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Post-Pandemic Leadership - Leadership After Covid-19 & Beyond 2021

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The Dos and Don'ts of Educational Leadership

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The Texas Model for Comprehensive School Counseling Programs

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The Texas Model for Comprehensive School Counseling Programs

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Stretching Leadership: A Distributed Perspective for School Counselor Leaders

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Stretching Leadership: A Distributed Perspective for School Counselor Leaders

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Leadership is a central role of the school counselor. However, this role is often intimidating to school counselors and school counseling students when viewed as a solitary undertaking. In contrast to the view that leadership is an individual responsibility, the distributed leadership perspective offers a counterview in which school leadership is stretched over multiple leaders. The application of the distributed leadership perspective to school counseling practice might serve to alleviate school counselor apprehension regarding leadership, while contributing to an understanding of "how" this leadership occurs, as well as how it might be improved.

Journal Information

Professional School Counseling, the flagship journal of the American School Counselor Association, is a rigorous peer-reviewed journal that publishes high-quality manuscripts on theory, research and best practices for the profession. Also explored are techniques, materials and ideas to assist school counselors and related practitioners at all levels in their professional development. The journal's foci strengthen the bonds among school counselors and help maintain a shared awareness of the roles, problems and progress of school counseling across various settings and levels.

Publisher Information

Sara Miller McCune founded SAGE Publishing in 1965 to support the dissemination of usable knowledge and educate a global community. SAGE is a leading international provider of innovative, high-quality content publishing more than 900 journals and over 800 new books each year, spanning a wide range of subject areas. A growing selection of library products includes archives, data, case studies and video. SAGE remains majority owned by our founder and after her lifetime will become owned by a charitable trust that secures the company's continued independence. Principal offices are located in Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore, Washington DC and Melbourne. www.sagepublishing.com

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Stretching Leadership: A Distributed Perspective for School Counselor Leaders on JSTOR

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Leadership is a central role of the school counselor. However, this role is often intimidating to school counselors and school counseling students when viewed as a solitary undertaking. In contrast to the view that leadership is an individual responsibility, the distributed leadership perspective offers a counterview in which school leadership is stretched over multiple leaders.

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Initiating Leadership by Introducing and Implementing the ASCA National Model

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Initiating Leadership by Introducing and Implementing the ASCA National Model

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Journal Information

Professional School Counseling, the flagship journal of the American School Counselor Association, is a rigorous peer-reviewed journal that publishes high-quality manuscripts on theory, research and best practices for the profession. Also explored are techniques, materials and ideas to assist school counselors and related practitioners at all levels in their professional development. The journal's foci strengthen the bonds among school counselors and help maintain a shared awareness of the roles, problems and progress of school counseling across various settings and levels.

Publisher Information

Sara Miller McCune founded SAGE Publishing in 1965 to support the dissemination of usable knowledge and educate a global community. SAGE is a leading international provider of innovative, high-quality content publishing more than 900 journals and over 800 new books each year, spanning a wide range of subject areas. A growing selection of library products includes archives, data, case studies and video. SAGE remains majority owned by our founder and after her lifetime will become owned by a charitable trust that secures the company's continued independence. Principal offices are located in Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore, Washington DC and Melbourne. www.sagepublishing.com

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Initiating Leadership by Introducing and Implementing the ASCA National Model on JSTOR

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Journal Information Professional School Counseling, the flagship journal of the American School Counselor Association, is a rigorous peer-reviewed journal that publishes high-quality manuscripts on theory, research and best practices for the profession. Also explored are techniques, materials and ideas to assist school counselors and related practitioners at all levels in their professional development.

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6 Steps to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence | Ramona Hacker | TEDxTUM

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Trait Leadership Theory arose from the "Great Man" theory of leadership. The Great Man theory, first espoused by Thomas Carlyle in the early 19 th Century and later by Francis Galton in the mid-19 th Century, posited that the actions of great men - who were born, not made - drove human history.

Emerging from the Great Man Theory was Trait Leadership Theory. The theory states that the personal and generally permanent qualities of the leader, or traits, both dictated the emergence of the leader and their effectiveness in leadership. The focus of Trait Theory was on those relatively permanent characteristics of behavior, psychological and physiological components, thoughts, and emotions (Tirengel & Wilkens, 2015). The theory notes that individual characteristics and differences were empirically able to predict leader effectiveness (Zaccaro, 2007).

One of the challenges pointed out in both the Great Man and Trait theories is the sheer number of potential traits to analyze and the subjectivity of their measurement. Recent research in Trait Theory, as discussed below, has tended to focus on the "Big 5" personality traits (Openness, Conscientious, Agreeableness, Extroversion, and Neuroticism) as key elements in the measurement and study of the theory. Research in the 20 th Century determined that five additional characteristics emerged as key traits for leaders: intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability (Tirengel & Wilkens, 2015).

The influence of Trait Theory on leadership research has oscillated between the 1950s and today. Initially driven by the strong personalities of the 19 th and Early 20 th Centuries, the theory lost emphasis to Situational Leadership Theory in the 1960s and 1970s. The 1980s and 1990s saw a resurgence of emphasis on Trait Theory as additional qualitative and quantitative methods emerged with meta-analysis studies by Lord (1986) and Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) showing strong correlations between certain traits and characteristics of leaders made them unique.

Summary of Recent Primary Research

There has been a resurgence of analysis of Trait Theory in the early 21 st Century. Much of it uses meta-analysis or the synthesis of many other studies to look for patterns and additional data correlations. Much recent research has looked at psychological traits instead of physical traits as determinants of leadership emergence and effectiveness.

Judge, et al. (2002) conducted a meta-analysis of 222 correlations across 73 samples of data to attempt to narrow and quantify the traits having the most impact on leadership, as well as the context in which those studies were conducted.

Judge applied quantitative analysis to the "Big 5" personality traits - Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism and found statistically significant relationships between these traits and both the emergence and effectiveness of leaders. In general, Openness and Extraversion showed the highest correlations for both leadership emergence and effectiveness, while the level of neuroticism was negatively correlated (Judge et al., 2002).

Interestingly, when segmented by leaders in government, business and students, the factors shifted somewhat - indicating an environmental or cultural component to the traits factoring on the emergence and success of leaders (Judge et al., 2002).

A follow-on study by Bono and Judge (2004) crossed the Big 5 personality traits against charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration - which are transformational leadership behaviors. Taken, the 5-factor personality model does have some correlation with charisma, which is a key factor in leadership emergence.

When considering the transactional leadership characteristics of contingent reward, active and passive management, the correlations of personality to leadership traits drop even further. This may be related to the value of the transaction itself rather than the power of the personality in the determination of leadership emergence and effectiveness.

Judge, et al. (2004) conducted a second meta-analysis of intelligence traits relative to leader emergence and effectiveness. They found a strong correlation between perceived intelligence and leader emergence and a much lower correlation between objective intelligence and leader emergence or effectiveness. This indicates that leaders demonstrating a high perceived intelligence were more likely to emerge, whether that perception was objectively real or not.

Zaccaro et al. (2007) built on the 2004 Zaccaro study of leadership traits to identify elements of leader performance. The 2004 study identified three distal attributes (Personality, Cognitive Ability, Motives, and Values) and three proximal attributes (Social Appraisal Skills, Problem Solving Skills, Expertise/Tacit Knowledge) that drove leader processes, which then determined leader emergence, effectiveness, and advancement (Zaccaro et al., 2004). The 2007 study argues that evidence demonstrates that trait theory shows precursors for leadership effectiveness. Combining leadership traits and attributes and analysis in combination are more likely to predict effectiveness than looking at any given trait or trait in isolation. Finally, Zaccaro makes a compelling argument that the proximal attributes, when combined with the situation in which the leader operates, provide the ability to adapt to the leadership environment and remain effective. Zaccaro argues that the trait theory applied to situational leadership conditions is a better predictor of emergence, effectiveness, and promotion than looking at any of these elements in isolation.

Analysis of Central Tenets

The central tenets of Trait Theory are the presence of certain personality and physical traits that may be observed and measured to determine the likelihood of emerging and being effective as a leader. Recent studies have focused on the "Big 5" personality traits as the observable and measurable characteristics against which to evaluate the emergence and effectiveness of leaders. The research around these traits is relatively robust, first introduced in the 1960s by Types and Christal and further developed by Goldberg, Cattell, and Costa, and McCrae in the 1980s ("Big Five personality traits," 2018).

In addition to the significant amount of research into both the theory and the Big 5 personality traits, the approach has other benefits. It provides a framework for measurement against which various components of personality may be assessed, compared, measured, and regressed. It also provides an ability to distinguish traits between leaders and followers across industries, environments, or cultures. It provides the ability to assess differences between leadership emergence and leadership effectiveness in a statistically rigorous way.

While the Big Five model is well studied, it has several limitations and critiques that must be considered part of the personality traits analysis. The lexical hypothesis of the model creates language bias in the interpretation of definitions, such as neuroticism. The definitions themselves are subject to interpretation, and the tests used to determine the personality traits have limitations in terms of predictive power and consistency in application.

Additionally, the measurement methodology has limitations, as each investigator must interpret the study results considering their definition and inclusion of sub-factors in the assignment and measurement of the personality traits into the Big 5 model. Additionally, as most of the measures are self-reported, there may be a self-reporting bias to the data gathering. Additionally, when studying historical figures or non-engaged participants, the investigator is required to assess and assign the factors and measurements to the subject based on limited observation and information, which ignores the deep complexities of the human personality and emotion ("Big Five personality traits," 2018, "Critique").

When operating outside the Five-Factor model, the challenges are even greater. Their list of potential traits and their measurement methodologies are nearly endless. While the Big 5 model may be restrictive in the dimensions and predictive power of emergence and effectiveness in leaders, expanding the number of traits given the measurement and definitional challenges exacerbates the consistency challenges noted as part of the Big 5 model.

Personal Application of the Theory

My quantitative background naturally drew me back to the observations in the Judge, et al. (2002) paper. The attempt to quantify the theory cross the "Big 5" personality traits as well as the dimensional analysis between academics, government and business was interesting - and provided insights into one of the questions I had entering the program: "Why do "non-traditional" college presidents, those coming from a business or the military, so often fail in the university setting?" As a non-traditional leader looking to enter the academy, the pattern of failure among these crossover leaders appeared to be well established.

The Judge (2002) paper looked at the dimensions associated with environment and culture. Judge found that leaders that emerge and succeed in a business setting tend to have different strengths in their traits than those that succeed in the military of the academy (as represented by "students" in the Judge study) (Judge, 2002). In particular, "Agreeableness" and "Conscientiousness" tend to have a much higher association with leadership in the academic setting - to the point where the correlation is negative on "Agreeableness" for business and government and strongly positive for student/academic environment. The shared governance environment, requiring a more collaborative and power-sharing dynamic versus the very hierarchical dynamic in business and government, may help explain both the differences and provide insights into trait-based elements that may indicate success or failure of leadership in these three distinct environments.

