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This summer UK leaders and influencers are going back into schools to inspire young people to combat plastics waste by taking part in the Great British Plastics Challenge.

Launching on World Oceans Day on the 8th June, The Great British Plastics Challenge is a national campaign in partnership with Business in the Community and the Environment Agency that will use the help of over 30 leading figures to go into schools across the UK to speak about the issue of plastic waste, what their organisation is doing about plastic pollution and their personal commitment to help tackle the plastics issue. These are influential figures who are shaping environmental attitudes in business, politics, culture and society who will take part in school events to help persuade students why they should join the #PlasticsChallenge this summer.

Leaders from top UK brands and organisations have pledged their support, including but not limited to:

Anglian Water

Fortnum & Mason

Iceland

John Lewis Partnership

Keep Britain Tidy

KPMG

Sainsbury's

Thames Water

Unilever

Veolia

Yorkshire Water

Walgreens Boots Alliance

World Wildlife Fund

Take a look at the list on the right to see some of the ambassador speakers who are giving their time to the campaign. These leaders will be speaking to students about what they or their business are doing about plastic waste, some of whom will also be pledging to one of the challenges below.
For the full press release and supporting speakers see the main Press Release.

We are looking for over 3,000 students across the country to take part this summer, with their school, family, friends or on their own. Yes, anyone can do this but we are especially looking for 11-18 year olds to get involved in the below... will you be taking part?

1. See the challenges below - share the challenge YOU hope to complete on Twitter or Instagram using #PlasticsChallenge so that your pledge can be counted and tag us!

2. Use below to find out more about completing a challenge. Each one includes how you can get involved as well as links to helpful resources, other charities and events.

3. If you want to do even more, you can 'amp up' your challenge by taking it further - like getting your school involved, influencing a business (like writing a letter)... and much more!

To take part in the challenge, all you have to do is pledge to commit to of the following and we will be sharing your #PlasticsChallenge with our national network and influencers.

Which will you choose?

CHALLENGE ONE: Say no to the 'big four'

Give up plastic shopping bags, disposable coffee cups, plastic straws AND plastic bottles for at least 2 months.

How: This is mostly about your habits, and remembering to bring re-usable bottles, bags and/or cups where possible.

CHALLENGE TWO: Take action in the community

Take part in an organised beach or street clean up via our affiliated campaign partners or set one up yourself.

How: Surfers Against Sewage run community tidy-ups year round which you can search for here-these can be ANY type of beach or public space, so don't worry if you're not by the sea. You can also do your very own litter pick locally with a friend or class, but remember you need to share it on Instagram or Twitter using #plasticschallenge for it to count towards this summer's challenge!

Have your teacher register with Eco-Schools at Keep Britain Tidy - a 'tidy up' is one of the steps towards your school or college earning a Green Flag. They also run a national Great British Tidy Up each spring!

CHALLENGE THREE: Influence a local business

Persuade a local business (café, restaurant) to say no to single-use plastic straws.

How? We have a short PDF here on how to do this!

Did you know Amp it up: Surfers Against Sewage (www.sas.org.uk) have a whole pack on how to be a Plastic Free Community Leader ? This includes writing to local businesses and politicians, and other ways you can 'join the resistance'!

Who else can get invovled

Everyone can be apart of the above challenges - teachers, professionals, families - but if you are looking to get your organisation involved do see below!

Schools, Academies & Colleges >>>

First of all, your teachers are encouraged to take part in the above too! But if you are looking for a school-wide project, see the below:

Eco-Schools a project of Keep Britain Tidy - A global initiative giving students the chance to learn about their community and environment, with student-led projects helping their schools earn a Green Flag!

Wastebuster - Projects, classroom resources and challenges to help Primary School aged students understand waste issues and empower them to help change their environment for the better.

Surfers Against Sewage - In addition to beach cleans and community action, SAS are enlisting schools like yours to be Plastic Free Schools!

Employers >>>

Employers in all sectors will play a major role in affecting change when it comes to reducing plastic waste. To get involved with the #PlasticsChallenge:

Share: If your business is already taking action on the plastics issue, share your support, approach and photos on LinkedIn and Twitter using #PlasticsChallenge - from new products to internal moves towards a plastic-free office, we want to share these to inspire even more businesses!

Join: Visit Business in the Community's website for more information and guidance on how your organisation can break up with plastic and be a part of their long-term work with leading companies across the UK.

Individuals, Families & All >>>

Already helping spread the word and taking part in the above? Here are some other great organisations and projects that are helping tackle waste pollution:

City to Sea - A community interest company dedicated to preventing plastic pollution at the source. They have some innovative schemes on their website about reducing plastic waste such as:

ReFill - A national scheme to install water refill points across to country. Download your app to find the refill stations!

Green Redeem - Sign up to the app and earn points when you recyle, save water or do something 'green'. You can redeem your points for discounts and prizes!

Don't forget, if you're taking part in the challenge to use the #PlasticsChallenge - otherwise your pledge won't be counted!

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Launching on World Oceans Day on the 8th June, The Great British Plastics Challenge is a national campaign in partnership with Business in the Community and the Environment Agency that will use the help of over 30 leading figures to go into schools across the UK to speak about the issue of plastic waste, what their organisation is doing about plastic pollution and their personal commitment to help tackle the plastics issue.

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TOGETHER, OUR VOICES ARE LOUDER.

Between 10th and 18th June, people across the country came together in a nationwide celebration of community action to tackle climate change and protect nature.

The Great Big Green Week helped to show decision makers that people everywhere are stepping up to show their support for a safer future - and it's time for the government to do the same.

Sign up to our newsletter to be the first to hear about our upcoming campaigns.

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The Climate Coalition is the UK's largest group of people dedicated to action against climate change.

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A step by step guide

Let's Eliminate Single-Use Plastic Together

The Plastic Free Schools programme is calling for leaders to establish Plastic Free Committees at schools across the UK. Together you will work to eliminate single-use plastics. Stopping them escaping into the environment and causing harm to the places we love.

HOW TO ACHIEVE PLASTIC FREE SCHOOLS STATUS.

By reading this web page you are already taking a vital step towards achieving Plastic Free Schools Status.
There are five objectives that your school
needs to achieve. In each objective you will be inspiring others to take action, fighting plastic pollution from the ground up through amnesty days, trash mobs and challenging not
just your fellow pupils but government and industry too.
Each of the five objectives has a downloadable lesson plan which will enable, empower and kick start your pupils into taking the steps towards becoming a Plastic Free School.

Join The Resistance: Objective One - It is time to resist this plastic flood. If you don't act who on earth will? The environment needs YOU to take action on single-use plastics. Starting NOW, in your school. [Download Objective One]

On The Ground Action: Objective Two - Let's eliminate single-use plastic together. To complete objective 2 you are going to inspire your fellow schoolmates to boycott single-use plastic bottles. Stemming the flow of plastic pollution before tackling the pieces that have already escaped by organising a very serious TRASH MOB!! (*a trash mob is a high energy litter pick in the school grounds, pupils are encouraged to run, jump and even shout while undertaking this task.)[Download Objective Two]

Challenging Government: Objective Three - Never underestimate the power of your voice. Using everything you have learnt so far, write a letter to your local MP. Your local MP has been chosen to represent YOU and the community you live in. Let's put them to work and ask for their support! [Download Objective Three]

Challenging Industry: Objective Four -Industry spends a lot of time and money making themselves and their products look good. More often than not it is the branded products that we find littering our playgrounds, streets, woodlands, and beaches.[Download Objective Four]

You are the resistance: Objective Five - Creating a plastic-free legacy at your school. Your collective actions will already be sending a powerful message to the rest of your school and beyond. Objective five is simple we need to pledge to make these commitments last.[Download Objective Five]

Objective Complete? Let us know!

As soon as you and your pupils have completed one of the objectives send your evidence to Educatio n Officer Ellie on education@sas.org.uk

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Plastic Free Schools Online * Surfers Against Sewage

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A step by step guide Let's Eliminate Single-Use Plastic Together The Plastic Free Schools programme is calling for leaders to establish Plastic Free Committees at schools across the UK. Together you will work to eliminate single-use plastics. Stopping them escaping into the environment and causing harm to the places we love.

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New strategy to reduce plastic waste gets green light

Devon County Council will phase out its use of the most polluting single-use plastic products within two years.
Members of the Council's Cabinet voted unanimously to support the move, which is part of a new action plan to help cut the amount of single-use plastic waste in Devon.

The 'Plastics Strategy' outlines how various single-use plastic food and beverage packaging and tableware (such as cutlery and cups) will be removed from Council work locations by 2020.

It also summarises how the Council will use its position and responsibility to raise awareness of the issues surrounding single-use plastics and encourage and support collective action across the county.
Councillor Roger Croad, Devon County Council's Cabinet Member for Environmental Services, said:
"Waste and recycling is a major concern for the people of Devon, and we are proud to be one of the top performing authorities when it comes to recycling the waste we collect. We want to build on this success and help tackle the unnecessary use of single-use plastics in Devon.

"I am pleased that my council colleagues have shown so much support for our plan. Their unanimous vote today demonstrations to our partners, businesses and communities that we take this issue seriously and are keen to set a good example of what can be done.

"It is vital that we all work towards adopting more sustainable practices to better protect our environment."

The action was inspired by a plea from two children from Georgeham C of E Primary School who gave a presentation to Devon's Cabinet in December calling on councillors to do everything they could to cut plastic in the environment. The North Devon primary school was the first school in the UK to achieve the Surfers Against Sewage Plastic Free Schools status.

And today, Councillor John Hart, the Leader of Devon County Council invited the two Georgeham school children to the Full Council meeting next month, to see the Plastics Strategy adopted.
Head Teacher for Georgeham CofE Primary School, Julian Thomas, said:
"Our school is thrilled that Devon County Council is moving forwards so rapidly with this issue. The children are very aware of plastic pollution in our global community; they experience it far too often and they showed great confidence in wanting to do something about it. It's good to know that the children's ambitions for looking after the environment are heard and taken seriously. We think that that the new action plan is a great strategy to reduce and further remove single-use plastics and the children will be inspired to do similar actions in the future... which is what we all want!"

The strategy, which is the first of its kind for a county council has received support from marine conservation charity Surfers Against Sewage 'Plastic Free Coastlines' campaign.

James Harvey, Surfers Against Sewage Campaign Officer, said:

"This is fantastic news for the environment and sends a great message of support to communities, businesses, schools and community groups across the county who are working hard to reduce or eliminate avoidable single-use plastics.

"County councils are in a unique position to lead change on plastic pollution, as shown by the level of vision and ambition contained in the plastics strategy being unveiled today.

"We hope other councils will be inspired to emulate Devon County Council's strategic approach because plastic pollution is no longer just a litter issue that we can pick our way out of. It's a system-wide pollution issue that requires bold, unified action such as this."

With 12 objectives across four themes the strategy and action plan covers everything from changes within the organisation to working with suppliers and contractors to minimise the consumption of single-use plastics. It also sets out how the Council will use its network of relationships and various partnerships to engage people in the issues surrounding single-use plastics and encourage communities to act to reduce waste.

As part of the plan the Council will become a member of the Plastic Pollution Coalition - the organisation which represents all the environmental bodies promoting going plastic free.

A copy of the strategy, along with the action plan, is available on the Council's website.

Posted in: Community | DCC Homepage | Environment

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New strategy to reduce plastic waste gets green light

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Devon County Council will phase out its use of the most polluting single-use plastic products within two years. Members of the Council's Cabinet voted unanimously to support to the move, which is part of a new action plan to help cut the amount of single-use plastic waste in Devon.

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DCC Strategy and Action Plan for Plastics.pdf

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Plymouth Waterfront joins the war on single use plastic

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On the same day that Plymouth becomes the first UK city district to announce its accreditation with 'Plastic Free Communities' status for its iconic waterfront, a major new plan to tackle single use plastics and plastic pollution in Plymouth is being launched by key partners in the city.

