reduce pollution through the design of chemical products and processes that minimize the use of hazardous substances.

inorganic chemistry. The study of compounds that (with a few exceptions) do not contain carbon and the elements from which they are formed.

nuclear chemistry. The study of radioactivity, the atomic nucleus, and nuclear reactions, and the development of applications for radioactive isotopes in medicine and industry.

organic chemistry. The study of carbon and its compounds. Carbon compounds account for the great majority of all known compounds. Among compounds studied by organic chemists are those found in plant and animal tissues, petroleum, carbohydrates, proteins, plastics, and rubber.

physical chemistry. The application of physical methods to the study of chemical problems. Included in this field are atomic and molecular structure; theory of reaction rates; mechanism of reactions; chemical equilibriums; energy changes in reactions; theories of solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, and solutions; electrochemistry; and radioactivity.

polymer chemistry. The study of very large molecules, called macromolecules, that are formed by linking many simpler chemical units into chains and networks. Polymer chemists are interested in both natural and synthetic materials formed of macromolecules, which include proteins, cellulose, and nucleic acids; mineral crystals such as glass, plastics, and rubbers.

stereochemistry. The study of the three-dimensional arrangements of atoms within molecules and how the physical and chemical properties of substances are affected by differences in those arrangements. Two important concepts are chirality and stereoisomerism. A molecule is chiral if it cannot be superimposed on its mirror image; such a molecule has left- and right-handed forms like a pair of gloves. Stereoisomers are molecules with the same atom-to-atom bonding but different arrangements in space.

Alfred B. Garrett

Eds.

Breed, Allen, and others. Through the Molecular Maze (Bioventure Associates, 1992).Evernden, Margery. The Experimenters: Twelve Great Chemists (Avisson, 2001).Faraday, Michael. Experimental Researches in Chemistry and Physics (Taylor and Francis, 1991).Feigl, Dorothy, and others. Foundations of Life, 3rd ed. (Macmillan, 1991).Gardner, Robert. Science Project Ideas About Kitchen Chemistry, rev. ed. (Enslow, 2002).Hill, J.W., and others. Chemistry and Life: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, 6th ed. (Prentice, 2000).Keinan, Ehud, and Schechter, Israel. Chemistry for the 21st Century (Wiley-VCH, 2001).McQuarrie, D.A., and Rock, P.A. General Chemistry, 3rd ed. (W.H. Freeman, 1991).Malone, L.J. Basic Concepts of Chemistry, 7th ed. (Wiley, 2003).Miller, G.T., and Lygre, D.G. Chemistry: A Contemporary Approach (Wadsworth, 1991).Newton, D.E. Consumer Chemistry Projects for Young Scientists (Watts, 1991).Richards, Jon. Chemicals and Reactions (PowerKids, 2008).Wertheim, Jane, and others. The Usborne Illustrated Dictionary of Chemistry (EDC, 2006).Wood, R.W. Science for Kids: 39 Easy Chemistry Experiments (Tab Books, 1991).

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The science of chemistry is the study of matter and the chemical changes that matter undergoes. Research in chemistry not only answers basic questions about nature but also affects people's lives. Chemistry has been used, for example, to make stronger metals, to enrich soil for growing crops, to destroy harmful bacteria, and to measure levels of pollution in the environment.

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HoloLAB Champions is an immersive virtual reality lab practice game show created through support by the Institute of Education Sciences (part of the U.S. Department of Education) and the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program.

The game allows students to interact and compete safely in a lab environment without investing in tangible lab equipment. Perform actual measurements correctly in order to complete challenges and earn trophies. Players interact with the dynamic hosts of the game show, Earl and Meyer, who guide them along the way towards lab practice stardom.It's virtual lab practice with real lab mastery.

Become a Lab Champion!

Are you an educator? This trailer is for you.

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HoloLAB Champions is an immersive virtual reality lab practice game show created through support by the Institute of Education Sciences (part of the U.S. Department of Education) and the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program. The game allows students to interact and compete safely in a lab environment without investing in tangible lab equipment.

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Embrace the power
of virtual reality

VR tears down barriers between the subject of lecture and the student built by traditional classroom tools.
With the latest computer graphics and running on HTC Vive, Lifeliqe VR Museum allows K-12 students to understand complex science concepts and make the learning process of STEM subjects more effective.

VR tears down barriers between the subject of lecture and the student.

With the latest computer graphics and running on HTC Vive, Lifeliqe VR Museum allows K-12 students to understand complex science concepts and make the learning process of STEM subjects more effective.

Exciting virtual reality
in the classroom

Your students will never be bored again once they start examining more than 1,000 interactive models and over 20 virtual experiences.

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VR museum | Virtual Reality Education App | Lifeliqe

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Embrace the power of virtual reality VR tears down barriers between the subject of lecture and the student built by traditional classroom tools.With the latest computer graphics and running on HTC Vive, Lifeliqe VR Museum allows K-12 students to understand complex science concepts and make the learning process of STEM subjects more effective.

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Prepmagic - Tools for publishers and educators to create interactive and experiential science content and assessments

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Tools for publishers and educators to create interactive and experiential science content and assessments

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The evidence is in the practice

ESSA Level 3 correlation evidence in math and ELA, earned by teachers running frequent formative assessments.

When teachers run 30+ formative questions a week, the research is clear: they get more data-driven, their students get more engaged. Wayground is built to make that practice enjoyable ot run, attainable to fit a class period, and habitual enough to last past September.

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Quizizz is now Wayground | Teacher AI and Resources

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Find standards-aligned resources that engage every student. Wayground (formerly Quizizz) helps teachers differentiate instruction with AI and track student progress.

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This fall, Synth was shut down

Thank you for believing in the power of audio, from podcasting in the classroom to building relationships asynchronously.

We've turned our attention to Focusable, a new tool for students, teachers, and those seeking to improve their ability to focus.

If you need help getting access to your content please reach out at support@gosynth.com

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This fall, Synth was shut down Thank you for believing in the power of audio, from podcasting in the classroom to building relationships asynchronously. We've turned our attention to Focusable, a new tool for students, teachers, and those seeking to improve their ability to focus.

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Cosmic Kids Yoga | The Home of Positive Screen Time

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Screen Time that gives kids SUPERPOWERS! SUPERPOWERS! SUPERPOWERS! Stream it all on the Cosmic Kids app! Your browser does not support the video tag 99% of parents said… Cosmic Kids has a positive impact on the PHYSICAL and MENTAL health […]

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Current Issue Discover the latest issue of Mindful magazine read our newsletter Get the latest in mindfulness, delivered to your inbox

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Support your students' social and emotional learning as they navigate the digital world.

Technology impacts students' social and emotional well-being, from how they express themselves to how they communicate with friends and family. With the right support, students can learn how to integrate technology into their lives to promote their well-being and be a positive influence in their communities.

We created this resource center to give you everything you need to implement SEL in digital life in your school or classroom. Here you'll find CASEL-aligned quick activities, family conversation starters, and professional development resources, all of which align with the core themes and lessons from our free K-12 Digital Citizenship Curriculum.

See the resources here:

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SEL in Digital Life Resource Center | Common Sense Education

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Common Sense Education provides educators and students with the resources they need to harness the power of technology for learning and life. Find a free K-12 Digital Citizenship curriculum, reviews of popular EdTech apps, and resources for protecting student privacy.