Having operated in all three of the environments analyzed by the Judge study (Military/Government, Business and Academy), I would concur that the Big 5 personality traits required for emergence and effectiveness would be different - though the six elements noted by Zaccaro (2007) appear to be common across the three environments. The need of the leader to apply cognitive skills, integrate motives and values, tie in personality traits, and the proximal attributes of social appraisal skills, problem-solving and subject matter expertise to effectively lead appeared universal. The Zaccaro approach, integrating situational and trait theory - essentially applying traits to the situation - is supported through my observations across multiple industries.

Additionally, my experience is that cultural and gender differences may impact the importance of various traits in the emergence and effectiveness of leaders. While humanity has significant physiological and psychological commonality across cultures and genders, having run global teams, my Shanghai team responded to different leadership approaches and styles than my New York or London teams. Most of the studies appear to have been focused on the United States and likely mostly male-dominated environments. Additional research on trait theory across cultures and within industries where the gender dominance may be different than the "traditional" military-industrial complex in the United States may prove to have significant differences in leader emergence and especially effectiveness.

Summary and Concluding Thoughts

The recent resurgence in Trait Based leadership research, particularly the meta-analysis studies, demonstrates quantitative and qualitative support for the Trait Theory. The influence of certain personality traits in the emergence and effectiveness of leaders has statistical and empirical support in research. As noted above, the Trait Theory has limitations around the subjectivity of definitions and measurement of personality traits and is not fully dispositive in identifying leaders. However, it seems to provide valuable insights into elements of emergence and effectiveness that, when combined with other factors, indicate the presence of objective leadership measures.

"Big Five Personality Traits." (2018) Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 27 Aug. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits.

Bono, J. E., & Judge, T. A., (2004). Personality and Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 901-910. Retrieved from m.timothy-judge.com/Judge and Bono personality-TF-JAP published.pdf

Burns, J. M. (2010). Leadership. New York: Harper Perennial.

Day, D. V. & Antonakis, J., (2012). The Nature of Leadership (2nd ed.). London: SAGE.

Judge, T. A., Bono, J. E., Ilies, R. & Gerhardt, M. W. (2002). Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 765-780. doi:10.1037//0021-9010.87.4.765.

Judge, T. A., Colbert, A. E. & Ilies, R. (2004, June). Intelligence and Leadership: a Quantitative Review and Test of Theoretical Propositions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(3), 542-552. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.542.

Kirkpatrick, S. A., & Locke, E. A. (1991). Leadership: Do Traits Matter? Academy of Management Executive, 5(2), 48-60. Retrieved from sbuweb.tcu.edu/jmathis/Org_Mgmt_Materials/Leadership - Do Traits Matgter.pdf.

Lord, R. G., deVader, C. L. & Alliger, G.M. (1986, August). A Meta-Analysis of the Relation between Personality Traits and Leadership Perceptions: An Application of Validity Generalization Procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3). Retrieved from psycnet.apa.org/record/1986-29983-001.

Tirengel, J. & Wilkens M., directors. (2015, September 7). Trait Theory of Leadership - J. Tirengel & M. Wilkens, 9/2015. YouTube, Wilkensusc, Retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?v=nKCsNKKPM3c.

Wagner, S. (2013, March 2). Trait Theory of Leadership. YouTube, TalentActualization, Retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?v=BoMFwXyg-Dg.

Zaccaro, S. J. (2007, January). Trait-Based Perspectives of Leadership. American Psychologist, 62(1), 6-16. Retrieved from pdfs.semanticscholar.org/45b9/27ecee3f8dce1ed83209e209af572ff0e318.pdf.

Zaccaro, S., Kemp, C., & Bader, P. (2004). Leader traits and attributes. In J, Antonakis, A, Cianciolo, & R Sternberg (Eds.), The Nature of Leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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Trait Leadership Theory - Ed Barton, LLM, CPA, CFA

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Trait Leadership Theory arose from the "Great Man" theory of leadership. The Great Man theory, first espoused by Thomas Carlyle in the early 19 th Century and later by Francis Galton in the mid-19 th Century, posited that the actions of great men - who were born, not made - drove human history.

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Personality describes the unique patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish a person from others. A product of both biology and environment, it remains fairly consistent throughout life.

Examples of personality can be found in how we describe other people's traits. For instance, "She is generous, caring, and a bit of a perfectionist," or "They are loyal and protective of their friends."

The word "personality" stems from the Latin word persona, which refers to a theatrical mask worn by performers to play roles or disguise their identities.

Although there are many definitions of personality, most focus on the pattern of behaviors and characteristics that can help predict and explain a person's behavior.

Explanations for personality can focus on a variety of influences, ranging from genetic effects to the role of the environment and experience in shaping an individual's personality.

Personality Characteristics

What exactly makes up a personality? Traits and patterns of thought and emotion play important roles, and so do these fundamental characteristics of personality:

Consistency: There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same way or in similar ways in a variety of situations.

Both psychological and physiological: Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.

Affects behaviors and actions: Personality not only influences how we move and respond in our environment, but it also causes us to act in certain ways.

Multiple expressions: Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions.

How Personality Develops

There are a number of theories about personality, and different schools of thought in psychology influence many of these theories. Some theories describe how personalities are expressed, and others focus more on how personality develops.

Personality Types

Type theoriessuggest that there are a limited number of personality types that are related to biological influences.

One theory suggests there are four types of personality. They are:

Type A: Perfectionist, impatient, competitive, work-obsessed, achievement-oriented, aggressive, stressed

Type B: Low stress, even-tempered, flexible, creative, adaptable to change, patient, tendency to procrastinate

Type C: Highly conscientious, perfectionist, struggles to reveal emotions (positive and negative)

Type D: Worrying, sad, irritable, pessimistic, negative self-talk, avoidance of social situations, lack of self-confidence, fear of rejection, appears gloomy, hopeless

There are other popular theories of personality types such as the Myers-Briggs theory. The Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator identifies a personality based on where someone is on four continuums: introversion-extraversion, sensing-intuition, thinking-feeling, and judging-perceiving.

After taking a Myers-Briggs personality test, you are assigned one of 16 personality types. Examples of these personality types are:

ISTJ: Introverted, sensing, thinking, and judging. People with this personality type are logical and organized; they also tend to be judgmental.

INFP: Introverted, intuitive, feeling, and perceiving. They tend to be idealists and sensitive to their feelings.

ESTJ: Extroverted, sensing, thinking, and judging. They tend to be assertive and concerned with following the rules.

ENFJ: Extroverted, intuitive, feeling, and judging. They are known as "givers" for being warm and loyal; they may also be overprotective.

Personality Tests

In addition to the MBTI, some of the most well-known personality inventories are:

Personality Traits

Trait theories tend to view personality as the result of internal characteristics that are genetically based and include:

Agreeable: Cares about others, feels empathy, enjoys helping others

Conscientiousness: High levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, goal-directed behaviors

Eager-to-please: Accommodating, passive, and conforming

Extraversion:Excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness

Introversion: Quiet, reserved

Neuroticism: Experiences stress and dramatic shifts in mood, feels anxious, worries about different things, gets upset easily, struggles to bounce back after stressful events

Openness: Very creative, open to trying new things, focuses on tackling new challenges

Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud and emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind on personality. Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud's psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, often ignoring the role of internal thoughts and feelings. Behavioral theorists include B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson.

Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in developing ​a personality. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Impact of Personality

Research on personality can yield fascinating insights into how personality develops and changes over the course of a lifetime. This research can also have important practical applications in the real world.

For example, people can use a personality assessment (also called a personality test or personality quiz) to learn more about themselves and their unique strengths, weaknesses, and preferences. Some assessments might look at how people rank on specific traits, such as whether they are high in extroversion, conscientiousness, or openness.

Other assessments might measure how specific aspects of personality change over time. Some assessments give people insight into how their personality affects many areas of their lives, including career, relationships, personal growth, and more.

Understanding your personality type can help you determine what career you might enjoy, how well you might perform in certain job roles, or how effective a form of psychotherapy could be for you.

Personality type can also have an impact on your health, including how often you visit the doctor and how you cope with stress. Researchers have found that certain personality characteristics may be linked to illness and health behaviors.

Personality Disorders

While personality determines what you think and how you behave, personality disorders are marked by thoughts and behavior that are disruptive and distressing in everyday life. Someone with a personality disorder may have trouble recognizing their condition because their symptoms are ingrained in their personality.

Personality disorders include paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder (BPD), and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD).

While the symptoms of personality disorders vary based on the condition, some common signs include:

Aggressive behavior

Delusional thinking

Distrust of others

Flat emotions (no emotional range)

Lack of interest in relationships

Violating others' boundaries

Some people with BPD experience suicidal thoughts or behavior as well.

If you are concerned that elements of your personality are contributing to stress, anxiety, confusion, or depression, it's important to talk to a doctor or mental health professional. They can help you understand any underlying conditions you may have.

It is often challenging to live with a personality disorder, but there are treatment options such as therapy and medication that can help.

Understanding the psychology of personality is much more than simply an academic exercise. The findings from personality research can have important applications in the world of medicine, health, business, economics, technology, among others. By building a better understanding of how personality works, we can look for new ways to improve both personal and public health.

Additional Reading

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Personality arises from within and makes us who we are. Learn more about how psychologists define personality, study it, and why it is so important.

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The trait theory of leadership focuses on identifying different personality traits and characteristics that are linked to successful leadership across a variety of situations. This line of research emerged as one of the earliest types of investigations into the nature of effective leadership and is tied to the "great man" theory of leadership first proposed by Thomas Carlyle in the mid-1800s.

Trait Theory of Leadership Rationale

According to Carlyle, history is shaped by extraordinary leaders. This ability to lead is something that people are simply born with, Carlyle believed, and not something that could be developed. Carlyle's ideas inspired early research on leadership, which almost entirely focused on inheritable traits.

Carlyle's theory of leadership was based on the rationale that:

Certain traits produce certain patterns of behavior.

Patterns are consistent across different situations.

People are "born" with leadership traits.

Even today, books, and articles tout the various characteristics necessary to become a great leader, suggesting that leadership is somehow predestined in some (or is at least more likely) while unlikely, if not impossible, in others.

Since the publication of Carlyle's thesis, psychologists have examined and argued about the trait-based theory of leadership. From the 1940s to the 1970s, psychologist Ralph Melvin Stogdill suggested that leadership is the result of the interaction between the individual and the social situation and not merely the result of a predefined set of traits.

Soon after in the 1980s, James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner posited that credibility was a key indicator of leadership skills, characterized by such traits as being honest, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent.

Leadership Traits

While the list of leadership traits can vary by whoever is drawing up the list, a recent study outlined behavioral traits that separated lower-level supervisors from higher-level supervisors.

According to the researchers, the traits most commonly associated with great leadership include:

Adaptability and flexibility: Effective leaders don't get stuck in a rut. They are able to think outside of the box and adapt quickly to changing situations.