The Plan For Plastics, which is being officially launched at The Dome in the spectacular setting of Plymouth's Hoe on Friday 8 June, is a partnership plan developed by members of the Plymouth, Britain's Ocean City Plastics Taskforce.

The launch comes during a week of action on plastics in Plymouth, in which the city has hosted major events such as an International Marine Park Conference, the launch of citywide initiatives including reusable plastic bottles and cups, as well as a series of smaller events to tackle plastic litter such as beach cleans and litter picks.

The Plymouth Plastic Free Communities accreditation issued by charity Surfers Against Sewage is the first to be awarded to a city waterfront district in the UK and marks the first step towards the delivery of the citywide Plan for Plastics.

The announcement comes after the application, led by Environment Plymouth, and supported by the Plymouth Waterfront Partnership, Plymouth City Council and the National Marine Aquarium, secured 70 business pioneers and 50 community ambassadors who have all pledged to give up at least three single use plastic items such as straws, cups or cutlery, as well as making other pledges to reduce single use plastics. It doesn't mean that plastic has been eliminated completely or that it's banned. It means that a huge step has been taken towards preventing future damage.

There are four main principles in the Plan For Plastics, which are:

Avoid - encouraging residents to avoid single use plastics, and to find alternatives such as reusable coffee cups

Recycle - continue to work to increase recycling rates in Plymouth

Innovate - support academic and industry led research into plastic free alternatives.

Connect - developing an education programme to encourage people to visit and connect with the natural environment.

The Plan For Plastics is available to download at plymouth.gov.uk/plastics

Rachel Yates, Plastic Free Communities Liaison Officer at Surfers Against Sewage, said: "We're so pleased to add Plymouth Waterfront to our growing list of Plastic Free Approved Communities. We have 300 communities across the UK working towards the status and Plymouth is the first city to make a major inroad into tackling single use plastics and the impact they have on our environment.

"The application from the Plymouth team was very strong and shows an ongoing commitment, not just from the community and businesses in the Waterfront area, but also across the rest of the city. We look forward to seeing how this develops and one day hope to award Plastic Free Communities status to Plymouth as a whole!"

Councillor Tudor Evans, OBE, Leader of Plymouth City Council, said: "Our Council is committed to working with all partners in the city to reducing the use of single use plastics in Plymouth, Britain's Ocean City, including innovative new approaches such as the trialling of a seabin to collect plastics and other solid waste from the sea. The fact we have now been awarded with Plastic Free Waterfront status shows that we already have a great network of people and organisations in the city who are genuinely committed to this issue.

"It's been fantastic to see the level of engagement across the city during this week of action on plastics. We want to build on that momentum, the newly announced status, and the launch of the Plan for Plastics, which has been developed by so many enthusiastic and committed local partners is the first step towards helping us all achieve our aims."

Penny Tarrant, Chair of Environment Plymouth and Co-Chair of the Britain's Ocean City Taskforce said: "Environment Plymouth is a network of over 70 organisations from all sectors, plus individuals, working together to offer a unified and independent voice for strategic environmental and sustainability concerns in the city, so it was only right for us to take action on the challenge of tackling single-use-plastics. The Working Group which was created to lead on the SAS accreditation has worked very hard and is delighted with the result just six months after our very first marine plastics meeting in December 2017.

"We are delighted to play our part on Britain's Ocean City Plastics Taskforce, alongside the council and other city organisations, to help deliver the wider Plan for Plastics. It's great to see everyone pulling together for such a worthwhile goal. We can draw on an amazing amount of expertise in Plymouth, as well as passion and commitment. Harnessing all that will lead to a greener, healthier city by the sea for all of us and the marine inhabitants too."

Sarah Gibson, Waterfront Manager and Chief Executive of the Plymouth Waterfront Partnership said "We are absolutely delighted that Surfers Against Sewage have recognised the Plymouth Waterfront community's efforts to remove single-use plastics from circulation. A true collaboration between Environment Plymouth, the Plymouth Waterfront Partnership and the National Marine Aquarium enabled a community-led submission to win the accolade and we are extremely proud of this achievement. As the UK's first city district to win this distinction, we're keen to continue to influence the wider community and encourage other destinations to follow suit to challenge continued use of single-use plastics."

Professor Richard Thompson OBE, Head of the International Marine Litter Research Unit at the University of Plymouth, said: "Plymouth is known all over the world for its research on marine litter, and it is fantastic to see the city taking such a proactive stance on this topic. One of the messages we always try to get across is that while this is a global problem, everyone has a part to play in helping to reduce the quantity of plastic waste they generate and to minimise the release of plastic to the ocean. The measures set out in this plan and the partners involved across the city help place Plymouth at the forefront, not just in terms of its research but also its actions to help stem the tide on plastic waste."

Councillor Sue Dann, Cabinet Member for Street Scene and the Environment, said: "I'm so impressed with the way partners in the city have pulled together to help achieve this status, and we need to now build on that momentum. A plastics taskforce was recently launched in the city to look at this very issue, which was highlighted in the Blue Planet 2 programme.

"We can all do more to protect our environment, and that is why we will be launching the city's Plan for Plastics at a special event on World Ocean Day."

Roger Maslin, CEO of the National Marine Aquarium, said: "As a marine conservation and education charity our focus is to connect people with our Oceans. The Oceans are vitally important to the health of our planet and it is becoming increasingly important for people to understand the effects of plastics on them. It's fantastic to see people making pro-Ocean behaviour changes and the increasing awareness of their responsibility to care for this vital resource. We are extremely proud of the achievement of a 'plastic free waterfront' and we are looking forward to playing our part in tackling the quantity of single use plastics used in Plymouth and further beyond."

For more information visit plymouth.gov.uk/plastics or search #PlasticsPledgePlym on Facebook and Twitter
Plymouth Britain's Ocean City Taskforce
The Britain's Ocean City Taskforce has been created to drive the delivery of the new Plan for Plastics. The collaboration of partners and organisations, includes Plymouth City Council, Environment Plymouth, Plymouth Waterfront Partnership, the National Marine Aquarium, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, the Marine Biological Association, University of Plymouth, Redrok, Theatre Royal Plymouth, Babcock, Plymouth Community Homes, the Environment Agency and South West Water.

This press release is issued jointly by Environment Plymouth, Plymouth Waterfront Partnership and Plymouth City Council on behalf of the Britain's Ocean City Plastics Taskforce

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Plymouth achieves UK city district first as Plastic Free Waterfront as it launches ambitious plan to tackle single use plastics - Plymouth News Room

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On the same day that Plymouth becomes the first UK city district to announce its accreditation with 'Plastic Free Communities' status for its iconic waterfront, a major new plan to tackle single use plastics and plastic pollution in Plymouth is being launched by key partners in the city.

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Do you have to be a vegan to help fix climate change?

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Do you have to be a vegan to help fix climate change? – video

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What causes more global warming: every vehicle on the planet or the meat and dairy produce we eat?

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Dominic established Eunomia in 2001 and has over twenty years' experience in environmental policy, strategy and economics, covering waste, energy, climate change, air pollution, water resources, agriculture and the natural environment.

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Dominic established Eunomia in 2001 and has over twenty years' experience in environmental policy, strategy and economics, covering waste, energy, climate change, air pollution, water resources, agriculture and the natural environment.

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A green think tank has warned of the risk of unintended consequences from the wave of concern about plastics.

The Green Alliance, a parliamentary group, said plastics played a valuable role and couldn't be simply abolished.

It wants to transform the notion of a "War on Plastics" into a "War on Plastic Litter".

The group - like many environmentalists - gave a grudging welcome to Chancellor Philip Hammond's call for evidence on taxes on single use plastics.

But it warned that rejecting all plastic food packaging could prove counter-productive.

Agriculture is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, so reducing food waste is vital.

Well-packed food - perhaps in plastic - helps protect food from damage, so it can actually save on greenhouse gases.

Finite land

The other potential area of concern is the substitution of plastics with plant-based materials.

Forests are already being felled to grow crops to feed the world's booming demand for meat production and wild land is also disappearing to produce bio-fuels for cars and electricity generation. But there is a finite amount of land.

The Green Alliance fears that a demand for plastic substitutes could also increase the pressure for deforestation.

This would, in turn, lead to more greenhouse gases that would warm and acidify the oceans people are anxious to protect.

The Green Alliance's Libby Peake told BBC News: "Plastics are clearly a huge problem but we have concerns that legitimate public outrage will lead businesses and governments to rush into the wrong decisions.

"We must ensure that whatever solutions we design don't increase emissions, damage world ecosystems or result in more waste."

The public backlash against plastics led Lego to announce that in future it will make its toys from plastics derived not from oil, but from sugar cane.

It won the headline: "Lego goes green one brick at a time". But the firm confirmed to me that the "eco" bricks would be made from polyethylene - that's exactly the same chemical compound as plastic derived from oil (which, of course, came from plants millions of years ago).

The environment-friendly bricks will last just as long and be just as hard when you tread on them in bare feet.

Marine pollution

The firm told me: "The bio-based plastic used is produced from renewable sources and it meets the Lego Group's requirements for play value, quality, safety and durability."

Ms Peake said: "Turning plants into plastic in this way means that, at the end of life, it won't be biodegradable and will have all the potential drawbacks of traditional plastic.

"In other words, it won't do anything to solve the crisis of marine pollution.

"Lego has done everything right to try to sustainably source material for its bio-bricks. But there's clearly nowhere near enough sugar cane that can be sustainably sourced if other companies want to follow suit."

So where do solutions lie? Green Alliance suggests:

Ban products that are unnecessarily made from plastic and likely to be littered, like cotton buds and straws (Scotland has already committed to this)

Stop using so many different types of plastic - and ensure that all types used are easily recyclable

Develop recycling markets for the materials that remain

Increasing recycling won't be economically viable while the price of virgin material oil and gas remains so low, which is why the EU is examining a potential plastics tax and the chancellor has launched his call for evidence on charges for single-use plastics.

The UK is not alone in its endeavour to reduce plastic marine litter. A series of conferences throughout the year will bring together nations in search of solutions for a problem that threatens the future of the oceans.
Follow Roger on Twitter

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War on plastic 'may cause short-term harm'

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A green think tank has warned of the risk of unintended consequences from the wave of concern about plastics. The Green Alliance, a parliamentary group, said plastics played a valuable role and couldn't be simply abolished. It wants to transform the notion of a "War on Plastics" into a "War on Plastic Litter".

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What is biodiversity?

It is the variety of life on Earth, in all its forms and all its interactions. If that sounds bewilderingly broad, that's because it is. Biodiversity is the most complex feature of our planet and it is the most vital. "Without biodiversity, there is no future for humanity," says Prof David Macdonald, at Oxford University.

The term was coined in 1985 - a contraction of "biological diversity" - but the huge global biodiversity losses now becoming apparent represent a crisis equalling - or quite possibly surpassing - climate change.

More formally, biodiversity is comprised of several levels, starting with genes, then individual species, then communities of creatures and finally entire ecosystems, such as forests or coral reefs, where life interplays with the physical environment. These myriad interactions have made Earth habitable for billions of years.

A more philosophical way of viewing biodiversity is this: it represents the knowledge learned by evolving species over millions of years about how to survive through the vastly varying environmental conditions Earth has experienced. Seen like that, experts warn, humanity is currently " burning the library of life ".

Bugs are the base of the many wild food chains that support ecosystems. Illustration: Frances Marriott

Do animals and bugs really matter to me?

For many people living in towns and cities, wildlife is often something you watch on television. But the reality is that the air you breathe, the water you drink and the food you eat all ultimately rely on biodiversity. Some examples are obvious: without plants there would be no oxygen and without bees to pollinate there would be no fruit or nuts.

Others are less obvious - coral reefs and mangrove swamps provide invaluable protection from cyclones and tsunamis for those living on coasts, while trees can absorb air pollution in urban areas.