Assertiveness: A great leader is able to be direct and assertive without coming off as overly pushy or aggressive.

Capacity to motivate people: A great leader knows how to inspire others and motivate them to do their best.

Courage and resolution: The best leaders are brave and committed to the goals of the group. They do not hide from challenges.

Creativity: Perhaps most importantly, great leaders not only possess their own creativity, but they are also able to foster creativity among members of the group.

Decisiveness: A great leader is capable of making a decision and is confident in his or her choices.

Eagerness to accept responsibility: Strong leaders take on responsibility and don't pass the blame on to others. They stand by their success and take ownership of their mistakes.

Emotional stability: In addition to being dependable overall, strong leaders are able to control their emotions and avoid overreactions.

Intelligence and action-oriented judgment: Great leaders and smart and make choices that move the group forward.

Need for achievement: Strong leaders have a need to succeed and help the group achieve goals. They genuinely care about the success of the group and are committed to helping the group reach these milestones.

People skills: Excellent interpersonal skills are essential for leading effectively. Great leaders know how to interact well with other leaders as well as with team members.

Perseverance: Strong leaders stick with it, even when things get difficult or the group faces significant obstacles.

Self-confidence: Many of the best leaders are extremely self-assured. Because they are confident in themselves, followers often begin to share this self-belief.

Task competence: A great leader is skilled and capable. Members of the group are able to look to the leader for an example of how things should be done.

Trustworthiness: Group members need to be able to depend upon and trust the person leading them.

Understanding their followers and their needs: Effective leaders pay attention to group members and genuinely care about helping them succeed. They want each person in the group to succeed and play a role in moving the entire group forward.

Controversy on the Trait Theory

Early studies on leadership focused on the differences between leaders and followers with the assumption that people in leadership positions would display more leadership traits than those in subordinate positions.

What researchers found, however, was that there were relatively few traits that could be used to distinguish between leaders and followers. For example, leaders tend to be great communicators.﻿﻿ Leaders also tend to be higher in traits such as extroversion, self-confidence, and height, but these differences tended to be small.

Some have suggested that this may due to situational variables in which leadership skills only emerge when an opportunity for leadership arises (such as in war, during a political crisis, or in the absence of leadership).﻿﻿

Meanwhile, others have taken a contingency approach to leadership in which certain traits can be more effective in some situations and less so in others. Opinions vary on what those traits are and to what degree they can predict success, if at all.

Leadership in the Internet Age

More controversial yet is the contention that some people don't have the traits to become leaders.﻿﻿ Such a belief inherently overlooks social and economic inequities that limit, if not entirely erase, a person's potential to lead.

It also overlooks the changing economy and how leadership is defined when connections are today made both online and offline.

A Word From Verywell

While these traits are often linked to effective leadership, it is important to note that few leaders possess all of these traits. Generally, a strong leader will have many of these qualities.

But aspects of the situation also play an important role in determining if people are able to lead well. In many cases, it is the interaction between these traits and the situation that determines leadership quality.

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Do Great Leaders Share Certain Traits? See What the Research Says

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The trait theory of leadership focuses on identifying different personality traits and characteristics that are linked to successful leadership across a variety of situations. This line of research emerged as one of the earliest types of investigations into the nature of effective leadership and is tied to the "great man" theory of leadership first proposed by Thomas Carlyle in the mid-1800s.

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Self Determination Theory and How It Explains Motivation

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Self-Determination Theory (SDT)identifies elements of human motivation.

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Ideal for new and experienced educators, this second edition of the bestseller presents dialogues between a novice and a master teacher and between a new and a seasoned principal to illuminate how reframing challenges can generate tremendous potential for classroom and school leadership. This updated edition provides leadership lesson summaries, solid strategies, and reflective questions that help teachers and principals grow through the use of four defining lenses:

Political: individual versus group power

Human resources: individual needs and motives

Structural: clear goals and responsibilities

Symbolic: culture, meaning, belief, and faith

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Reframing the Path to School Leadership: A Guide for Teachers and Principals

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Reframing the Path to School Leadership: A Guide for Teachers and Principals [Bolman, Lee G., Deal, Terrence E.] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Reframing the Path to School Leadership: A Guide for Teachers and Principals

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Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Attributes of School Counselor Trainees

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Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Attributes of School Counselor Trainees

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School Counselors' Emotional Intelligence and Its Relationship to Leadership

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School Counselors' Emotional Intelligence and Its Relationship to Leadership

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In this investigation, we examined the relationship between emotional intelligence, leadership self-efficacy (LSE), self-leadership, and leadership experiences among a sample of practicing school counselors. School counselors who reported higher levels of emotional intelligence also reported greater LSE, self-leadership, and leadership experiences. We discuss the implications of these findings for the practice of school counseling and potential future research on school counselor leadership.

Journal Information

Professional School Counseling, the flagship journal of the American School Counselor Association, is a rigorous peer-reviewed journal that publishes high-quality manuscripts on theory, research and best practices for the profession. Also explored are techniques, materials and ideas to assist school counselors and related practitioners at all levels in their professional development. The journal's foci strengthen the bonds among school counselors and help maintain a shared awareness of the roles, problems and progress of school counseling across various settings and levels.

Publisher Information

Sara Miller McCune founded SAGE Publishing in 1965 to support the dissemination of usable knowledge and educate a global community. SAGE is a leading international provider of innovative, high-quality content publishing more than 900 journals and over 800 new books each year, spanning a wide range of subject areas. A growing selection of library products includes archives, data, case studies and video. SAGE remains majority owned by our founder and after her lifetime will become owned by a charitable trust that secures the company's continued independence. Principal offices are located in Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore, Washington DC and Melbourne. www.sagepublishing.com

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School Counselors' Emotional Intelligence and Its Relationship to Leadership on JSTOR

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In this investigation, we examined the relationship between emotional intelligence, leadership self-efficacy (LSE), self-leadership, and leadership experiences among a sample of practicing school counselors. School counselors who reported higher levels of emotional intelligence also reported greater LSE, self-leadership, and leadership experiences.

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A Chicago Tribune piece tells the story of one teacher's battle with post-traumatic stress disorder stemming from abuse she endured from a group of students at a Chicago public school.

Norma Brown, who was diagnosed six years ago with the affliction that is commonly associated with soldiers returning from war, still has nightmares recalling the day when she was punched and kicked by middle school students in the lunchroom after she asked one of them to remove his baseball hat. Even a few months after the attack, Brown was told by her doctors that she couldn't return to school because she needed further counseling and rehabilitation. She went on anti-anxiety medication and was placed on "assault leave," an option in the teachers contract that allowed her to continue to receive full pay and benefits.

Eventually, Brown returned to teaching, working as a substitute at lower-grade levels in schools that were in neighborhoods where she felt comfortable. But when the school system began assigning her to schools in tougher areas, the anxiety was too much for her. She recently decided to retire.

"There isn't a day that goes by that I'm not reminded about what happened, and all that came after," says Brown.

Dr. Gerald Juhnke, a PTSD expert and professor in the department of counseling at the University of Texas at San Antonio, told the Tribune that teachers may be more susceptible to PTSD than is commonly assumed. This is especially true of those who work in tough urban schools where violence is more common. "Teachers don't carry guns or badges. They're not going into the profession ever believing they're going to be injured or attacked by students," said Juhnke. "Teachers are very vulnerable. Their personality is such that they don't forget easily."

Chicago school officials told the Tribune that there have been over 800 attacks against teachers and school employees by students in the last school year, and 20 teachers who have been granted assault leave in the past five years.

A version of this news article first appeared in the Teaching Now blog.

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A Chicago Tribune piece tells the story of one teacher's battle with post-traumatic stress disorder stemming from abuse she endured from a group of students at a Chicago public school.

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Educators play a critical role in our communities, but lately-and increasingly- they are burdened with responsibilities more appropriate for other members of the community, such as counselors, social workers, nurses and community organizers. This juggling act is particularly salient in under-resourced communities, where grappling with these issues can be a daily struggle.

Since the onset of the pandemic nearly a year ago, educators have been tasked with addressing new, multi-layered challenges due to the primary and secondary trauma associated with COVID-19. Evidence suggests those responsibilities are taking an emotional toll on these critical members of our communities.

We are researchers who study childhood trauma and co-directors of the Trauma Sensitive Pedagogy (TSP) project, which is a classroom-level intervention that provides educators with knowledge and skills to address the learning needs of children who have experienced complex trauma. As part of a needs assessment we conducted for TSP, our pre-COVID-19 data showed a high rate of secondary traumatic stress (STS) within a national sample of early childhood educators (birth through grade 3). According to the National Child Traumatic Stress Network, STS refers to the emotional toll of hearing about and supporting those who have experienced trauma. In some cases, STS impedes professional functioning and/or diminishes educators' quality of life.

By comparison, four months into the pandemic, every educator in our TSP project reported experiencing secondary traumatic stress as a result of the added burdens brought about by the pandemic. As we approach the grim one-year mark, the same educators continue to report high levels of traumatic stress, especially as they look to returning to their school buildings.

In addition to fulfilling their instructional duties, the educators we work with are juggling many intersecting issues that include providing support for the families of their students and managing their own families' pandemic-driven needs. Taken together, such a balancing act can take a toll on educators' mental health and well-being. In fact, we have seen and heard first-hand how the stress of their COVID-related experiences has brought tears to educators' eyes and a tremble in their voices.

Until we can implement a long-term solution, we must find short-term remedies to support children in under-resourced communities and, in turn, reduce the burden on our educators. Given that schools are reopening across the country, there really is no time to waste.

One approach, which we describe below, is to leverage the technology we relied on to get schools and students through the pandemic to address some of the needs brought to light by the pandemic. There is evidence that technology allowed educators to both forge stronger relationships with parents and increase parental engagement in their children's learning over this past year. What's more, many organizations have identified new ways to engage various members of their communities through technology, linking them to food aid, anti-bullying efforts and effective coping strategies.

Attending to Social-Emotional Needs

Dr. Jill Biden, arguably America's most famous educator, has said, "Teaching isn't just what I do, it's who I am." Education is more than a profession-it is a commitment to the next generation, but often at an educator's own peril. Educators in our research project reported emotional exhaustion, discouragement, guilt, insomnia, sadness and worry as a result of the shift to remote learning and all the challenges that came with it. We must therefore identify ways to share responsibility for the children in our communities so our educators can focus on what they do best: supporting and stimulating student learning.

We wholeheartedly support President Biden's Plan for Educators, Students and our Future, which takes a comprehensive, community-wide approach to education. His focus on community schools and the mental health and well-being of children and educators is critically important in addressing the impact of COVID-19 and poverty-driven needs. Nonetheless, even if approved by Congress, implementation will take time, a luxury that children and educators do not have. This is particularly urgent for the children who continually experience trauma, and the educators attempting to support those children with little administrative guidance and limited resources.

While the news media largely focuses on the physical health, mortality and economic consequences of the pandemic, the reality is that many educators are attending to the social-emotional consequences on their students. In under-resourced communities, disparities in service availability and access often place the burden of care solely on educators, requiring them to go beyond addressing curricular standards in classrooms and, for most, beyond the preparation they received to become a teacher.

There is no doubt educators are working extra hard during the pandemic. Educators who participate in our TSP project have collected donations for grocery store gift cards for families in need, organized holiday toy drives, contacted state legislators to advocate for the reopening of school-based health clinics to ensure children had access to medical care, facilitated access to virtual mental health screenings, dropped off school supplies to children's homes, and attended virtual funerals. It warrants repeating: Educators are increasingly tasked with responsibilities more appropriate for other members of the community, such as counselors, social workers, nurses and community organizers.

Across the country, schools face increasing pressure to reopen because of a widening achievement gap, consequences of social isolation and parents' need to return to work. But returning to school buildings is a complicated endeavor that goes beyond health and safety protocols.

A 'Community-Wide' Approach

In order to alleviate such a burden on a single community member, it is important to call on all of those within the community encompassing a school (e.g., health, social services, community advocates) to collaboratively support children, families and-yes-educators.

Across the U.S., there are already examples of shared responsibility for raising the children of a community. Kentucky's Family Resource and Youth Services Centers provide programs that address school transitions, parent engagement, physical and mental health, mask distribution and food insecurity. Judy Centers, established by Judith P. Hoyer, the late wife of Congressman Steny Hoyer, focus on school readiness by providing services to children from birth through age 5 and their families. The work of each Judy Center is guided by 12 Component Standards, which address high-quality early learning experiences for children, service coordination and family support, early identification/intervention, health services and adult education.

Nationally, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has laid out a Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child model that calls for staff wellness in addition to the psychological and social service needs of children and families. Such a model can therefore address the needs of everyone in the school community, ensuring that the "trials and tribulations" of educators do not interfere with the quality of care and instruction that our students need to succeed.

A Short-Term Solution

One way that communities can work together in the short-term is to leverage technology that is already in place, to quickly bring everyone in the school community together to support children, families and educators.

Video conferencing can allow educators, social workers, medical professionals and community advocates to collaborate with students and families, in small groups and large, from their offices, classrooms and homes. A virtual approach eliminates the need to compete for meeting space and to account for travel time and costs. Instead, it allows for more consumer-oriented schedules and flexibility in meeting the needs of every member of the school community.

Mobile apps make information on local food banks, job opportunities and mental health counseling available right at one's fingertips. Electronic polls provide an easier way to gauge consensus, while shared electronic drives and documents enable collaborative strategic planning in real time.

Within a trauma-informed framework, a team of educators and support staff in a school could leverage these technologies to discuss the overall social-emotional, physical and learning needs of a particular student through a virtual meeting. Akin to an IEP team meeting, identification of student needs and progress could be documented on a secure, shared electronic drive where responsibilities for meeting such needs would be assigned to the relevant roles (e.g., reading specialist, social worker, etc.). Family-based needs could also be included in such documentation, and use of electronic-based resource maps could identify and connect students and families with the appropriate services based on need. This team approach reduces the burden on any one educator, which is likely to reduce STS and allow teachers to do what they do best: teach.

Finally, coordination of supports for educators will be important in addressing the secondary traumatic stress they have experienced over the past year. Activities such as mindfulness, virtual yoga and exercise have been found to be helpful. However, more formal opportunities to address STS are now available virtually, in the form of support groups and counseling, as well as STS-related education.

It took the pandemic to show us that these technologies were necessary to provide ongoing learning opportunities for our students. As we now embark on a nationwide reopening of schools, such technologies are indispensable in quickly and efficiently wrapping the community around educators and their students to address everyone's well-being, from the physical to the emotional.

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Our Research Shows Educators Are Experiencing Trauma During the Pandemic. Here's How We Can Reduce the Burden. - EdSurge News

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Educators play a critical role in our communities, but lately-and increasingly- they are burdened with responsibilities more appropriate for other members of the community, such as counselors, social workers, nurses and community organizers. This juggling act is particularly salient in under-resourced communities, where grappling with these issues can be a daily struggle.

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When you think about PTSD, what normally comes to mind? To most people, what comes to mind is war veterans, because of course, they go through some truly traumatic experiences that most of us can't even imagine. Their experiences are real and we should acknowledge them.

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Image credit: N_defender.

I started therapy a few years ago after I was assaulted in my own classroom. In the days and weeks after the incident, I felt violated, confused, angry, and most of all, anxious. At school, a knock on the classroom door would leave my heart pounding for minutes; at home, I'd wake up from nightmares to find myself drenched in sweat and clinging to the covers.

Although I'd been successfully manging previous diagnoses of generalized anxiety disorder and persistent depressive disorder with the help of prescribed medication, I recognized that my new symptoms were indicative of something else, something that seemed worse. A friend put me in touch with Dr. G., a licensed clinical social worker with a doctorate in human behavior whose office was just a short drive from campus. (Names and some descriptions have been changed to protect privacy.)

I want to acknowledge the fact that my ability to find a therapist, and an available one at that, speaks to my enormous privilege as a white, middle-class woman in America, a country in which millions of people - especially people of color - lack access to mental health care.

My visits to Dr. G. every Tuesday after school became my lifeline. With the help of cognitive reframing and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), I was learning to identify and process my emotions so that I could finally release my brain from its manic spin on the fight-or-flight hamster wheel. About three months into treatment, I gathered the courage to ask Dr. G. the question that had been haunting me since the incident: What is wrong with me?

"What do you mean?" Dr. G. replied, his eyebrows raised. I'd learned enough about Dr. G. in our preceding sessions to know that he wasn't into "labels," but as an English teacher who experiences life in words, I pressed on anyway. "I mean, clinically. What's my diagnosis?"

Dr. G. returned my obstinance with a wry smile. "Well, first of all, I want to remind you that there's nothing wrong with you," he declared. "But I suppose if you really need to know, I code your treatment for insurance purposes as F43. C-PTSD."

In 2018, the World Health Organization issued its 11th International Diseases Classification (ICD-11), which for the first time distinguished Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) from Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (C-PTSD). According to the ICD-11, diagnostic requirements for PTSD include "evidence of the re-experiencing of traumatic events in the present, deliberate avoidance, a current sense of threat and functional impairment."

While C-PTSD includes the same diagnostic requirements, it differs from PTSD in that a patient also presents "evidence of disturbances in self-organi[z]ation (DSO), consisting of affect dysregulation, negative self-concept, and disturbances in relationships." In other words, Dr. G. recognized that the symptoms I was experiencing from my most recent traumatic experience, coupled with those of my comorbid conditions, necessitated a treatment plan that would allow me to explore my life before teaching.

Discovering that there was a name for - and research on - the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors with which I'd been dealing brought instant relief. I'm not crazy, I remember thinking, and I'm not alone. Strangely, I also felt empowered: if there was a diagnosis, there might be a cure.

While I'm still working with Dr. G. to treat my C-PTSD, I've made substantial progress. In fact, it's because of my time with Dr. G. that I realized I don't just want, but need to be in the classroom.

"Data and Statistics on Children's Mental Health." Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/childrensmentalhealth/data.html.

Over the past few years, a huge part of my "why" has become enabling students to care for their mental health, specifically by providing them with opportunities to increase their emotional intelligence skills. According to the National Alliance on Mental Illness, 1 in 6 American 6-17 year olds experience a mental health disorder each year, a number that has likely increased because of the pandemic. At the same time, researchers are beginning to recognize that an increasing number of educators are dealing with a phenomenon known as secondary traumatic stress (STS) - the "vicarious trauma" or "compassion fatigue" that results from working with children who have experienced or are experiencing their own trauma.
The fact that a growing number of students and teachers alike are navigating mental illness and trauma in school leaves educators with a question of singular importance: How do we support our own healing while simultaneously supporting that of our students?
I've spent a few years trying to answer that question, and while the list I've compiled is by no means comprehensive, it does include the strategies that have most helped me improve my efficacy as a teacher while managing C-PTSD - not to mention the mental health challenges of my students.

1. Cognitive reframing. This evidence-based practice involves recognizing harmful thought patterns (e.g., "I can't believe I made a mistake. I'm an idiot") and choosing to reinterpret them to elicit optimism (e.g., "It's normal to make mistakes. I'll just try again"). After intensive practice in therapy, I'm now finding myself using cognitive reframing on a daily basis - a technique that has enabled me to swap my "doom and gloom" mentality for a much more positive outlook.

2. EMDR. This is another evidence-based practice, but one that should be administered by a licensed professional. Essentially, EMDR treats the ways in which memories are stored and processed so that the patient is able to experience fewer distressing symptoms. Although I was intimidated by the process at first, I've found that EMDR has significantly reduced the distress I experience when confronted with difficult memories or flashbacks.

3. Body scanning. This technique encourages practitioners to "check in" with their bodies to observe somatic manifestations of anxiety or stress (e.g., pressure, tension, aching). I usually try to body scan as soon as I wake up and right before I fall asleep so that, even on my hardest days, I can at least alleviate the physicalsymptoms of C-PTSD.

4. Square breathing. This simple method that helps relax the nervous system has enabled me to prevent more than a few panic attacks. It's also something I've encouraged my students to try before engaging in high-stakes tasks (whether that's taking on an AP Exam or a rival football team).

5. Sensory toys. Although they're typically used with children (particularly those with autism), sensory toys like squishies, fidget spinners, and textured paper are a cheap way to release tension and/or distract from negative thoughts. I keep a stash in my desk for myself and my students, who at 16 and 17 years old are still drawn to the allure of fun gadgets.

6. Mental breaks. While at work, eat your lunch away from your desk. Go on a walk. Stretch. Watch a funny video with your students. For me, leaving my laptop at school and deleting my work email from my phone has also helped me rest my mind while I'm at home.

7. Support system. Research indicates that people with support systems, which can include family, friends, and coworkers, experience better health and increased longevity. Finding like-minded teachers with whom I can share my concerns has been invaluable in maintaining my sanity at school.

While these techniques have allowed me to survive even the new realities of teaching in an American public school, they're by no means the solution to our education system's problem with providing adequate mental health resources for teachers and students alike. Ultimately, I know the best I can do in the meantime is to take care of myself so that I can take care of my students.

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How I Stayed in the Classroom as a Teacher with C-PTSD

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I started therapy a few years ago after I was assaulted in my own classroom. In the days and weeks after the incident, I felt violated, confused, angry, and most of all, anxious. At school, a knock on the classroom door would leave my heart pounding for minutes; at home, I'd wake up from nightmares to find myself drenched in sweat and clinging to the covers.