Others appear bizarre - tropical tortoises and spider monkeys seemingly have little to do with maintaining a stable climate. But the dense, hardwood trees that are most effective in removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere rely on their seeds being dispersed by these large fruit-eaters.

When scientists explore each ecosystem, they find countless such interactions, all honed by millions of years of evolution. If undamaged, this produces a finely balanced, healthy system which contributes to a healthy sustainable planet.

The sheer richness of biodiversity also has human benefits. Many new medicines are harvested from nature, such as a fungi that grows on the fur of sloths and can fight cancer. Wild varieties of domesticated animals and crops are also crucial as some will have already solved the challenge of, for example, coping with drought or salty soils.

If money is a measure, the services provided by ecosystems are estimated to be worth trillions of dollars - double the world's GDP. Biodiversity loss in Europe alone costs the continent about 3% of its GDP, or €450m (£400m), a year.

From an aesthetic point of view, every one of the millions of species is unique, a natural work of art that cannot be recreated once lost. "Each higher organism is richer in information than a Caravaggio painting, a Bach fugue, or any other great work," wrote Prof Edward O Wilson, often called the "father of biodiversity", in a seminal paper in 1985.

75% of flying insects were lost in the last 25 years in Germany, according to a recent study. Illustration: Frances Marriott

Just how diverse is biodiversity?

Mind-bogglingly diverse. The simplest aspect to consider is species. About 1.7 million species of animals, plants and fungi have been recorded, but there are likely to be 8-9 million and possibly up to 100 million. The heartland of biodiversity is the tropics, which teems with species. In 15 hectares (37 acres) of Borneo forest, for example, there are 700 species of tree - the same number as the whole of North America.

Recent work considering diversity at a genetic level has suggested that creatures thought to be a single species could in some cases actually be dozens. Then add in bacteria and viruses, and the number of distinct organisms may well be in the billions. A single spoonful of soil - which ultimately provides 90% of all food - contains 10,000 to 50,000 different types of bacteria.

The concern is that many species are being lost before we are even aware of them, or the role they play in the circle of life.

How bad is it?

Very. The best studied creatures are the ones like us - large mammals. Tiger numbers, for example, have plunged by 97% in the last century. In many places, bigger animals have already been wiped out by humans - think dodos or woolly mammoths.

The extinction rate of species is now thought to be about 1,000 times higher than before humans dominated the planet, which may be even faster than the losses after a giant meteorite wiped out the dinosaurs 65m years ago. The sixth mass extinction in geological history has already begun, according to some scientists.

Lack of data means the "red list", produced by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, has only assessed 5% of known species. But for the best known groups it finds many are threatened: 25% of mammals, 41% of amphibians and 13% of birds.

Species extinction provides a clear but narrow window on the destruction of biodiversity - it is the disappearance of the last member of a group that is by definition rare. But new studies are examining the drop in the total number of animals, capturing the plight of the world's most common creatures.

The results are scary. Billions of individual populations have been lost all over the planet, with the number of animals living on Earth having plunged by half since 1970. Abandoning the normally sober tone of scientific papers, researchers call the massive loss of wildlife a "biological annihilation" representing a "frightening assault on the foundations of human civilisation".

More than half the ocean is now industrially fished. Illustration: Frances Marriott

What about under the sea?

Humans may lack gills but that has not protected marine life. The situation is no better - and perhaps even less understood - in the two-thirds of the planet covered by oceans. Seafood is the critical source of protein for more than 2.5 billion people but rampant overfishing has caused catches to fall steadily since their peak in 1996 and now more than half the ocean is industrially fished.

What about bugs - don't cockroaches survive anything?

More than 95% of known species lack a backbone - there are about as many species in the staphylinidae family of beetles alone as there are total vertebrates, such as mammals, fish and birds. Altogether, there are at least a million species of insect and another 300,000 spiders, molluscs and crustaceans.

But the recent revelation that 75% of flying insects were lost in the last 25 years in Germany - and likely elsewhere - indicates the massacre of biodiversity is not sparing creepy crawlies. And insects really matter, not just as pollinators but as predators of pests, decomposers of waste and, crucially, as the base of the many wild food chains that support ecosystems.

"If we lose the insects then everything is going to collapse," says Prof Dave Goulson of Sussex University, UK. "We are currently on course for ecological Armageddon."

Even much-loathed parasites are important. One- third could be wiped out by climate change, making them among the most threatened groups on Earth. But scientists warn this could destabilise ecosystems, unleashing unpredictable invasions of surviving parasites into new areas.

A single spoonful of soil contains 10,000 to 50,000 different types of bacteria. Illustration: Frances Marriott

What's destroying biodiversity?

We are, particularly as the human population rises and wild areas are razed to create farmland, housing and industrial sites. The felling of forests is often the first step and 30m hectares - the area of the Britain and Ireland - were lost globally in 2016.

Poaching and unsustainable hunting for food is another major factor. More than 300 mammal species, from chimpanzees to hippos to bats, are being eaten into extinction.

Pollution is a killer too, with orcas and dolphins being seriously harmed by long-lived industrial pollutants. Global trade contributes further harm: amphibians have suffered one of the greatest declines of all animals due to a fungal disease thought to be spread around the world by the pet trade. Global shipping has also spread highly damaging invasive species around the planet, particularly rats.

The hardest hit of all habitats may be rivers and lakes, with freshwater animal populations in these collapsing by 81% since 1970, following huge water extraction for farms and people, plus pollution and dams.

Could the loss of biodiversity be a greater threat to humanity than climate change?

Yes - nothing on Earth is experiencing more dramatic change at the hands of human activity. Changes to the climate are reversible, even if that takes centuries or millennia. But once species become extinct, particularly those unknown to science, there's no going back.

At the moment, we don't know how much biodiversity the planet can lose without prompting widespread ecological collapse. But one approach has assessed so-called " planetary boundaries ", thresholds in Earth systems that define a "safe operating space for humanity". Of the nine considered, just biodiversity loss and nitrogen pollution are estimated to have been crossed, unlike CO2 levels, freshwater used and ozone losses.

By weight, 97% of the world's vertebrate land animals are humans or their livestock - just 3% are thought to be wild. Illustration: Frances Marriott

What can be done?

Giving nature the space and protection it needs is the only answer. Wildlife reserves are the obvious solution, and the world currently protects 15% of land and 7% of the oceans. But some argue that half the land surface must be set aside for nature.

However, the human population is rising and wildlife reserves don't work if they hinder local people making a living. The poaching crisis for elephants and rhinos in Africa is an extreme example. Making the animals worth more alive than dead is the key, for example by supporting tourism or compensating farmers for livestock killed by wild predators.

But it can lead to tough choices. "Trophy hunting" for big game is anathema for many. But if the shoots are done sustainably - only killing old lions, for example - and the money raised protects a large swath of land, should it be permitted?

We can all help. Most wildlife is destroyed by land being cleared for cattle, soy, palm oil, timber and leather. Most of us consume these products every day, with palm oil being found in many foods and toiletries. Choosing only sustainable options helps, as does eating less meat, particularly beef, which has an outsized environmental hoofprint.

Another approach is to highlight the value of biodiversity by estimating the financial value of the ecosystem services provided as "natural capital". Sometimes this can lead to real savings. Over the last 20 years, New York has spent $2bn protecting the natural watershed that supplies the city with clean water. It has worked so well that 90% of the water needs no further filtering: building a water treatment plant instead would have cost $10bn.

What's next?

Locating the tipping point that moves biodiversity loss into ecological collapse is an urgent priority. Biodiversity is vast and research funds are small, but speeding up analysis might help, from automatically identifying creatures using machine learning to real-time DNA sequencing.

There is even an initiative that aims to create an open-source genetic database for all plants, animals and single-cell organisms on the planet. It argues that by creating commercial opportunities - such as self-driving car algorithms inspired by Amazonian ants - it could provide the incentive to preserve Earth's biodiversity.

However, some researchers say the dire state of biodiversity is already clear enough and that the missing ingredient is political will.

A global treaty, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), has set many targets. Some are likely to be reached, for example protecting 17% of all land and 10% of the oceans by 2020. Others, such as making all fishing sustainable by the same date are not. The 196 nations that are members of the CBD next meet in Egypt in November.

In his 1985 text, Prof E O Wilson, concluded: "This being the only living world we are ever likely to know, let us join to make the most of it." That call is more urgent than ever.

Further reading
The Biological Diversity Crisis (1985). Edward O Wilson. BioScience (Vol 35) The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History (2014). Elizabeth Kolbert (Bloomsbury) What Has Nature Ever Done for Us? (2013) Tony Juniper (Profile)
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (2010). Pushpam Kumar et al. (Earthscan)

Illustrations: Frances Marriott

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What is biodiversity and why does it matter to us?

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The air you breathe, the water you drink and the food you eat all rely on biodiversity, but right now it is in crisis - because of us. What does this mean for our future and can we stop it, asks Damian Carrington?

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Plastic seems to be everywhere at the moment. Whenever I turn on the TV or look at the news, there seems to be another story highlighting the scale of plastic waste - with a particular focus on how plastic can end up in our oceans.

While it's encouraging to see so many people speaking out against waste and looking to reduce it; I can also understand the concern from many of you that since January, China - one of the largest importers of the UK's recycled materials - is beginning to introduce stricter quality controls, impacting the amount of our recycling it accepts.

Until now, China has accepted a huge proportion of our recyclables each year. This has been an effective way for us to recycle, saving a huge amount of material from going to waste; and also allows China to supply manufacturers in the country with recycled material for the products they produce.

This news has understandably become a focus in the fight against plastic waste. And while plastics are currently under the media spotlight, China is also reducing the amount of paper and card it imports.

One of the key reasons for this is simple - much of the recycled materials China receives is 'contaminated', meaning it is poor quality including items that cannot be recycled, and difficult and expensive to successfully sort for recycling.

I can understand why this is a cause for concern from many recyclers - many of my own friends and family who dutifully recycle every day have expressed worries to me. With more and more people recycling, where is our increasing amount of recycled material going to end up now? And fundamentally, is it still worth recycling at all?

Firstly, it's important to remember that much of the recycling we generate from our homes is still recycled in the UK. To put it into perspective, a whopping 6.5 billion plastic bottles were recycled in the UK in 2016. So while we are focussed on the situation abroad, it's easy to forget the fantastic work we're doing recycling at home. It's really important that we keep up the good work on this.

How you can help

Secondly, the good news is that there's something simple we can all do at home to improve the quality of the stuff we put in the recycling bin - ultimately giving it a much better chance of it being successfully recycled in the UK and abroad.

By understanding more about what can and cannot be recycled, and putting the right items in the recycling bin (and also not putting the wrong items in!), we can reduce 'contamination' and make our recycling easier to recycle.

Get your recycling right

To help you get your recycling right, Recycle Now has a really simple tool - the Recycling Locator. Simply tick the item you're looking to recycle, enter your postcode, and it will show your local recycling points for that item.

It can also help you find out exactly what to put in your recycling bins at home. Simply enter your postcode into the tool to find out what your local authority accepts in your kerbside collection.

This site also has an A-Z list of items to give you more information about whether they're recyclable - and why this may or may not be the case.

Most people in the UK think recycling is a good thing to do - which it absolutely is! Recycling is an environmentally friendly way to prevent waste at home. Recycling plastic ensures that it stays in use and reduces the chance of it ending up in our oceans. Recycling saves energy, reduces the need to use raw materials and helps combat climate change. Just some of the reasons to keep up the great recycling we do in the UK.

We can all do our bit to give the planet a helping hand, not least by recycling as best as we can at home.

Top tips for recycling plastic

If it's plastic and bottle shaped, it's recyclable - even those bottles in the bathroom and bedroom

Packaging labels and recycling symbols appear now on many items, which can help you understand whether it's recyclable

Pump dispenser tops, like those on hand soap bottles, should go in the general rubbish bin; but trigger sprays, like those on surface cleaner sprays, can be left on and recycled

Make sure bottles are empty

Leave tops on your plastic bottles and squash them

Rinse food trays to ensure that food does not contaminate other materials.