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There's a push for teachers to focus on student mental health - which is important - however, teacher mental health also needs to be addressed. One in twenty teachers report experiencing a mental health diagnosis lasting longer than a year. We can assume many more are suffering silently or undiagnosed, and that the numbers are on the rise with the added stressors of pandemic teaching. One of the mental health conditions teachers are often diagnosed with is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Some symptoms of PTSD include anxiety, depression, insomnia, avoidant behaviors, and panic attacks. If this sounds like a regular day in the classroom, you might be impacted.

Why would teachers have PTSD? Isn't it for soldiers?

While we frequently hear about soldiers suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder after returning home from war, anyone who has experienced a traumatic event is at risk. Trauma is classified as "events beyond a typical stressor." Teaching is a tough profession. It's often stressful, exhausting, emotionally taxing, and physically draining - all without much recognition or appreciation.

A typical day for a teacher might include:

Arriving at work exhausted because you were up too late trying to get caught up on your overwhelming workload

Getting berated in front of your colleagues by an administrator for something out of your control for the third time this month

Technology you need to do your job not working with no one available to offer assistance

A frustrated student throwing a book at your head

Finding out the parent of a student passed away the previous night

A diabetic student having a blood sugar emergency while at recess

Reading emails from a parent demanding you change her child's grade and threatening "you'll be sorry" if you don't

Having your math lesson interrupted by an active shooter drill, which no one in your class (including you) knows is just a drill until completion, causing one student to have a full-blown anxiety attack and another to require their rescue inhaler

Walking into the faculty lounge to overhear other teachers talking poorly of your classroom management skills

Noticing marks on a child's arms (again) and the child opening up to you about abuse

Calling in a report of the abuse to child protective services

Breaking up a physical alteration between two students

And that could all be in a single day - maybe even before lunch! So, yes, most teachers would certainly consider their job to be "beyond a typical stressor."

Types of post-traumatic stress disorder

Teachers are at risk for two different types of PTSD. As demonstrated in the list above, teachers often have suffered events from both categories.

Firsthand trauma: Unfortunately, teachers experience traumatic events at school. School shootings (or threats), violent students, aggressive parents, bullying administration, death of a student or faculty member, and toxic work environments are just a few of the situations that may lead to PTSD in teachers.

Secondary trauma: You can also develop PTSD from hearing about the trauma someone else has endured. Teachers care so much about the wellbeing of our students, which makes us very likely to suffer from secondary trauma after hearing a student share the details of abuse, the death of their parent, a devastating house fire, etc.

Do you have PTSD symptoms?

While PTSD is treatable, it is also very serious. It can make it difficult to function both personally and professionally. Physical health, relationships, mood, and quality of life are often impacted. People with PTSD are more likely to attempt suicide.

Here are some common symptoms of PTSD:

Re-experiencing the trauma - Experiencing flashbacks, nightmares, and frequent thoughts of the trauma.

Avoidance of and numbness to the trauma - Avoiding places, people, and activities that remind you of the trauma or disconnecting when in those situations.

Heightened reactions - Fireworks, loud movies, sudden movements, etc. startle you when they never have before. You have difficulty sleeping, trouble concentrating, and frequently feel on edge.

Changes in mood - Difficulty remembering the trauma, a negative view of self or the world, loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities, inability to feel happy, self-isolation, feelings of blame, guilt, shame, or fear.

What to do if you think you may have PTSD

If you or a teacher friend is struggling, there is no shame in getting help.

Finding a good therapist to help you work through the trauma is key in recovery for most people. Psychology Today has a great directory of therapists to help you in your search. You can also get a referral from your primary care physician or insurance company.

Limited time or energy? BetterHelp and TalkSpace provide online/text therapy at your convenience right from your phone.

The Crisis Text Line will provide immediate support. Simply text HOME to 74141. Help is available 24/7.

We're all living in a pandemic that has been going on for a year already. COVID-19 is a traumatic event by itself. It makes sense that mental health struggles are on the rise right now. For many, it has caused symptoms to be more extreme and challenging. This makes getting help even more important.

Come join us in the Empowered Teachers community for more discussions like this.

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PTSD in Teachers Is Real and Serious. Here's What You Need to Know.

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There's a push for teachers to focus on student mental health - which is important - however, teacher mental health also needs to be addressed. One in twenty teachers report experiencing a mental health diagnosis lasting longer than a year.

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Not too long ago, many educators who complained of burnout were probably greeted with a collective shrug from school leaders. Teacher exhaustion or stress have often been dismissed as signs of weakness and an inability to cope. With schools and districts providing little in the way of support, the burden was always on educators to deal with whatever was dragging them down.

Although this scenario still plays out in too many schools, districts are becoming more aware and sympathetic to the pressures teachers face in school every day and the adverse impact it has on the profession and students. This acknowledgement leads to - hopefully, eventually - strategies and programs designed to support educators.

Experts caution, however, that policymakers resist a once-size-fits-all approach. Yes, educators are burned out, they are stressed, they are fatigued, they are demoralized, and many are now coping with trauma-all conditions with similar symptoms that require proper diagnosis to treat effectively. The trauma could be their own - or their students'.

According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), more than half of all U.S. children have experienced some kind of trauma.

Whether you're a teacher, paraprofessional, counselor, or school resource officer, every staff member cares deeply about students. And that means being exposed to the traumas students bring into school every day, including poverty, grief, family problems, racism, drug abuse. The emotional and physical toll is often severe. Even if they have not endured trauma themselves, educators can begin exhibiting symptoms similar to those of their students - withdrawal, anxiety, depression, and chronic fatigue.

Secondary traumatic stress is sort of the consequence of being a good teacher. If you care about your students, you're probably not going to avoid it" - Jessica Lander, teacher

This is called secondary traumatic stress (STS), defined by the National Child Trauma Stress Network (NCTSN) as "the emotional duress that results when an individual hears about the firsthand trauma experiences of another."

Secondary traumatic stress has long been acknowledged as a condition affecting professions such as nurses, child welfare workers, first-responders, and counselors. It's taken a while, but STS is "beginning to be actualized as a real condition affecting teachers," says Steve Hydon, clinical professor and director of the School Social Work Program at the University of Southern California.

"What was once referred to as stress or educators 'having a bad day' - which might still be happening - has evolved. Schools are realizing the very real presence of STS."

The condition is likely more prevalent than anyone may realize, says Jessica Lander, a high school teacher in Lowell, Mass.

"Secondary traumatic stress is sort of the consequence of being a good teacher. If you care about students, you're probably not going to avoid it."

'It Drains Us'

Lander likely helped a lot of educators begin to understand STS last year with an article she wrote for the Harvard Graduate School of Education titled "Helping Teachers Manage the Weight of Trauma," a short primer on the condition complete with recommended resources. KQED MindShift picked up the story, which was soon widely shared across social media.

Research examining the impact of STS on educators, however, remains fairly thin.

A 2012 study conducted by the University of Montana did conclude that there is an increased risk for STS in school personnel. The study analyzed over 300 staff members in six schools in the northwest United States. The researchers found that "approximately 75 percent of the sample exceeded cut-offs on all three subscales of STS. Furthermore, 35.3 percent of participants reported at least moderate symptoms of depression."

The tendency to conflate conditions persists, despite the similarity in symptoms, says Hydon.

"Compassion fatigue," for example, is often used interchangeably with STS. Compassion fatigue "generally sets in over time, hence the 'fatigue'." explains Hydon. "Secondary traumatic stress can set in almost immediately because of a student experience."

Like fatigue or burnout, STS quickly spills over into educators' personal lives and likely hastens their exit from the profession.

"It seems like teachers have in some ways become case workers," LeaAnn Keck of Trauma Smart told Edutopia. "They get to know about their students' lives and the needs of their families, and with that can come secondary trauma."

Jennifer Pacatte, a teacher in Rochester, NY, considers herself fortunate that she has a network of support outside the school. When she began her career in the mid-1990s, she admits she didn't quite realize what she was was getting herself into beyond the role she had been trained for.

"I was not really prepared for how my students' lives outside of school would seep into the classroom and how that would so deeply affect me," she recalls.

"Every day, I would go home and think about my kids and their problems. Educators take that on, and it drains us. For newer teachers nowadays, it has to be even worse. They don't have the capacity to deal with the impact."

Keeping Educators Healthy

Data from the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH) showed that 46 percent of America's children had experienced at least one adverse childhood experience (ACE) with the number rising to 55 percent for children aged 12 to 17. One in five U.S. children have two or more of these experiences.

In the small rural district in eastern Washington where Steve Stroschein teaches, the number of ACEs students have experienced is staggering.

"More of our kids are affected by drug abuse, violence at home, poverty," he says. "We're a different school now than when I started in 1990, or even 2000."

As president of the Clarkston Education Association, Stroschein was concerned by the impact student trauma was having on educators in the district, particularly those just starting out. "As educators, our focus is always on the students, but we have to bring it back to ourselves. Our educators are stressed. They're struggling."

In 2018, he teamed up with the district superintendent to launch a modest initiative to help "keep our teachers healthy," Stroschein says. "We're emphasizing community-building within the school. Giving them a person to talk with, providing them with resources. We're a small district so we can make more of an effort to check in on all our staff to see how they're doing."

"It's important that they know we care. We can't leave our educators out on an island by themselves."

Last May, representatives from 39 National Education Association affiliates echoed Stroschein's concern at a gathering in Chicago to discuss trauma-informed schools. Participants noted that many members felt isolated as they neglected their own mental and physical health while they assisted students dealing with trauma.

In the r esulting report, NEA and the National Council of State Education Associations issued a series of recommendations around trauma-informed schools, including advocating for comprehensive mental health and employee assistance program supports for all educators. Acknowledging the need for self-care, NEA and NCSEA also urged affiliates to promote a campaign to counter the narrative that it's somehow selfish to look after yourself.

Not Only About Self-Care

Steve Hydon says educators have a responsibility to be aware of the importance of self-care and be proactively engaged in it.

"But it is also the school's responsibility to understand that trauma is inevitable and can impact anyone," he adds. "If we want healthy teachers in our classrooms, schools must acknowledge the importance of things like staff appreciation, involvement in decision-making, vacation time, mental health awareness and professional development training on ways to build and value self-care."

It's critical that these efforts are school or district-wide, says Jessica Lander, because an inordinate emphasis on self-care or "resilience" without adequate supports places too much of the burden on the individual educator.

"What was fascinating to me when I wrote the article last year," Lander recalls, "was the number of teachers who responded by saying, 'Oh my gosh, I have been feeling these things for years, and I didn't know it had a name.'"

That can be isolating for educators, making it more likely that they think it's just an individual problem that they alone have to address.

"If the teacher doesn't know what he or she is going through," Lander says, "the school or district has an obligation to tell them, 'We are going to name it and we are going to help you.'"

It's the compassionate and right thing to do, she adds, but "no teacher will do their best work if they are suffering from STS. The bottom line is strategies to support educators are always going to help students."

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'I Didn't Know It Had a Name': Secondary Traumatic Stress and Educators | NEA

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Not too long ago, many educators who complained of burnout were probably greeted with a collective shrug from school leaders. Teacher exhaustion or stress have often been dismissed as signs of weakness and an inability to cope. With schools and districts providing little in the way of support, the burden was always on educators to deal with whatever was dragging them down.

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Is there something you’ve always meant to do, wanted to do, but just ... haven’t? Matt Cutts suggests: Try it for 30 days. This short, lighthearted talk offers a neat way to think about setting and achieving goals.

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Digital Commons @ University of South Florida

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Abstract

This paper focuses on the profile of "Hannah," who was having a successful first year of teaching until February when her principal shifted gears. At this point administration expected, as Hannah quoted her principal, "to walk into your classroom, at any point of the day, and see you in front of the classroom and the kids sitting at desks answering bubble-in questions and not talking to each other." Hannah teaches first grade. Rather than being discouraged by this, Hannah turned to her knowledge of practitioner inquiry to systematically study and stand behind the professional decisions she knew she needed to make to provide her students with meaningful learning experiences. This paper used phenomenological interviewing to solicit the story of Hannah's journey, and using Hannah's own words crafted from transcribed interviews, discusses the importance of incorporating practitioner inquiry in preservice teacher education programs for the purposes of developing inquiry stance.

DOI

http://doi.org/10.5038/2379-9951.2.1.1028

Recommended Citation

Wolkenhauer, Rachel and Hooser, Angela (2017) ""Inquiry is Confidence": How Practitioner Inquiry Can Support New Teachers," Journal of Practitioner Research: Vol. 2 : Iss. 1 , Article 5.

http://doi.org/10.5038/2379-9951.2.1.1028

Available at: https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/jpr/vol2/iss1/5

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"Inquiry is Confidence": How Practitioner Inquiry Can Support New Teachers

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This paper focuses on the profile of "Hannah," who was having a successful first year of teaching until February when her principal shifted gears. At this point administration expected, as Hannah quoted her principal, "to walk into your classroom, at any point of the day, and see you in front of the classroom and the kids sitting at desks answering bubble-in questions and not talking to each other."

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Character and Servant Leadership: Ten Characteristics of Caring Leaders

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We are experiencing a rapid shift in many businesses and not-for-profit organizations- away from the more traditional autocratic and hierarchical models of leadership and toward servant leadership as a way of being in relationship with others.

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A good objective of leadership is to help those who are doing poorly to do well and to help those who are doing well to do even better. - Jim Rohn, American entrepreneur.

Everyone on Samit's team knows that he's "there for them." He checks in with them often to see how they are, and he helps them develop the skills they need to advance their careers, even if this means that they may move on.

Samit also makes an effort to see situations from others' perspectives. He makes decisions with the team's best interests in mind, and ensures that everyone has the resources and knowledge they need to meet their objectives.

As a result of this, his team is one of the most successful in the department, with low staff turnover and high engagement.

Samit is an example of a "servant leader." In this article, we'll explore what servant leadership is, and the advantages it can bring you as a leader. We'll also look at situations where it isn't appropriate.

What Is Servant Leadership?

Robert K. Greenleaf first coined the phrase "servant leadership" in his 1970 essay, " The Servant as a Leader." However, it's an approach that people have used for centuries.

As a servant leader, you're a "servant first" - you focus on the needs of others, especially team members, before you consider your own. You acknowledge other people's perspectives, give them the support they need to meet their work and personal goals, involve them in decisions where appropriate, and build a sense of community within your team. This leads to higher engagement, more trust, and stronger relationships with team members and other stakeholders. It can also lead to increased innovation.

However, servant leadership is problematic in hierarchical, autocratic cultures where managers and leaders are expected to make all the decisions. Here, servant leaders may struggle to earn respect.

Important:

Remember that servant leadership is about focusing on other people's needs - not their feelings. Don't avoid making unpopular decisions or giving team members negative feedback when this is needed.

Also, do not rely on it exclusively - use it alongside styles like Transformational Leadership, where you develop an inspiring vision of the future, motivate people to deliver this, manage its implementation, and build an ever-stronger team.

How to Become a Servant Leader

According to Larry C. Spears, former president of the Robert K. Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership, these are the 10 most important characteristics of servant leaders:

1. Listening.

2. Empathy.

3. Healing.

4. Awareness.

5. Persuasion.

6. Conceptualization.

7. Foresight.

8. Stewardship.

9. Commitment to the growth of people.

10. Building community.

Once you've decided to prioritize other people's needs over your own in the long term, you can work on developing your skills in each area. Let's look at how you can do this.

1. Listening

2. Empathy

3. Healing

This characteristic relates to the emotional health and "wholeness" of people, and involves supporting them both physically and mentally.

4. Self-Awareness

You can become more self-aware by knowing your strengths and weaknesses, and asking for other people's feedback on them. Also, learn to manage your emotions, so that you consider how your actions and behavior might affect others.

5. Persuasion

There are many tools and models that you can use to be more persuasive, without damaging relationships or taking advantage of others. You should also build your expert power - when people perceive you as an expert, they are more likely to listen to you when you want to persuade or inspire them.

6. Conceptualization

This characteristic relates to your ability to "dream great dreams," so that you look beyond day-to-day realities to the bigger picture.

7. Foresight

Foresight is when you can predict what's likely to happen in the future by learning from past experiences, identifying what's happening now, and understanding the consequences of your decisions.

You can use tools such as SWOT Analysis and PEST Analysis to think about your current situation and environment, while Scenario Analysis helps you understand how the future could play out. Use the ORAPAPA checklist when you make a decision, to learn from experience and make sure that you've considered all the angles.

Also, learn to trust your intuition - if your instinct is telling you that something is wrong, listen to it!

8. Stewardship

Stewardship is about taking responsibility for the actions and performance of your team, and being accountable for the role team members play in your organization.

9. Commitment to the Growth of People

Servant leaders are committed to the personal and professional development of everyone on their teams.

10. Building Community

The last characteristic is to do with building a sense of community within your organization.

You can do this by providing opportunities for people to interact with one another across the company. For instance, you could organize social events such as team lunches and barbecues, design your workspace to encourage people to chat informally away from their desks, and dedicate the first few minutes of meetings to non-work-related conversations.

Encourage people to take responsibility for their work, and remind them how what they do contributes to the success and overall objectives of the organization.

Tip:

See our article on Leadership Styles to explore popular leadership approaches and the advantages and disadvantages of each one.

And see this Expert Interview for a valuable discussion on the misconceptions and realities of servant leadership.

Key Points

You are a servant leader when you focus on the needs of others before you consider your own. It's a longer-term approach to leadership, rather than a technique that you can adopt in specific situations. Therefore, you can use it with other leadership styles such as Transformational Leadership.

You can become a servant leader by working on these 10 characteristics:

1. Listening.

2. Empathy.

3. Healing.

4. Awareness.

5. Persuasion.

6. Conceptualization.

7. Foresight.

8. Stewardship.

9. Commitment to the growth of people.

10. Building community.

Servant leaders are likely to have more engaged employees and enjoy better relationships with team members and other stakeholders than leaders who don't put the interests of others before their own.

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Servant Leadership: Putting Your Team First, and Yourself Second

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A good objective of leadership is to help those who are doing poorly to do well and to help those who are doing well to do even better. - Jim Rohn, American entrepreneur. Everyone on Samit's team knows that he's "there for them."

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Getting the best out of your team requires using a variety of management styles . The right style can help build trust , generate results, and motivate team members to action.

That said, the best style of leadership depends on what your goals are and your leadership style. If you have a desire to work toward the greater good or inspire your employees to make an impact, servant leadership might be right for you.

Let's define servant leadership and discuss the model's main principles and pros and cons. We'll also dive into some examples of how this type of leadership can be used to effectively motivate and inspire your team and fits into overall leadership training.

What is servant leadership?

The servant leadership style is based on the idea that leaders prioritize serving the greater good. Leaders with this style serve their team and organization first. They don't prioritize their own objectives.

Employees in a servant leadership environment are more likely to feel that their voices are heard. This makes them 4.6 times more likely to work to the best of their abilities. So what is servant leadership?

The term "servant leader" was first coined by Robert K. Greenleaf in 1970 in the essay "The Servant as Leader." Basically, the servant leadership style was based on the idea that leaders prioritize serving the greater good. Leaders with this style serve their team and organization first. They don't prioritize their own objectives.

Servant leadership seeks to achieve a vision by providing strong support to employees. In turn, this allows employees to learn and grow while bringing their own expertise and vision to the table. This hinges on building influence and authority rather than using control and toxic leadership tactics.

In servant leadership, employees are empowered. But the leader doesn't just disappear.

The servant leader focuses on:

Setting the strategic vision for the company and communicating that down to the team level

Encouraging ownership and extending supported trust to the team

Making sure that the team has the required resources, budget, skills, and attention to make an impact

Providing a framework within which their team can flourish (instead of prescribing them specific directions on each of their duties)

Bottom-up empowerment, which means building their team members' self-confidence, decision-making abilities, and collaboration skills

10 principles of servant leadership

Robert K. Greenleaf established 10 principles of servant leadership. The former president of the Robert K. Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership, Larry C. Spears, breaks down these 10 principles as follows.

1. Listening: It's important to fully listen to members of the team without interrupting.

2. Empathy: It's important to get to know your team so that you can use empathetic leadership to help them grow.

3. Healing: Members of your team may have trauma from previous toxic work experiences. Help others to create a healthy work-life balance to give them the space to heal.

4. Self-awareness: A servant leader must also recognize their own strengths and weaknesses. This is to understand how they fit within the overall team.

5. Persuasion: Servant leaders can use persuasion and influence instead of just power to get team members to be on the same page.

6. Conceptualization: Servant leaders need to be able to use big-picture thinking. With this, they can conceptualize plans for their team and their organization.

7. Foresight: It's important to use what you and your team learn to improve in the future.

8. Stewardship: Lead by example so that your team can do what you do, not just do what you say.

9. Commitment to the growth of people: You need to allocate time and resources to help people and teams grow. Tools like organizational training, development programs, and growth and transformation coaching can help.

10. Building community: Servant leadership requires building relationships between co-workers. As a result, team members learn to trust each other and become more productive.

7 characteristics of servant leadership

Servant leadership is about empowering your team and helping create a positive work environment. But what does it actually look like? Let's break down the seven characteristics of servant leadership.

1. Teamwork: The team needs to come first.

2. Employee satisfaction: Employee satisfaction and cooperation turn the wheel.

3. Adaptability: Servant leadership varies from revenue-focused sales environments to non-profit organizations that set out to promote social good.

4. Motivation: Servant leaders provide high levels of support to employees, fueling motivation and engagement.

5. Transparent communication: The team trusts a leader who can provide clarity, even in complex, changing situations.

6. Authenticity: Servant leaders need to genuinely care about individual and team development. Leadership much embrace authenticity.

7. Accountability: Ownership activates commitment and purpose. Employees work toward goals they've set for themselves and take responsibility for the results.