Find your nearest locations to recycle plastic bottles

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China's recent restrictions give us all more reason to improve our recycling

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Plastic seems to be everywhere at the moment. Whenever I turn on the TV or look at the news, there seems to be another story highlighting the scale of plastic waste - with a particular focus on how plastic can end up in our oceans.

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We know that plastic waste is a big problem for the planet - our oceans are becoming clogged with the stuff and we're rapidly running out of landfill sites. Only 9% is recycled. Burning it contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and global warming. So could plant-based alternatives and better recycling provide an answer?

We have grown to rely on plastic - it's hardwearing and versatile and much of our modern economy depends on it. And for many current uses there are simply no commercially viable biodegradable alternatives.

The humble single-use drinking straw is a case in point. Primaplast, a leading plastic straw manufacturer, says "greener" alternatives cost a hundred times more to make.

Takeaway coffee cups are another example. In the UK alone we throw away around 2.5 billion of them every year, many of us thinking that they are recyclable when they're not, due to a layer of polyethylene that makes the cup waterproof.

One company trying to change this is Biome Bioplastics, which has developed a fully compostable and recyclable cup using natural materials such as potato starch, corn starch, and cellulose, the main constituent of plant cell walls. Most traditional plastics are made from oil.

"Many consumers buy their cups in good faith, thinking they can be recycled," says Paul Mines, the firm's chief executive.

"But most single-use containers are made from cardboard bonded with plastic, which makes them unsuitable for recycling. And the lids are most often made of polystyrene, which is currently not widely recycled in the UK and ends up in a landfill."

The company has created a plant-based plastic - called a bioplastic - that is fully biodegradable and also disposable either in a paper recycling or food waste bin.

Mr Mines believes it's the first time a bioplastic has been made for disposable cups and lids that can cope with hot liquids but which is fully compostable and recyclable. The cup isn't yet on the market, but Mr Mines says he is in talks with a number of retailers.

"It's not feasible to get rid of plastics completely," says Mr Mines, "but instead replace some of the petroleum-based plastic for biopolymers derived from plant-based sources."

Plenty of other companies and research institutes, such as Full Cycle Bioplastics, Elk Packaging and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, are working on similar biopolymer solutions that are more environmentally friendly but equally functional as conventional plastic.

And Toby McCartney's firm MacRebur has developed a road surface material made from an asphalt mix and pellets of recycled plastic. The plastic mix replaces much of the oil-based bitumen traditionally used in road building.

"What we are doing is solving two world problems with one simple solution - the problems we see with the waste plastic epidemic, and the poor quality of the potholed roads we drive on today," claims Mr McCartney.

Since its launch two years ago, the Lockerbie-based firm's hybrid material has been used to build roads across the UK, from Penrith to Gloucestershire.

More than five trillion pieces of plastic are floating in our oceans, by some estimates, much of which can take up to 1,000 years to degrade fully. As it breaks up over time, tiny pieces end up being eaten marine creatures.

Scientists are particularly worried about the threat to larger filter feeders, such as sharks, whales and rays. Toxins in the plastics pose a serious health risk to them, they warn. Plastic waste has even reached the Arctic.

So governments and businesses are starting to act.

The UK has committed to eliminating all avoidable plastic waste by 2042, while France has introduced a ban on single-use plastic bags. Norway has been operating a plastic bottle deposit scheme for decades - shoppers receive one krone (9p) back when they deposit a bottle in a collection machine. The UK is considering following suit.

And supermarkets are trying to reduce the amount of packaging they use, with Tesco aiming for all of it to be recyclable or compostable by 2025.

But one of the problems with plastics is that many are not easily recyclable.

Over in San Jose, California, Jeanny Yao and Miranda Wang, both 23, are focusing on tackling plastics bags and product packaging that is too difficult to recycle.

"Such plastics are heavily contaminated and cannot be recycled by state-of-the-art mechanical recycling," explains Ms Wang.

Their start-up BioCellection breaks down these unrecyclable plastics into chemicals that can be used as raw materials for a variety of products, from ski jackets to car parts.

"We have identified a catalyst that cuts open polymer chains to trigger a smart chain reaction," she explains.

"Once the polymer is broken into pieces with fewer than 10 carbon atoms, oxygen from the air adds to the chain and forms valuable organic acid species that can be harvested, purified, and used to make products we love."

More Technology of Business

Helen Bird of charity Waste Recycling Action Programme (Wrap) thinks businesses need to be encouraged to used less coloured plastic, as it's far harder to recycle.

"As a rule of thumb, the clearer the plastic, the greater the opportunity of being recycled into another product or packaging," she says.

Governments need to encourage business to use recyclable packaging and to label it clearly for customers, she argues.

In our throwaway society, there haven't been many financial incentives to develop alternative compostable materials. And the idea that we are suddenly going to wean ourselves off oil-based plastics is fanciful, most experts agree.

"In the next few decades, the global middle class is expected to double," says Ms Wang. "Although we can develop more compostable plastics, there is no way we can stop consuming plastics, which have properties that no other material on earth has."

While awareness of the plastic waste issue is clearly growing, no-one is claiming there's an easy answer to the problem.

Technology of Business will examine how business is reacting to the growing governmental and societal pressure for more sustainable plastics in future articles.

Follow Technology of Business editor Matthew Wall on Twitter and Facebook

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Could plant-based plastics help tackle waste pollution?

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We know that plastic waste is a big problem for the planet - our oceans are becoming clogged with the stuff and we're rapidly running out of landfill sites. Only 9% is recycled. Burning it contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and global warming. So could plant-based alternatives and better recycling provide an answer?

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Plastic is one of the biggest threats to the future of coral reefs after ocean warming, say scientists.

More than 11 billion items of plastic were found on a third of coral reefs surveyed in the Asia-Pacific region.

This figure is predicted to increase to more than 15 billion by 2025.

Plastic raises by 20-fold the risk of disease outbreaks on coral reefs, according to research. Plastic bags, bottles and rice sacks were among the items found.

"Plastic is one of the biggest threats in the ocean at the moment, I would say, apart from climate change," said Dr Joleah Lamb of Cornell University in Ithaca, US.

"It's sad how many pieces of plastic there are in the coral reefs ...if we can start targeting those big polluters of plastic, hopefully we can start reducing the amount that is going on to these reefs."

Precious resource

More than 275 million people rely on coral reefs for food, coastal protection, tourism income, and cultural importance.

It's thought that plastic allows diseases that prey on the marine invertebrates that make-up coral reefs to flourish. Branching or finger-like forms of corals are most likely to get entangled in plastic debris.

These are important habitats for fish and fisheries, the scientists say.

"A lot of times we come across big rice sacks or draping plastic bags," said Dr Lamb, who led the study.

"What we do find is these corals with a lot of complexity like branches and finger-like corals will become eight times more likely to be entangled in these types of plastics."

In the study, published in the journal Science, international researchers surveyed more than 150 reefs from four countries in the Asia-Pacific region between 2011 and 2014.

Plastic was found on one-third of the coral reefs surveyed. Reefs near Indonesia were loaded with most plastic, while Australian reefs showed the lowest concentration. Thailand and Myanmar were in the middle.

"The country's estimated amount of mismanaged plastics - so the way they deal with their plastic waste - was a strong predictor of how much we would see on the reef," said Dr Lamb.

Coral reefs face many threats. Coral bleaching is caused by unusually warm water. Coral polyps loose algae from their tissues, which drains them of their colour. They may recover if temperature changes are reversed in a reasonably short time, but this process can take many years.

In the case of diseases, organisms attack coral, leading to likely death. Previous research has found that plastic debris can stress coral through blocking out light and oxygen, thereby giving pathogens a chance to take hold.

Based on projections of plastic waste going into the ocean, the researchers suggest that the number of plastic items snagged on Asia-Pacific corals may increase from 11.1 billion to 15.7 billion plastic items by 2025.

An estimated 4.8 to 12.7 million tonnes of plastic waste enter the ocean in a single year.

More than three-quarters of this plastic is thought to originate on land.

Follow Helen on Twitter.

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Plastic is one of the biggest threats to the future of coral reefs after ocean warming, say scientists. More than 11 billion items of plastic were found on a third of coral reefs surveyed in the Asia-Pacific region. This figure is predicted to increase to more than 15 billion by 2025.

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Electricity Usage - Appliances & Household

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Electricity Usage - Appliances & Household

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How much electricity does a home use? | OVO Energy

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A graphical guide to how much electricity UK homes use.

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A Good Life For All Within Planetary Boundaries

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A Good Life For All Within Planetary Boundaries

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A Good Life For All Within Planetary Boundaries

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A Good Life For All Within Planetary Boundaries

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See how countries have been moving towards (or away from) the goal of meeting the needs of their residents within the means of the planet.

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The climate mitigation gap: education and government recommendations miss the most effective individual actions

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Some decent advice and some great links

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Ofsted Education for sustainable development

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Ofsted Education for sustainable development

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'A Green Future: Our 25 Year Plan to Improve the Environment', sets out what we will do to improve the environment, within a generation.

Details

In 2018 the 25 Year Environment Plan (25YEP) set out our goals for improving the environment, within a generation, and leaving it in a better state than we found it. It details how government will work with communities and businesses to do this.

The Environmental Improvement Plan (EIP) 2023 for England is our first revision of the 25 Year Environment Plan. It builds on the 25YEP vision to set out how we will deliver each of our environmental goals.

We published the fourth annual progress report in July 2022.

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'A Green Future: Our 25 Year Plan to Improve the Environment', sets out what we will do to improve the environment, within a generation.

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Human Power Station Bang Goes The Theory TV Show 1 hour

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Full episode of The Human Powered Power station of Bang goes the theory. Please subscribe :- https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC8sSOfYYoZ5_ehBY7nY_1gA

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Microplastics

Some of the world's deepest living sea creatures have been found to have plastic in them. Researchers at the Scottish Association for Marine Science sampled creatures off the Western Isles and a staggering 48% were found with plastic in them, at depths of up to 2,000m (6,561.8ft). Read more.

These plastics consisted of polyethylene and polyester found in plastic shopping bags and clothing. Polyester fibres can reach the seas in waste water from washing machines and to add to the problem, many household and cosmetic products contain tiny pieces of plastics, known as microplastics. These plastics are washed down the drain when you brush your teeth, scrub your face or clean the house and can end up in our oceans as they are too small to be caught in water filtration systems.

The good news is that the UK government pledged to ban plastic microbeads by 2017 and there's a free app, which can help you find out whether your face scrub or toothpaste contains plastics.

The Beat the Bead app scans barcodes on household and cosmetic products, checking whether they contain these harmful plastics.

Download the app for your iPhone or Android device.

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Blue Planet II - Get involved with ocean conservation - BBC One

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Microplastics Some of the world's deepest living sea creatures have been found to have plastic in them. Researchers at the Scottish Association for Marine Science sampled creatures off the Western Isles and a staggering 48% were found with plastic in them, at depths of up to 2,000m (6,561.8ft). Read more.

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Make your voice heard

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Petitions - UK Government and Parliament

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Official online petitions in response to issues of the day, listing the number that got a Government response, and those that have been debated in the House of Parliament

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In 7 poorly structured but pretty clear graphs

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Marine life is facing "irreparable damage" from the millions of tonnes of plastic waste which ends up in the oceans each year, the United Nations has warned.
"This is a planetary crisis... we are ruining the ecosystem of the ocean," UN oceans chief Lisa Svensson told the BBC this week.

But how does this happen, where is most at risk and what damage does this plastic actually do?

Why is plastic problematic?

Plastic as we know it has only really existed for the last 60-70 years, but in that time it has transformed everything from clothing, cooking and catering, to product design, engineering and retailing.

One of the great advantages of many types of plastic is that they're designed to last - for a very long time.

And nearly all the plastic ever created still exists in some form today.

In July a paper published in the journal Science Advances by industrial ecologist Dr Roland Geyer, from the University of California in Santa Barbara, and colleagues, calculated the total volume of all plastic ever produced at 8.3bn tonnes.

Of this, some 6.3bn tonnes is now waste - and 79% of that is in landfill or the natural environment.

This vast amount of waste has been driven by modern life, where plastic is used for many throwaway or "single use" items, from drinks bottles and nappies to cutlery and cotton buds.

Four billion plastic bottles...

Drinks bottles are one the most common types of plastic waste. Some 480bn plastic bottles were sold globally in 2016 - that's a million bottles per minute.

Of these, 110bn were made by drinks giant Coca Cola.

Some countries are considering moves to reduce consumption.

Proposals in the UK include deposit-return schemes, and the improvement of free-drinking water supplies in major cities, including London.

So how much plastic waste ends up in the sea?

It's likely that about 10m tonnes of plastic currently ends up in the oceans each year.

In 2010 scientists from the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis and the University of Georgia in Athens estimated the figure as 8m tonnes, and forecast that to rise to 9.1m tonnes by 2015.

The same study, published in the journal Science in 2015, surveyed 192 coastal countries contributing to ocean plastic waste, and found that Asian nations were 13 of the 20 biggest contributors.

China was top of the list of countries mismanaging plastic waste, but the US also featured in the top 20 and contributed a higher rate of waste per person.

Plastic waste accumulates in areas of the ocean where winds create swirling circular currents, known as gyres, which suck in any floating debris.

There are five gyres around the globe, but the best known is probably the North Pacific gyre.

It is estimated debris takes about six years to reach the centre of the North Pacific gyre from the coast of the US, and about a year from Japan.

All five gyres have higher concentrations of plastic rubbish than other parts of the oceans.

They are made up of tiny fragments of plastic, which appear to hang suspended below the surface - a phenomenon that has led it to being described as plastic soup.

And the hard-wearing qualities of most plastics means that some items can take hundreds of years to biodegrade.

However, there are moves to clean up the North Pacific gyre. An operation led by a non-profit organisation Ocean Cleanup is due to begin in 2018.

How bad are things in the UK?

The Marine Conservation Society found 718 pieces of litter for every 100m stretch of beach surveyed during their recent Great British Beach Clean Up. That was a 10% increase on last year.

Rubbish from food and drink constituted at least 20% of all litter collected, the MCS reported.

The origin of a lot of the litter is difficult to trace, but the public contributes about 30%. "Sewage-related debris", or items flushed down toilets that should have been put in the bin, amounted to some 8.5%.

Why is plastic so harmful to marine life?

For sea birds and larger marine creatures like turtles, dolphins and seals, the danger comes from being entangled in plastic bags and other debris, or mistaking plastic for food.

Turtles cannot distinguish between plastic bags and jellyfish, which can be part of their diet. Plastic bags, once consumed, cause internal blockages and usually result in death.

Larger pieces of plastic can also damage the digestive systems of sea birds and whales, and can be potentially fatal.

Over time, plastic waste slowly degrades and breaks down into tiny micro-fragments which are also causing scientists concern.

A recent survey by Plymouth University found that plastic was found in a third of UK-caught fish, including cod, haddock, mackerel and shellfish.
Produced by Alison Trowsdale, Tom Housden and Becca Meier. Design by Sue Bridge and Joy Roxas.
This can result in malnutrition or starvation for the fish, and lead to plastic ingestion in humans too.

The effect on humans of eating fish containing plastic is still largely unknown.

But in 2016 the European Food Safety Authority warned of an increased risk to human health and food safety "given the potential for micro-plastic pollution in edible tissues of commercial fish".

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Seven charts that explain the plastic pollution problem

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Marine life is facing "irreparable damage" from the millions of tonnes of plastic waste which ends up in the oceans each year, the United Nations has warned. "This is a planetary crisis... we are ruining the ecosystem of the ocean," UN oceans chief Lisa Svensson told the BBC this week.

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The end of the era of throwaway plastic has been signalled by UN environment ministers meeting in Kenya.

They signed off a document stating that the flow of plastic into the ocean must be stopped.

Scientists welcomed the statement, but were unhappy the agreement was only based in principle, with no firm targets or timetables.

Ministers say it's a milestone because it shows governments, industry and the public that a major change is needed.

Vidar Helgesen, Norway's Environment Minister, has been leading the UN debate on plastic pollution.

He told BBC News: "What we came here with was the need for action. The starting point was aiming for zero emission of marine litter. So it's effectively a breakthrough for zero emission of plastic into the ocean."

He admitted that this was really only the start of action against plastic litter.

Li Lin from WWF International told BBC News: "Today we have seen quite good progress on marine litter and micro-plastics.

"We would just like to see this agreement implemented by governments, business, NGOs and consumers as quickly as possible. Because this issue is urgent."

We know plastics are already damaging life in the sea, but we don't know how much more damage it can take before whole ecosystems start to be affected.

The seas after all are also beset with climate change, acidification, dead zones, and multiple types of pollution.

Delegates here hope governments will be prompted to move faster with their own national policies to clamp down on waste plastic, rather than just waiting for UN resolutions.

But stopping plastic litter will require new technology - and new attitudes from the public. Among the many pollution challenges facing mankind, this is arguably one of the hardest.

Follow Roger on Twitter.

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The end of the era of throwaway plastic has been signalled by UN environment ministers meeting in Kenya. They signed off a document stating that the flow of plastic into the ocean must be stopped. Scientists welcomed the statement, but were unhappy the agreement was only based in principle, with no firm targets or timetables.

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PL21 is a transition town initiative in Ivybridge, Devon. Combatting climate change and peak oil by creating a more sustainable community and economy.

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The Common Cause Handbook

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Life in the seas risks irreparable damage from a rising tide of plastic waste, the UN oceans chief has warned.

Lisa Svensson said governments, firms and individual people must act far more quickly to halt plastic pollution.

"This is a planetary crisis," she said. "In a few short decades since we discovered the convenience of plastics, we are ruining the ecosystem of the ocean."

She was speaking to BBC News ahead of a UN environment summit in Nairobi.

Delegates at the meeting want tougher action against plastic litter.

Ms Svensson had just been saddened by a Kenyan turtle hospital which treats animals that have ingested waste plastic.

She saw a juvenile turtle named Kai, brought in by fishermen a month ago because she was floating on the sea surface.

Plastic waste was immediately suspected, because if turtles have eaten too much plastic it bloats their bellies and they can't control their buoyancy.

Kai was given laxatives for two weeks to clear out her system, and Ms Svensson witnessed an emotional moment as Kai was carried back to the sea to complete her recovery.

'Heart-breaking' reality

"It's a very happy moment," she said. "But sadly we can't be sure that Kai won't be back again if she eats more plastic.

"It's heart-breaking, but it's reality. We just have to do much more to make sure the plastics don't get into the sea in the first place."

Caspar van de Geer runs the turtle hospital for the group Local Ocean Conservation at Watamu in eastern Kenya.

He had demonstrated earlier how uncannily a plastic film pulsating in the water column mimics the actions of the jellyfish some turtles love to eat.

"Turtles aren't stupid," he said. "It's really difficult to tell the difference between plastics and jellyfish, and it may be impossible for a turtle to learn."

On a pin board he's compiled a grid of sealed clear plastic bags like the ones used at airports for cosmetics.

Here they contain the plastic fragments removed from the stomachs of sick turtles. Half of the turtles brought here after eating plastics have died.

A huge table at the hospital is laden with an array of plastic waste collected off local beaches - from fishing nets and nylon ropes to unidentifiable fragments of plastic film.

There's waste from down the coast as far as Tanzania - but also from Madagascar, the Comoros Islands, Thailand, Indonesia and even a bottle from far-away Japan.

There's a score of mysterious white plastic rings which staff speculate are the rims of yoghurt pots, a plastic lighter. There are disintegrating woven plastic fertiliser bags, plastic straws - and much more.

Bite marks show some items like small suncream bottles have clearly been nibbled at by fish, because they look like potential food.

Local people scour the beach daily for plastic waste. They want clean beaches, and they're aware that local hotels want the same.

But along the high water line millions of the fragments of plastics are mixed in with dried sea grass, too small to be collected.

Gaining momentum?

"The scale of the challenge is absolutely enormous," says Ms Svensson. She's backing a resolution by Norway this week for the world to completely eliminate plastic waste into the ocean.

If all nations agree to that long-term goal it'll be considered a UN success.

Certainly, it sounds more ambitious than the current commitment to substantially decrease waste inputs into the sea by 2025.

But some environmentalists argue that the absence of a timetable for preventing waste is a huge failing.

Tisha Brown from Greenpeace told BBC News: "We welcome that they are looking at a stronger statement, but with billions of tonnes of plastic waste entering the oceans we need much more urgent action.

"We need manufacturers to take responsibility for their products - and we need to look at our consumption patterns that are driving all this."

Indonesia - the world's second biggest plastics polluter after China - has pledged to reduce plastic waste into the ocean 75% by 2025, but some observers doubt legal rules are strong enough to make this happen.

Plastic waste is also on the agenda for this month's China Council - an influential high level dialogue in which world experts advise China's leaders on environmental issues.

Kenya itself has banned single-use plastic bags, along with Rwanda, Tanzania and - soon- Sri Lanka. Bangladesh has had controls for many years, especially to stop bags clogging up drains and causing floods.

But bags are just one part of the problem - there are so many other types of plastic flowing through waterways.

"The UN process is slow," Ms Svensson admitted. "It could take 10 years to get a UN treaty agreed on plastic litter and a further two years to get it implemented.

"We have to progress through the UN because this is a truly global problem - but we can't wait that long.

"We need to get much stronger actions from civil society, putting pressure on business to change - they can switch their supply chains very fast. And we need more individual governments to take urgent action too."

She praised the BBC's Blue Planet series and urged other parts of the media to highlight the issue.

Ms Svensson said the ocean was facing multiple assault from over-fishing; pollution from chemicals, sewage and agriculture; development in coastal areas; climate change; ocean acidification; and over-exploitation of coral reefs.

"This is a planetary emergency," she said. "I sense there is a momentum now about the need to act. We just have to be much faster."

As we left Watamu after Kai's joyous release, I turned back for one last glance at the Indian Ocean. A small boy tossed a plastic bottle over his shoulder into the sparkling water.

Follow Roger on Twitter.

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Life in the seas risks irreparable damage from a rising tide of plastic waste, the UN oceans chief has warned. Lisa Svensson said governments, firms and individual people must act far more quickly to halt plastic pollution. "This is a planetary crisis," she said.

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Litter on beaches, targeted in a national clean-up, rose by 10 per cent this year, with a fifth of the rubbish made up of "on-the-go" food and drinks items such as cups, foil wrappers and bottles.

On average, 138 pieces of food and drink waste were found for every 100 metres of beach, with items picked up in the Marine Conservation Society's Great British Beach Clean ranging from plastic cutlery and straws to sandwich packaging and lolly sticks.

On-the-go items made up 20 per cent of all litter found in this year's annual survey and clean-up, and 63 per cent of the beach rubbish dropped by the public, the Marine Conservation Society (MCS) said.

The charity is calling for a levy on single-use plastic items handed over free when people buy food and drink to eat while out and about, such as straws, cups, lids, stirrers and cutlery, to help stop the rising tide of plastic choking the oceans.

The call comes amid rising concern over plastic waste in the oceans, most recently highlighted by the BBC's Blue Planet 2 documentary series, which has prompted the Government to pledge to look at taxes or charges for single-use plastics.

Lizzie Prior, MCS beach-and-river clean project officer, said: "The 5p single-use carrier bag charge has made a massive difference to the number of plastic bags entering our seas.

"If a levy was placed on single-use plastic such as straws, stirrers, cutlery, cups and cup lids, we're confident that we'd find fewer of these items on our beaches."