Servant leadership vs. traditional leadership

"Servant first" leadership represents the opposite of the traditional leadership model. Traditional leadership is defined as a model of leadership where the leader is seen as the central point of the team. Employees are there to support the leader's efforts to meet company goals.

In contrast, servant leadership puts the needs of others at the forefront. Under this leadership philosophy, the more you invest in serving as a "scaffold" for your employees, the more productive your team becomes.

Here are three more ways that servant leadership is different from traditional leadership:

More inclusive: A servant leader must foster an inclusive culture in their team. Inclusive teams allow every person to build a sense of belonging. This gives them a chance to thrive.

Focused on the team, more than the customer: Servant leaders focus on their team's needs, but this doesn't mean that customers don't benefit. Servant leaders focus on the growth and well-being of the team. As such, they can create high-performing professionals who can serve customers better.

Greater emphasis on ethics: Servant leadership has ethical implications that aren't as prominent in traditional leadership. Servant leaders who behave in an unethical way may cause issues within their team, such as decreased motivation and growth.

What does servant leadership look like in practice?

Successful servant leaders have a genuine desire to serve employees. They're also effective, charismatic decision-makers and clear when they set expectations.

Here are some concrete examples of servant leadership.

1. Being an example - humility, authenticity, and trust

Humility must be the foundation of your leadership. If you speak out of superiority and power, your subordinates will do what you say out of fear. Instead, your actions and words should be a credible and genuine model to follow.

2. Showing why the work is essential - awareness and purpose

In the mechanism of a clock, each part is crucial. The same goes for any team. Each employee is essential to the team's operation.

Making sure this message reaches employees can increase their motivation. It can also enhance their performance.

One way to do this is by talking explicitly about the downstream impact of their work. You can show them the impact both inside the company and out.

Talk less about numbers and metrics and more about the person or people who'll use and build on what they've done. Always link their specific achievements to wider organizational goals. This fosters a deeper connection to the company's mission.

Most importantly, recognize the good work they are doing. Many workers consider recognition of their achievements to be the most important aspect of a role.

3. Encouraging collaboration - community-building and commitment

As a servant leader, you're the engine that generates a sense of community and teamwork.

Increase collaboration by encouraging employee commitment to each other. You can also encourage them to delegate responsibility. Finally, you can involve team members in decision-making processes.

For example, ask them what they'd like to do on that new project or how they think they can add value to their work. The key here is to be patient and take the time to do this. It can be so tempting in today's busy world to just get through the day without caring for your employees and their needs - but servant leaders are different.

4. Supporting the team's growth and development - foresight and resourcefulness

Identifying and anticipating the needs of employees is a major aspect of the servant leader's role.

For example, when assigning project duties to each team member, make sure you provide the resources or the ability to procure them. Act from a service-first mindset, and you'll truly empower them to accomplish their tasks.

5. Caring for the members of the team - empathy and compassion

Similarly, the servant leader will cultivate a friendly environment. In this environment, employees should feel comfortable. They shouldn't feel threatened by expressing specific complaints or asking questions.

In this context, it seems especially important to favor empathy and understanding. For example, when your employee comes to you with a complaint about a coworker, you don't dismiss it because you're busy. You take the time to help them work through the conflict and ultimately resolve it. You're compassionate.

6. Asking for feedback - listening skills

Promote a sufficient level of relationship with the employee that favors active and close listening. A servant leader asks open-ended and follow-up questions as a matter of course, not just when something's wrong. They're receptive to feedback - they don't just give it.

Pros and cons of servant leadership

The servant leadership style can amp up an employee's motivation and courage to be more creative and innovative. This is because leaders give ownership and some control to employees. Doing this can:

On the other hand, getting it right takes time, energy, and skill.

Getting to really know people, their motivations, and areas of growth takes time. It takes time to translate a vision into clear objectives and priorities. It also takes time to communicate this vision clearly to the team. The results don't happen overnight. It's not easy.

Let's examine the main pros and cons of this leadership style.

Pros of servant leadership

The characteristics of success are well-defined

Builds deeper, trust-based relationships

Encourages greater ownership and responsibility

Encourages innovation, curiosity, and creativity

Develops a people-focused culture

Delivers a significant positive impact on company performance

A strong method for ensuring decisions are made in the best interests of the company

By serving the employees of a company, you are serving the customer

A high level of internal staff growth

Develops future leaders

Boosts morale across teams

Leaders earn respect from team members

Employees feel more valued and appreciated in the workplace

Improves pride in work

Cons of servant leadership

The concept can be difficult to communicate

Can be more time-consuming for leaders

Can be difficult to attain - it's a constant journey rather than an end goal

Requires a high level of authenticity that can be difficult to achieve

Retraining existing leaders as servant leaders can be tough and time-consuming

Some may perceive servant leaders as weak or ineffective

The formal authority of the leader may be diminished

Team members are expected to make a decision, but they might not have a strong understanding of the big picture

Different leadership styles across teams can cause confusion

Employees may not have the necessary confidence to take charge and drive the business forward

The initial speed of decision-making is slower due to high team involvement

Potential for misalignment among team

It may be out of sync with corporate performance management and incentive systems

Decreased motivation and resourcefulness when the leader intervenes to fix issues for the team

How to become a "servant first" leader

Servant leadership is a transformational leadership style, but it takes some practice. Here's where you can focus your efforts to embody servant leadership characteristics.

1. Build strong communication skills

Servant leadership theory is built around getting the most out of your team. To do that, you're going to need to be able to communicate organizational objectives and missions clearly. This is so that they are properly equipped to make wise decisions.

Working on communication skills such as conciseness, body language, and clarity will help you achieve this.

2. Improve your listening skills

Communication isn't all about what you say, though.

This management style is all about hearing your team members' points of view. Practice your active listening skills to really understand their decision-making process.

3. Develop empathy

Empathy is crucial in a leadership role. It's especially important for servant leadership. Empathy means being able to put yourself in another person's shoes. It allows you to see things from their perspective.

This is a vital skill to practice if you're looking to become a transformational leader.

4. Work on your self-awareness

Charismatic leaders may be charming and great at communicating their ideas. But it's important that they are also strongly aware of their own limitations.

Developing your self-awareness means noticing how you act and what you say and the impact it has on those around you. Part of this is also recognizing where your actions don't align with your ideal vision of yourself and determining a clear path to rectify this.

5. Learn to use your influence for good

Persuasion is a part of being a good leader. It means being able to convince others that your thinking is the right path.

This skill might be seen as a slightly different leadership style from servant leadership. But there's a place for persuasion as a servant leader.

Here's an example. If your team is divided on an issue, you may need to bring your skills of persuasion and influence into play to land on a unanimous decision.

6. Start putting others first

An autocratic leader is one who looks out for themselves primarily. That's the opposite of the servant leadership model.

To be an effective leader, it's important to develop your selflessness. This means you look out for the goals and well-being of others before you think about your own goals.

Of course, there's a line to respect. You still need to look after your own well-being. But the point is to deprioritize your own agenda.

Doing so will improve employee engagement, which is a factor known to increase employee performance by as much as 73%.

7. Keep the organization's goals in mind

The servant leadership approach still centers around achieving organizational goals. This is true even while prioritizing team engagement.

As such, it's important to keep these goals in mind. Don't let the interests of any individual move the needle to a point where you are no longer following these objectives.

Your job as the leader is to guide the team toward a decision that makes sense with the company's vision in mind.

8. Learn how to develop others holistically

Other leadership styles have different approaches to developing employees. Usually, the goal is to improve employee efficiency and productivity. This is true for democratic leadership or autocratic leadership.

Efficiency and productivity are still important under the servant leadership model. But it's just as crucial to coach each team member so they can develop better:

Decision-making skills

Communication skills

Big-picture thinking

Developing your direct reports more holistically will improve team capabilities. It can also increase employee engagement.

Engagement is great, not only from their perspective (as they feel more fulfilled by their work) but also from the viewpoint of the company. Businesses simply measuring employee engagement have been shown to increase profits by as much as 24%.

Employ servant leadership at any level

It's not necessary to have a highly influential role in your company to start practicing the servant leadership style. But it's a practice that has a huge impact on employee well-being and engagement.

Lead projects by supporting the rest of your colleagues, addressing their needs, and providing resources and support. This can create positive results at any level.

Practice your communication skills, develop empathy, work on your self-awareness, and be sure to focus on developing your employees more holistically. Do this, and you'll be well on your way to becoming a capable and effective servant leader.

Need someone to speak with about your servant leadership development journey? Request a custom demo to speak with a coach.

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Servant Leadership: Definition Plus Benefits and Drawbacks

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Servant leadership is all about prioritizing the greater good over your agenda. Learn how this style of leadership can help you empower your team.

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Are you wondering what the term "situational leadership" means, why it's important, and how it applies in the workplace? This article provides a situational leadership definition, an overview of the four situational leadership styles, and situational leadership examples so you can recognize them when you see them.

Think back to early in your career. Did you have a manager who explained things to you, guided you, and helped you stay on track in your role? Perhaps they gave you step-by-step instructions on how to complete a task or checked in with you daily to answer questions. When you didn't have much experience or expertise, this type of management style could have been instrumental to your success and career growth.

Fast forward to later in your career, once you'd gained the knowledge, skills, and expertise to fulfill your role and meet your goals with ease. A manager that explained why and how things were done a certain way, constantly checked on your status, and frequently offered unsolicited advice might be considered a micromanager.

Different levels of expertise require different management styles. So, too, can different situations or tasks. While a manager might normally let a high performer take charge of their own projects, a high-profile project within the company or a crisis situation might dictate that a manager get more involved.

And there's no need for it to be all or nothing. Leadership and management dimensions tend to exist on a spectrum.

Today's fast-changing business environment requires managers to take a nimble and responsive approach to whatever is arising in their team, work environment, competitive market, and organization.

As any great leader knows, there are a lot of variables to consider when working with a team of people, each with their own background, personality, learning style, experience, ego, and motivators. Thinking about dialing up or down across multiple leadership dimensions in response to these variables is the crux of how we define situational leadership.

Situational leadership can help managers better adapt to their work environments, and to the people they lead.

What is situational leadership?

Situational leadership is a way of adjusting one's management style to adapt to each situation or task, and the needs of the team or team member.

The Situational Leadership Theory was developed by Ken Blanchard and Paul Hersey in 1969, under the notion that there is no "one size fits all" leadership style. Instead, the model provides a framework for leaders to diagnose the development level of an employee or team for a task and adapt their leadership approach accordingly.

"54 percent of leaders use only one leadership style, regardless of the situation, which means that 50 percent of the time, leaders are using the wrong leadership style to meet the needs of their people."

Ken Blanchard, Author of The One-Minute Manager

The situational leadership model considers employee competence and commitment levels, which may vary across different challenges and performance areas. It also considers the complexity of the task and the level of direction and support required from the leader.

This flexibility allows leaders to meet each situation that arises with the leadership style that will bring out the best in employees and give them the highest chance of success.

What are the four leadership styles of situational leadership?