MCS chief executive Sandy Luk said: "Our beach clean evidence shows a shocking rise in the amount of litter this year. Our oceans are choking in plastic.

"We urgently need a levy on single-use plastic as a first step."

Overall, the amount of litter picked up in the survey rose 10 per cent on 2016's figures, with an average of 718 bits of rubbish found on every 100 metres of beach, as 6,944 volunteers scoured 399 stretches of UK coastline for this year's event.

There has been a 27 per cent increase in plastic or polystyrene items since 2008, with small pieces up 11 per cent on 2016 and 38 per cent in the decade, the MCS said.

In better news, average numbers of plastic drinks bottles, plastic cups, paper cups and lids are down on last year.

And there has been a 28 per cent drop in bags found on beaches since 2011 when the plastic bag charge was first brought in, in Wales.

But the Great British Beach Clean has also revealed a 94 per cent rise in wet wipes found on UK beaches in a single year.

MCS urged retailers to better label products consumers think can be flushed down the toilet, and for manufacturers to remove plastic from their "flushable" products.

Reuse content

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Litter on British beaches rises 10 per cent as charities urge new plastic packaging tax

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Litter on beaches, targeted in a national clean-up, rose by 10 per cent this year, with a fifth of the rubbish made up of "on-the-go" food and drinks items such as cups, foil wrappers and bottles.

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We caught up with South Hams resident Anna Turns who is working with Kids Against Plastic in a bid to help Salcombe become the UK's first plastic clever town. Here she tells us about her efforts alongside her daughter Ella and some of the Salcombe businesses who have already joined the #PlasticClever revolution (follow their updates here: www.facebook.com/SalcombePlasticClever)
Most people have heard scary stats on ocean plastics - 300 million tonnes of plastic are produced every year BUT did you know that every single piece of plastic ever produced is still here?

It never biodegrades, it just fragments and gets smaller. Eight million tonnes of plastic a year reaches our seas from the land and 50% of all marine litter globally is made up of single-use plastic items or fragments of these items.

In Salcombe, plastic litter is a huge problem up the creeks and it is often the tiny microplastics and nurdles (lentil-sized raw plastic pellets) that are found in huge abundance on our beaches.

"Eight million tonnes of plastic a year reaches our seas from the land and 50% of all marine litter globally is made up of single-use plastic items or fragments of these items"

Single-use plastics are things that we only ever intend to use for perhaps a few minutes at a time, but we produce them out of this durable, long-lasting material.

Convenient things like drinks bottles, carrier bags, straws and takeaway coffee cup lids - the BIG FOUR - can all harm wildlife once they reach the sea - even tiny microscopic plankton eat it, turtles mistake plastic packaging for tasty jellyfish and it accumulates in our food chain - one third of UK-landed fish contain microplastics.

This plastic gets onto our dinner plates via the fish and seafood we consume. And as a busy fishing harbour and 'eco port' we all need to take more responsibility in Salcombe.

Small changes are all we need!

The good news is that being 'plastic clever' doesn't involve banning anything - it doesn't involve huge changes for the businesses but celebrates ones thinking responsibly about plastic - eg not automatically putting a straw in every drink but if a customer requests one it can be provided, or checking with the customer whether they are drinking their takeaway latte straight away and if so perhaps they don't need a lid.

These small steps all add up to making big changes in terms of behaviour and plastics in the ocean. And that will have a direct and positive impact on our beautiful estuary.

Salcombe Businesses Unite Against Plastic!

Ten years ago, Modbury in Devon became the first plastic-bag free town and in fact, we have the potential to make Salcombe the UK's first plastic clever town just by taking a few simple steps - so celebrating cafes, pubs and restaurants who don't automatically put straws into every drink or give a discount for takeaway coffees if customers bring their own reusable cups.

My daughter Ella, 6, is helping me to approach some of our local businesses, signing them up to our new Plastic Clever scheme, which is part of a wider campaign called Kids Against Plastic. This town is so reliant on tourism and there's so much potential for positive PR if we can all help make this happen with just a few simple changes.

We're therefore really excited to be heading up this campaign and so far we have had such wonderful feedback from businesses and individuals wanting to join our mission to be #PlasticClever -it just goes to show that little people can make big changes!

Here are some of the first Salcombe businesses to get #PlasticClever - we salute all of them and encourage more to join the revolution against single use plastic!
Here at Salcombe Tourist Information Centre we love what Anna and Ella are doing and their enthusiasm so hope they inspire you to question single use plastics and opt for more sustainable alternatives no matter where you are in the country, but especially when you next visit Salcombe!

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Salcombe - the UK's first plastic clever town? - Salcombe & South Devon Holidays

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We caught up with South Hams resident Anna Turns who is working with Kids Against Plastic in a bid to help Salcombe become the UK's first plastic clever town. Here she tells us about her efforts alongside her daughter Ella and some of the Salcombe businesses who have already joined the #PlasticClever revolution (follow their updates here: www.facebook.com/SalcombePlasticClever) ...

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Project Partners

Heritage Lottery Fund

The Heritage Lottery has provided a grant of £474,000 for the CSI project. The CSI project is primarily about awareness and participation in conservation from local communities.
Heritage Lottery Fund, fund various projects from the archaeology under our feet to the historic parks we love, from precious memories to rare wildlife. The Heritage Lottery Fund uses money raised by National Lottery players to help people across the UK explore, enjoy and protect the heritage they care about. The Heritage Lottery Fund contributed nearly half a million pounds to the partnered project.

National Marine Aquarium (NMA)

The NMA is the lead partner in the CSI project and provides working space for the project manager.
The National Marine Aquarium was established in 1991 under the direction and guidance of the Marine Biological Association (MBA). Established in 1884, the MBA historically developed marine husbandry concepts and was the second place in the world to exhibit an aquarium to the public. With the development of modern aquarium technology through the 1970's and 80's it was evident that the small space provided at the MBA building in Plymouth was inadequate to meet people's expectations of a modern aquarium. In order for Plymouth to remain a centre for public engagement in marine issues the MBA Council decided to support the establishment of the National Marine Aquarium (NMA) as a centre for people to learn about and engage with the marine environment.
Public engagement, whether through Discovery and Learning programmes, visitor engagement, membership programme, campaigns or delivery of events is at the heart of everything that the organisation does, reflected in the organisation's mission to 'Drive marine conservation through engagement.'

Torbay Coast and Countryside Trust (TCCT)

A local, independent charity that safeguards over 1750 beautiful acres of green space across Torbay. The Trust exists because Torbay has an outstanding natural environment and heritage that needs special care and attention. The trust are the stewards of the most important natural places in the Torbay - including Berry Head Nature Reserve, Cockington Country Park, Occombe Farm and various woodlands, cliffs and coastal walks.
TCCT is a key driver to marine conservation in Torbay and supports the project though providing expertise and advice. The Trust also provides working space for Rachel Cole at Occombe Farm.

Living Coasts

Living Coasts is part of the Whitley Wildlife Conservation Trust which is a charity dedicated to education, contributing scientific understanding and conservation of our global wildlife heritage and inspiring in people a respect for animals, plants and the environment. The support of the Community Seagrass Initiative allows WWCT to contribute to the conservation of biodiversity locally and nationally by educating and engaging the public on conservation of the natural marine habitats. This also enables us to strive towards our vision a world rich in wildlife and wild places. We're happy to be part of a great local project.

SEALIFE - Weymouth

Here at Weymouth SEALIFE Adventure Park we are involved in many different conservation projects including our Captive Breeding Programmes and the work funded by the SEALIFE Trust. We jumped at the chance to be a project partner for the Community Seagrass Initiative as we were really keen to help conserve a marine habitat right on our doorstep. Weymouth SEALIFE is home to a whole range of animals that live in seagrass so it's nice to do our bit to help protect the habitat that these amazing and charismatic species call their home in the wild. Working together with other organisations means that projects like this can be achieved on such a large scale, so hopefully we can see more projects like this in the future.

Fiona Smith- Curator at Weymouth SEALIFE Adventure Park.

University of Plymouth Marine Institute

Representing 3000 staff, researchers and students, Plymouth University Marine Institute is the first and largest such institute in the UK. We provide the external portal to our extensive pool of world-leading experts and state-of-the-art facilities, enabling us to understand the relationship between the way we live, the seas that surround us and the development of sustainable policy solutions. We are integrating our multidisciplinary expertise in marine and maritime research, education and innovation to train new scientists, engineers, policy-makers, artists, technicians and business managers of the future. The staff represented by the Marine Institute are housed within four University faculties (Science and Environment, Arts and Humanities, Business, Health and Human Sciences) and form the broadest portfolio of marine expertise within a single institute in Europe.

Tamar Estuaries Consultative Forum

The Tamar Estuaries Consultative Forum (TECF) is the estuary management partnership that brings together stakeholders to promote the delivery of integrated management for the Tamar estuaries and nearby coastal areas in order to ensure long term sustainability. The roots of TECF lie in the long history of liaison and consultation between the Ministry of Defence (MoD), local authorities and responsible bodies over the management of their common water body.
South Devon AONB Estuaries Partnership
The South Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty was designated by government in 1960. It covers 60 glorious miles of coastline, estuaries and countryside between Plymouth and Torbay. The South Devon AONB Team works with a wide range of organisations and communities to actively conserve and enhance the special qualities of South Devon. As well as being part of the AONB, the Salcombe and Kingsbridge estuary is also a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and a local nature reserve and lies within the South Devon Heritage Coast. Estuary managers support the work of the CSI in Salcombe and include the volunteers in other events and projects within the area.

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The Heritage Lottery has provided a grant of £474,000 for the CSI project. The CSI project is primarily about awareness and participation in conservation from local communities. Heritage Lottery Fund, fund various projects from the archaeology under our feet to the historic parks we love, from precious memories to rare wildlife.

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The importance of seagrasses is further emphasised in a new report that looks at how they underpin fishing worldwide.

These flowering plants, which grow in near-shore waters, are under intense pressure - some estimates suggest global losses are running at 7% a year.

The grasses provide shelter and food for many sea creatures and that makes them a natural draw to fishers.

But Richard Unsworth and colleagues say this valuable resource will need better management if it is to be sustained.

" Our study is really the first to show just how important seagrass meadows are to fishing," explained the researcher from Swansea University in the UK.

"Wherever you get seagrasses, you get fishing, basically," he told BBC News.

Seagrass meadows are found around every continent except Antarctica.

The plants cycle nutrients, stabilise sediments, and - as photosynthesisers - act as a "sink" for carbon dioxide.

They also provide nursery habitat for juvenile fish, which hide from predators among the stems.

However, the scale of the importance of the meadows to fisheries has been more supposition than fact because of a paucity of data on how they are actually used, according to Dr Unsworth.

His team set about correcting this by interviewing experts - including other scientists and fisheries managers - on what they were observing around the world.

The team also took in case studies covering all regions from the Philippines to Zanzibar, Indonesia, the Turks and Caicos Islands and locations in the Mediterranean.

The picture that emerges is much the same everywhere.

Fishers actively target seagrasses because they recognise the habitats' great productivity.

This is true from small-scale recreational activity all the way through to large-scale commercial practice.

The study details the types of tools and equipment used - from spears to nets - and the variety of species taken, from invertebrates such as crabs, shrimp and clams, to popular finfish such as mullet, herring and snapper.

One critical point to emphasise from the assessment is that many hundreds of millions of people worldwide depend on the catch from seagrass meadows for their daily protein intake.

This makes their conservation and proper management all the more important, says the team.

There is a claim that a meadow area equivalent to two football pitches is disappearing every hour.

Such statements are very hard to verify, but there is no doubt that seagrasses are being diminished by poor water quality in coastal areas as a result of agricultural and urban run-off, among several threats that also include insensitive fishing practices.

Team member Lina Nordlund, from Stockholm University, said: "The ecological value of seagrass meadows is irrefutable, yet their loss continues at an accelerating rate.

"Now there is growing evidence globally that many fisheries associated to seagrass are unrecorded, unreported and unmanaged, leading to a tragedy of the seagrass commons."

Leanne Cullen-Unsworth, from Cardiff University, added: "Arguments in support of seagrass have in the past too often focused on the fluffy - such as the conservation of seahorses.

"I don't want to dismiss seahorses' importance, but the reality is that seagrasses have much higher value in supporting fisheries. And I've come across numerous occasions where fishermen have been against conservation of seagrasses because they can't moor their boats in these locations, when it's those seagrasses that support their activity in the first place.

"What we need to do is increase the level of understanding and appreciation of these habitats."

The team's study - Global significance of seagrass fishery activity - is published in the journal Fish and Fisheries.

Jonathan.Amos-INTERNET@bbc.co.uk and follow me on Twitter: @BBCAmos

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The importance of seagrasses is further emphasised in a new report that looks at how they underpin fishing worldwide. These flowering plants, which grow in near-shore waters, are under intense pressure - some estimates suggest global losses are running at 7% a year.

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President Donald Trump has suspended the import of elephant hunting trophies, only a day after a ban was relaxed by his administration.

Imports of trophies from elephants legally hunted in Zambia and Zimbabwe had been set to resume, reversing a 2014 Obama-era ban.

But late on Friday, President Trump tweeted the change was on hold until he could "review all conservation facts".

The move to relax the ban had sparked immediate anger from animal activists.

"Your shameful actions confirm the rumours that you are unfit for office," said French actress and animal-rights activist Brigitte Bardot in a letter to President Trump.

Protests spread on social media with many sharing images of President Trump's sons posing with dead animals during their hunting trips in Africa.

One photo of Donald Trump Jr shows him holding the amputated tail of a dead elephant.

The US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) had argued that hunting fees could aid conservation of the endangered animals.

Experts say that populations of African elephants are plummeting.

Their numbers dropped by about 30% from 2007-14, according to the 2016 Great Elephant Census.

The non-profit group's report found a population drop of 6% in Zimbabwe alone.

Despite their listing under the Endangered Species Act, there is a provision in US law that allows permits to import animal parts if there is sufficient evidence that the fees generated will actually benefit species conservation.

In 2015 a US dentist from Minnesota killed a famous lion named Cecil in Zimbabwe's Hwange National Park.

Cecil's death triggered an outrage in the US and Zimbabwe, and briefly forced the hunter into hiding.

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Trump puts hunting trophy imports on hold

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President Donald Trump has suspended the import of elephant hunting trophies, only a day after a ban was relaxed by his administration. Imports of trophies from elephants legally hunted in Zambia and Zimbabwe had been set to resume, reversing a 2014 Obama-era ban.

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UN climate talks in Bonn have concluded with progress on technical issues, but with bigger questions about cutting carbon unresolved.

Delegates say they are pleased that the rulebook for the Paris climate agreement is finally coming together.

But these technical discussions took place against the backdrop of a larger battle about coal, oil and gas.

It means that next year's conference in Poland is set for a major showdown on the future of fossil fuels.

This meeting, known as COP23, was tasked with clarifying complex operational issues around the workings of the Paris climate agreement.

One of the most important elements was the development of a process that would help countries to review and ratchet up their commitments to cut carbon.

Fiji, holding the presidency of this meeting, proposed what's being called the Talanoa Dialogue.

Over the next year, a series of discussions will take place to help countries look at the promises they have made under the Paris pact.

"A key element in Poland is this Talanoa dialogue, to make sure it doesn't result in just a talk show," said Yamide Dagnet with the World Resources Institute.

"In Poland, ministers will have to look each other in the eye and say they will go home and enhance their actions, so that by 2020 we end up with national plans that will be a much more ambitious set of climate actions."

Looming over these discussions in Bonn was the question of coal, oil and gas.

US coal and nuclear companies organised a presentation here arguing that fossil fuels should be a key part of the solution to rising temperatures.

Glimmers of hope
BBC environment analyst Roger Harrabin
Optimistic would be too strong. Slightly less pessimistic would be more accurate. After two decades of grindingly under-ambitious conferences, at last a faint glimmer of light.

The flamboyant flourish of the Paris accord offered more dramatic cause for optimism, with its world leaders, hugs and tears.

But dull Bonn gave a more prosaic hint of what might be achieved if politicians can capitalise on a world shifting towards clean technology far faster than anyone could have expected.

Trump's snub didn't derail negotiations, which were mostly cordial, with a clear common goal.

Governments can now see a clean energy future is not just achievable but affordable. Many know they need to cut emissions further, and some are ready to do so.

However, the gulf remains between aspiration and actions. There is acrimony also over the lack of cash to help poor nations.

And the venue of the next annual meeting - Poland's coal capital Katowice.

So, the battle's not over, but real-world energy economics are on the cusp of overtaking politics as the main driver of climate protection.

And that's a glimmer indeed.

Their meeting was interrupted by dozens of singing protestors, who echoed the feelings of many delegates that unabated fossil fuels shouldn't be part of the future energy mix.

The US seemed to have a divided presence at this gathering.

Leaders from states and cities that want to stay in the Paris agreement were highly visible.

President Trump could "tweet his fingers off, but he won't stop us," said Governor Jay Inslee from Washington State.

White House special adviser on climate change, George David Banks, told reporters that President Trump was still open to staying in the Paris pact.

"The President has said multiple times that he is willing to consider re-engaging if he can find or identify terms that are suitable, that are fair to the United States," he said.

That line didn't seem to impress many attendees who said there could be no re-negotiation.

Even the US official negotiating team struck a different tone from the White House when they made their national statement to the meeting. There wasn't a single mention of coal or fossil fuels.

Instead, it stated that the while the US might be out of the Paris deal, it wasn't walking away from international climate discussions in one form or another.

"The United States intends to remain engaged with our many partners and allies around the world on these issues, here in the UN Framework Convention and everywhere else."

In a further rebuff to those who came here to promote fossil fuels, the UK, Canada and Mexico, close allies and neighbours of the US, led a new global alliance to move away from coal.

Some 20 countries have signed up to end their reliance on unabated coal as an energy source. The Powering Past Coal Alliance hopes to have 50 members by the time of next year's meeting in Poland.

2018's summit in Katowice is seen as a critical junction on the road to making the Paris agreement work effectively when it comes into force in 2020.

By next December, the rulebook needs to be finished and there is to be a key review of carbon-cutting commitments made in 2015.

Many delegates are concerned that Poland's widespread and continued use of coal makes it unlikely that there will be decisive steps taken at the meeting.

Some observers believe that measures are being taken to ensure that Poland doesn't derail the momentum that has built up since Paris, and generally maintained here in Bonn.

"We had to leave Bonn with the process intact," said one seasoned observer.

"We now need a series of ministerial meetings in the coming months to make political progress on the key elements, so that we box in Poland over the next year."

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UN climate talks in Bonn have concluded with progress on technical issues, but with bigger questions about cutting carbon unresolved. Delegates say they are pleased that the rulebook for the Paris climate agreement is finally coming together. But these technical discussions took place against the backdrop of a larger battle about coal, oil and gas.

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Global emissions of CO2 in 2017 are projected to rise for the first time in four years, dashing hopes that a peak might soon be reached.

The main cause of the expected growth has been greater use of coal in China as its economy expanded.

Researchers are uncertain if the rise in emissions is a one-off or the start of a new period of CO2 build-up.

Scientists say that a global peak in CO2 before 2020 is needed to limit dangerous global warming this century.

The Global Carbon Project has been analysing and reporting on the scale of emissions of CO2 since 2006.

Carbon output has grown by about 3% per year in that period, but growth essentially declined or remained flat between 2014 and 2016.

The latest figures indicate that in 2017, emissions of CO2 from all human activities grew by about 2% globally.

There is some uncertainty about the data but the researchers involved have concluded that emissions are on the rise again.

"Global CO2 emissions appear to be going up strongly once again after a three-year stable period. This is very disappointing," said the lead author of the study, Prof Corinne Le Quéré from the University of East Anglia.

"With global CO2 emissions from human activities estimated at 41 billion tonnes for 2017, time is running out on our ability to keep warming well below 2 degrees C, let alone 1.5C."

The most important element in causing this rise has been China, which is responsible for around 28% of the global total. Emissions there went up 3.5% in 2017, mainly because of increased coal use, driven in the main by a growing economy.

Another important factor in China has been lower water levels in rivers which have seen a drop in the amount of electricity made from hydro-power, with utilities turning to coal and gas to make up the shortfall.

US emissions have continued to decline but the fall has been less than expected. Higher prices saw a drop in the use of natural gas for electricity - with renewables and hydro-power picking up the slack.

Coal use has also grown slightly in the US this year, with consumption up about a half of one percent.

India's emissions are projected to grow by about 2%, which is a considerable decrease from around 6% per year over the last decade.

However, experts believe that this may be a temporary drop-off caused by a number of factors that have hampered the consumption of oil and cement.
Action required
Europe also saw a smaller decline than expected, falling by 0.2% compared with 2.2% over the last 10 years.

One common theme around the world is continued use of gas and oil, says Prof Le Quéré.

"There have been lots of ups and downs in the use of coal but in the background there has been no weakening in the use of oil and gas. And that is quite worrisome."

The report has been launched in Bonn where UN negotiators are trying to move forward with the rules for the Paris climate agreement.

Researchers involved with the study say they are not moving fast enough.

"Lots of diplomats are working out the rules but that is all a little bit meaningless unless they go back home to their countries and ratchet up climate action and that is where the gap is," said Dr Glen Peters, from the Centre for International Climate Research in Norway.

"These countries have to be pushing on with the policies, but everything keeps getting pushed back."

The report is sure to increase tensions in Bonn between developed and developing nations.

There is increasing resentment about the fact that all the focus is on future commitments made under the Paris climate agreement but very little on the years before it becomes active.

Poorer countries want the richer ones to increase their carbon-cutting actions over the next three years.

"The climate will not let us wait until 2020 when the Paris agreement comes into force," said Nicaragua's chief negotiator, Paul Oquist.

"Climate change is happening now and it's vital that immediate actions to cut emissions become a feature of this summit."

The new research on carbon emissions has been published simultaneously in the journals, Nature Climate Change, Earth System Science Data Discussions and Environmental Research Letters.

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Global emissions of CO2 in 2017 are projected to rise for the first time in four years, dashing hopes that a peak might soon be reached. The main cause of the expected growth has been greater use of coal in China as its economy expanded.

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Are you concerned about climate change? Well, now that you've changed your lightbulbs, it's time to change your lunch!

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Explore our food guide for plenty of easy ways to reduce your food waste. From tasty recipes for simple meal ideas, easy ways to use up leftovers and how to store your food at home (hint: you'd be surprised how many foods can be frozen!) we've got you covered.

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Welcome to Love Food Hate Waste. We're here to prevent food waste, help you save food, save money and save the planet too. Here you'll find recipes, nutritional information, blogs on tips and tricks and more.

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Article | Open

Nature Communications 8, Article number: 1416 (2017)

doi:10.1038/s41467-017-01321-w

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Received:

Accepted:

Published online:

Abstract

Global-scale nitrogen budgets developed to quantify anthropogenic impacts on the nitrogen cycle do not explicitly consider nitrate stored in the vadose zone. Here we show that the vadose zone is an important store of nitrate that should be considered in future budgets for effective policymaking. Using estimates of groundwater depth and nitrate leaching for 1900-2000, we quantify the peak global storage of nitrate in the vadose zone as 605-1814 Teragrams (Tg). Estimates of nitrate storage are validated using basin-scale and national-scale estimates and observed groundwater nitrate data. Nitrate storage per unit area is greatest in North America, China and Europe where there are thick vadose zones and extensive historical agriculture. In these areas, long travel times in the vadose zone may delay the impact of changes in agricultural practices on groundwater quality. We argue that in these areas use of conventional nitrogen budget approaches is inappropriate.