Blanchard and Hersey's situational leadership matrix describes four leadership behavioral styles that may be used, depending upon the situation.

1. Telling (S1) - Telling, or directing, is useful when a team or team member requires close supervision and regular guidance. The leader makes decisions and directs the team or team members on their roles. This can include providing instructions to novice team members or taking charge in an emergency.

2. Selling (S2) - Selling, or persuading, is useful when a team or team member has some competence, but perhaps not enough to be successful, or when they are unmotivated. The leader is open to feedback and collaboration in order to boost the team or team member's participation. Leaders utilizing this style may be helping team members to develop or improve their skills or encouraging buy-in to a larger vision.

3. Participating (S3) - Participating, or sharing is useful when a team or team member has the competence required to actively participate in planning and decision making. Leaders using this style are typically collaborative in their approach to problem-solving and decision-making, letting their teams and team members make decisions within their areas of expertise.

4. Delegating (S4) - Delegating is useful when a team or team member has a high level of competence and is self-motivated. Leaders leveraging this style will set a vision, outline desired outcomes, grant clear authority, and then get out of the way.

What are some examples of when a situational leadership style might best be used?

These situational leadership styles are most effective when appropriately paired with one of the four developmental levels of team members:

Low competence, high commitment (D1) - These are developing team members who may not yet have the specific skill set required for a task, but they have a high level of commitment to the task itself. This might call for a more directive style (S1) in which the leader tells the employee what to do, and how and when to do it. What can help? Connecting them to more experienced peers and side-by-side coaching in the flow of work to accelerate skills development.

Some competence, low commitment (D2) - These are team members who may have some skills, but not at the level required to be successful in performing a task, and who aren't fully engaged in the mission. This often calls for a leadership style where the leader coaches team members in how to solve problems and engages them in the process (S2). What can help? Demonstrate commitment to the individual by recognizing their specific contributions, supporting their development needs, and talking openly about your own search for meaning and purpose in the work.

High competence, variable commitment (D3) - These developed team members are highly skilled, sometimes more expert than the leader in their field, but they may be experiencing a lack of drive or confidence around performing a particular task. The most appropriate leadership style to use here is one that supports team members and encourages participation (S3) so the skills and knowledge of the team can be applied to the challenge at hand. What can help? Tapping into a team member's desire for impact and sense of meaning or purpose.

High competence, high commitment (D4) - These developed team members are highly skilled, sometimes more so than the leader, and they have a high level of motivation and commitment. The leadership style that best supports this situation is delegation (S4), where the leader empowers team members to make decisions and take independent action (within clearly defined boundaries) toward achieving agreed-upon goals. What can help? Share more context about the organizational goals and constraints so the team member can make more informed decisions and better develop approaches that achieve the organization's goals.

What does a situational leader do?

Situational leadership requires leaders to have multiple leadership styles and to move flexibly among them. This might require practice to develop. Leaders may have a "comfort zone" or a natural tendency toward a particular management style - and so might the organization. This can make it challenging to develop the full scope needed to be an effective situational leader.

It's important for leaders to stretch this way, though, because different situations and people require different approaches and leadership styles to bring out the best results. Just like we need multiple tools to build a house, we need multiple leadership styles to meet the challenges that arise in today's rapidly changing and increasingly diverse work environment. It often takes conscious effort to develop these skills.

A strong leader should develop the following characteristics of situational leadership include:

Flexibility - A situational leader is paying close attention to the changing needs of the team, task, and organization and adjusts their leadership style as needed to bring out the best in team members and ensure successful outcomes.

Active listening - In order to identify what is going on and accurately diagnose and provide what team members need, a situational leader must constantly leverage their active listening skills and seek to understand.

Clear direction - Situational leaders must be effective at providing the level of support and direction team members require.

Encourage participation - Situational leaders engage in behaviors that create psychological safety and opportunities for team members to share their thoughts, experience, and input. They also have the skills required to effectively delegate authority to team members as appropriate.

Coaching skills - To be most effective, situational leaders need to develop their ability to coach a wide range of developmental levels so they can meet team members where they are and support them in getting where they need to be.

What are some situational leadership examples?

Leaders such as U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, General Colin Powell, Head Coach John Wooden, and Head Coach Patricia Sue Summit can all attribute at least a portion of their success to the use of a situational leadership style.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Dwight D. Eisenhower was the supreme allied commander during World War II and, later, president of the United States. His success in each of these roles is often attributed to his ability to leverage different leadership styles in each situation.

During the war, he became known for his ability to balance "the interests and egos of a galaxy of generals and political leaders." He was also known to walk among the troops, shaking hands and boosting spirits.

His ability to adapt to various situations and people helped him become a great diplomat and leader, eventually winning two terms as President of the United States.

Colin Powell

Colin Powell is a former general in the U.S. Army, Secretary of State, National Security Advisor, and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. His roles have dictated that he be a decisive leader, and his military rank assumes that his subordinates follow orders.

Still, he believed in taking a situational leadership approach with his commanders in the Army. He recognized that they all had different personalities, experience levels, skills, strengths, and weaknesses.

He shares, "I am a situational leader and I adjust my style, within limits, to the strengths and weaknesses of my subordinates, so I understand what they can and what they can't do, and I understand where I have to compensate for their weaknesses and where I can take advantage of their strengths - each one is different. As long as they get the job done efficiently and in a more than satisfactory manner, I am prepared to live with the differences that exist between human beings. They are human beings, they're not clones, they're all different and I think the best leaders are the ones that can analyze a subordinate or a human being and how to figure out how to get the best out of that individual."

John Wooden

John Wooden is the former UCLA men's basketball coach and considered by many to be one of the best in American history. Under his leadership, the Bruins won 10 championships, seven of them consecutive. They even racked up an 88-game winning streak spanning three seasons, even with a team that was constantly changing.

Wooden's ability and willingness to adjust his leadership style to adapt to the changing team dynamics and needs of his players can be summed up in his quote: "When you're through learning, you're through."

Pat Summitt

Patricia Sue Summitt was head coach of the University of Tennessee Lady Volunteer basketball team for 38 years and named the 11th greatest coach - of any sport - of all time.

Her ever-changing college basketball team won eight national titles and 1,098 out of 1,306 games over her 38-year career as head coach. She was also named head coach for the U.S. women's basketball team that brought home the gold from the 1984 Olympics.

She accomplished this by setting unrelenting standards for her team members and getting to know each one individually, pushing them to their personal limits.

Why is situational leadership effective?

Situational leadership is a highly flexible and responsive leadership style that adapts to the needs of individual employees and situations. It comes very intuitively to many leaders and is straightforward to apply. Leaders simply evaluate the situation and decide which leadership style is most supportive.

Situational leaders tend to stay in close communication with team members, constantly assessing and adjusting their approach to provide what is needed to support success. This helps them to build strong relationships with the team, which in turn creates a better work environment in which employees feel valued as individuals.

What are the disadvantages of situational leadership?

Like all leadership styles, there can be some disadvantages to situational leadership:

Can create confusion: Depending on how clearly a situational leader communicates, this leadership style can cause confusion within teams and organizations if employees perceive the leader to be arbitrary and inconsistent in their leadership approach.

Typically focused on short-term goals: The tendency for situational leaders to focus on responding to what is arising in the present moment can cause a disconnect from the larger vision. A strong situational leader will take this into account and develop their ability to keep long-term goals in sight, even when handling short-term issues.

Risks putting too much responsibility on the leader: Situational leadership requires the ability to discern and assess what is needed in any given situation so the leader can respond appropriately. When evaluating the competence and commitment of each team member, leaders may not have all the skills or knowledge needed to make an accurate assessment - or they may be misled, especially if an employee is trying to appear knowledgeable. Sometimes leaders confuse emotional maturity and confidence with experience-based maturity and competence.

Final thoughts on situational leadership examples

The ability to adapt to different people and situations can make for a more versatile, effective leader who does well in a diverse team and dynamic work environment.

But that's not to say that other leadership styles can't work. Every leader is different-just as every team member is different-and may have their own style, strengths, and weaknesses. Sometimes, simply being aware of the different styles can make a leader more aware of their own style, borrowing bits and pieces to improve their leadership skills.

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Situational leadership examples and how to develop this management style

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Are you wondering what the term "situational leadership" means, why it's important, and how it applies in the workplace? This article provides a situational leadership definition, an overview of the four situational leadership styles, and situational leadership examples so you can recognize them when you see them.

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Lee Bolman is an author, scholar, consultant and speaker who recently retired as Professor and Marion Bloch/Missouri Chair in Leadership at the University of Missouri-Kansas City.

His most recent books include Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice and Leadership (6th ed., 2017), How Great Leaders Think: The Art of Reframing (2014) and Reframing the Path to School Leadership (3d ed., 2018), all with Terry Deal, as well as two books with Joan Gallos: Engagement: Transforming Difficult Relationships at Work (2016), and Reframing Academic Leader ship (2011). His other bookswith Terry Deal include The Wizard and the Warrior: Leading with Passion and Power (2006); Leading with Soul: an Uncommon Journey of Spirit (3rd ed., 2011); ); Escape from Cluelessness: a Guide for the Organizationally-Challenged (2000); Becoming a Teacher Leader (1994); and Modern Approaches to Understanding and Managing Organizations (1984). Bolman and Deal's books have been translated into more than ten languages. His publications also include cases, chapters, and articles in scholarly and professional journals.

Lee consults and lectures worldwide to corporations, public agencies, universities and schools. He holds a B.A. in History and a Ph.D. in Organizational Behavior from Yale University. Prior to coming to UMKC, he taught for four years at Carnegie-Mellon University and more than twenty years at Harvard. He has also taught as a visiting lecturer at the Yale School of Organization and Management. His administrative roles at UMKC have included Interim Dean of the Bloch School of Management, and chair of the department of Organizations, Leadership and Marketing. At Harvard he served as director and principal investigator for the National Center for Educational Leadership and for the Harvard School Leadership Academy, with a total of $3 million in external funding. He was also educational chair for two Harvard executive programs -- the Institute for Educational Management and the Management Development program.

He lives in Brookline, Massachusetts, with his wife, Joan Gallos, and an energetic Springer Spaniel, Charles Darwin.

[Updated July, 2019]

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Lee Bolman is an author, scholar, consultant and speaker who recently retired as Professor and Marion Bloch/Missouri Chair in Leadership at the University of Missouri-Kansas City.

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Learning Leadership:
Bolman and Deal
Four Frames

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How you frame an idea will impact on your perception. Understanding your own frames of reference will help you choreograph change moves.http://leadinglearners.wordpress.com/2014/10/07/what-are-your-favourite-four-frames-of-leadership/ This video is part of a QUT online module that explores leadership as a dance with followers, and draws on the work of Ehrich and English (2012) and Bolman and Deal (2014) and is hosted by Dr Jill Willis from QUT Faculty of Education, Brisbane (http://staff.qut.edu.au/staff/willisje/).