Introduction

It is estimated that inputs of reactive nitrogen (N) into the terrestrial biosphere are currently more than double pre-industrial levels due to modern agricultural practices and application of N fertilisers1. Reactive nitrogen cascades through the environment and has resulted in deterioration in quality of groundwater and surface water used for public supply2 and ecological degradation of freshwater and marine systems3. To manage the impacts of additional reactive nitrogen, N budgets have been developed at a wide range of scales to quantify man's impact on the N cycle. These budgets typically assume a steady state over a 1 year timescale, with no net accumulation of N. However, recent work at both national and catchment scales has shown this to be inappropriate, as there can be substantial (and increasing) storage of nitrate in soils, the vadose zone and groundwater6,7,8,9. The slow travel time for solutes through the vadose zone means that significant amounts of dissolved reactive N may be stored. This also results in a significant lag between any changes in agricultural practices to reduce nitrogen loadings and subsequent impacts on groundwater and surface water quality10. Although the problems associated with time lag and storage of nitrate in the vadose zone have been identified at local11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18, regional and national scales9,10,22,23,24, the global significance of these processes has not yet been quantified. In this study, we hypothesised that long travel times in the vadose zone make it an important store of nitrate not considered at a global scale to date.

We quantified the nitrate stored in the vadose zone globally by linking numerical models and published datasets of nitrate leaching25, depth to groundwater26, recharge rate and porosity27 (see 'Methods' section). We considered the sensitivity of model outputs to changes in model inputs by varying nitrate leaching inputs, vadose zone effective saturation and travel time. Results are aggregated by lithology and basins, and analysed using the k-means cluster analysis28. The model was validated by comparing the model storage against previous national and catchment scale vadose zone storage estimates6,9 and by comparing model nitrate concentrations in recharge at the water table with observed concentrations in Europe29 and the USA30. We show that the vadose zone is an important store of nitrate at the global scale, with significant storage in areas with extensive historical agricultural development and large depths to groundwater. Use of conventional N budgets in these areas is likely to be highly limited and policymakers should consider vadose zone nitrate storage when planning pollution mitigation measures.

Results

Global spatiotemporal distribution of vadose zone nitrate

Our modelling shows a substantial continuous increase in the amount of nitrate stored in the vadose zone (Fig. 1). This implies the steady state assumption adopted by conventional nutrient budgets is not appropriate at relatively short timescales (<50 years). On the basis of the sensitivity analysis, for the year 2000, we estimate the total global storage to be between 605 and 1814 Tg N (Fig. 1). The range of values of nitrate storage associated with uncertainty in nitrate leaching inputs (605-1814 Tg N) is significantly greater than that for uncertainty in unsaturated zone travel time (1007-1496 Tg N) or vadose zone saturation (778-1227 Tg N). Modelled estimates of nitrate stored in carbonate vadose zones are estimated to be 9.6% (58-174 Tg) of total N storage. In these areas rapid transport may occur and observed storage may be limited due to low matrix porosity, and consequently model estimates are likely to be overestimates. Total vadose zone N storage is small (<3%) in comparison to estimates of total soil nitrogen (68,00031-280,00032Tg N), but potentially significant (7-200%) in comparison to estimates of more labile soil inorganic nitrogen (NO ₃− + NH ₄⁺, 94031-25,00032Tg). The modelled spatiotemporal distribution of nitrate stored in the vadose zone (Fig. 2) shows substantial increases between 1950 and 2000 associated with increased global use of N fertilizers and subsequent leaching. Basins in North America, China and Central and Eastern Europe have developed large amounts of nitrate stored in the vadose zone due to thick vadose zones, slow travel times and high nitrate loadings.

Fig. 1

Modelled global increase in nitrate stored in the vadose zone between 1900 and 2000. Nitrate storage (in Tg N) is modelled under the baseline model run (black) and from sensitivity analyses (red and blue for +/− 50% travel time and nitrate leaching, respectively

Fig. 2

Spatial distribution of nitrate stored in the vadose zone. Global vadose zone N storage (in kg N ha −1) is shown for 1925 ( a), 1950 ( b), 1975 ( c) and 2000 ( d)

Comparisons between estimates of nitrate storage made in this study with previous works go some way to validating the modelling undertaken. Previous studies have derived the amount of nitrate stored in the vadose zone for the Thames Basin6,9, England and for the countries of England and Wales and the USA9. The calculated peak store of 0.059 Tg N for the Thames catchment in this study agrees broadly with the range of peak nitrate storage values reported in previous work in this area (0.016-0.24 Tg N). For England and Wales, we calculated a peak store of 1.7 Tg N, which agrees with previous calculations, estimating the store to be 0.8-1.75 Tg N. For the USA, a first estimate of 29 Tg N was previously made9 and our modelling suggests a store of 191 Tg N. This large discrepancy can be accounted for by the modelling approach of the previous study, which only considered land areas where agriculture was >40% of the overall land use.

The distributions of observed groundwater nitrate concentrations and modelled concentrations in groundwater recharge show reasonably good agreement for both European Union and United States (Fig. 3). It should be noted that comparison between observed groundwater concentrations and concentrations in recharge do not take into account dilution of recharge by low nitrate groundwater. Consequently, comparison between these datasets should be considered to be a sense-check, but nonetheless useful, validation. The distributions of nitrate concentrations in the USA appear to be closer which reflects the much larger observational dataset for the USA than for Europe (see 'Methods').

Fig. 3

Observed and modelled distributions of nitrate concentrations in groundwater. Distributions of observed (blue) nitrate concentrations in groundwater and modelled (red) nitrate concentrations in recharge at the water table for the European Union29 ( a, b) and the United States30 ( c, d). Purple colour in the histogram indicates where the model and observed concentration distributions overlap

Coherent basin-scale nitrate storage trends

k-means cluster analysis revealed three spatially coherent responses in basin nitrate storage (Fig. 4a, b) reflecting differences in vadose zone travel time (Fig. 4c) and nitrate leaching inputs (Fig. 4d). In all the clusters, the time taken for the impact of stopping N leaching inputs from the base of the soil zone (ie, N leach = 0, see 'Methods') to reach groundwater ( N out = 0) will equal the vadose zone travel time. The majority of basins fall within clusters 1 and 2. These clusters show a continuous increase in the nitrate stored in the vadose zone. The vadose zones in basins in these clusters accumulate nitrate with no loss to groundwater as the travel time through the vadose zone is long (Fig. 4c) due to deep water tables and low recharge rates. In these catchments, some legacy nitrate may not have reached the water table yet and anticipated improvements in groundwater and surface water quality due to catchment management may be significantly delayed. It should also be noted that there may also be significant lags in the saturated zone between recharge at the water table and discharge at receptors such as public water supply wells and streams, where there are long groundwater flow paths. In addition, in some areas where groundwater recharge is estimated to be very low, modelled estimates of vadose zone nitrate are likely to represent storage in both the soil and vadose zone.

Fig. 4

Basin-scale nitrate storage trends. Spatial distribution of the nitrate storage clusters ( a), nitrate storage cluster centroids ( b), distribution of vadose zone travel times ( c) and mean annual nitrate leaching input time series ( d) for each cluster

Cluster 3 shows a substantially different nitrate storage response to the other clusters. This is a result of shorter vadose zone travel times. In these basins, storage rapidly increases initially until the travel time is reached and nitrate is present across the full depth of the vadose zone. After this point, the basin moves to a quasi-steady state where any input of nitrate from the base of the soil zone is accompanied by an equivalent loss from the base of the vadose zone to groundwater. This dynamic balance results in minimal increases in nitrate storage and a relatively rapid response to changes in N loadings in comparison to other clusters. In these catchments, nitrate loss at the base of the soil zone >10 years ago is likely to now be present in groundwater.

The nitrate leaching time series for each cluster (Fig. 4d) show distinct differences associated with the extent of historical agricultural and population development. Cluster 1 shows a continuous increase in nitrate leaching inputs through time associated with increased development and intensification of agricultural to maximise crop yields. Basins in cluster 1 form a spatially coherent pattern, covering large parts of the developing world including Africa, Southeast Asia and South America. Cluster 2 shows an increase in nitrate leaching to c. 1985, followed by decreases to 2000. Such an input can be characterised by historical agricultural development followed by implementation of catchment measures to reduce nitrate losses in the last decade. Spatially this cluster reflects large parts of the developed world including the USA and Europe. The nitrate leaching time series for cluster 3 shows significant variability associated with the small number of catchments averaged but generally shows an increase to 2000. Recent studies have shown evidence that nitrogen losses from agriculture follow an Environmental Kutznets Curve (EKC), with a number of developed countries having reduced nitrogen losses since the 1980s associated with increased GDP33. The spatiotemporal patterns of nitrate leaching inputs between the different clusters (Fig. 4d) corroborate this.

Discussion

There is a well-established discourse on the balance between increasing agricultural productivity to improve human health and feed growing populations and the negative impact of nitrogen leaching on aquatic ecosystems5. A central tenet of future nitrogen management is that agricultural productivity can be increased in a cost-effective manner with limited environmental impacts through increased nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and reduced soil nitrogen surplus ( N sur)33,34. Several recent studies have continued to assume that N sur is directly analogous to nitrate pollution and recently developed models that do consider groundwater explicitly still ignore the vadose zone25. Given the substantial lags present in the transport of nitrate from the soil zone to groundwater and surface water, we argue that use of N sur alone as a metric to quantify impacts of agriculture on the aquatic environment is inappropriate. Our modelling shows that the vadose zone is a globally significant store of nitrate, which needs to be considered in future N budgets for more effective long-term nutrient management. N storage in the vadose zone is most significant in areas where agricultural development and intensification occurred first and where there is a large depth to groundwater. Storage of nitrate in the vadose zone is one of a number of temporary catchment retention processes such as storage in soil organic matter8, subsoils, land not in agricultural production7, the riparian zone and in rivers6,37. These possible nitrogen stores and how they change through time (eg, N release through mineralisation of soil organic matter) should also be compared with storage in the vadose zone to determine whether they are significant enough to be incorporated into future nutrient budgets. In combination, these processes will result in substantial delays in the impacts of changes in agricultural management practices on groundwater and surface water quality.

Nitrate storage in the vadose zone has significant implications for environmental policy. The need for internationally cooperative policy responses to nitrogen pollution to avoid shifting of pollution sources to areas with less stringent environmental controls has been established38. However, development of such policies is in its infancy36. Moreover, established policies in the developed world have been shown to be difficult to implement in areas where vadose zone lags are present. For example, it is now widely acknowledged22,39 that original environmental targets set under the European Water Framework Directive40 and Nitrates Directive41 may not be met due to storage of nitrate in the vadose zone. As a result, many river basin managers have been forced to consider new planning timescales accounting for these lags22.

Recent work37 has called for the development of integrated pollution management policies which consider both pollution sources and temporary (eg, vadose zone lags) and permanent (eg, denitrification) retention processes at the basin scale. Our work presented here provides a critical contribution to the literature in that we make the first global-scale quantification of one of these temporary processes. The spatial distribution of vadose zone N storage in 2000 (Fig. 2) can give a first global indication to policymakers and decision makers of where N legacy issues may be significant and delay improvements in groundwater and surface water quality. In these areas, an understanding of nitrate storage in the vadose zone can help managers in planning mitigation measures and the timescales and expectations for improvements in water quality. With this quantification of vadose zone N storage and further research to quantify other retention processes at the global scale, development of integrated pollution management strategies at an international level should be possible. Such an approach is critical for a realistic assessment of environmental impacts of global nitrogen flows associated with economic development and international trade36.

The spatial coherence of the nitrate storage clusters (Fig. 4) highlights the need for different management strategies to tackle nitrate pollution across developing and developed countries. In the developed world, a number of countries are already on a trajectory of declining soil N losses associated with sustainable intensification of agriculture33. In the developing world, soil N losses are increasing associated with rapid early development of fertilised agriculture33. However, in both cases, catchment retention processes such as vadose zone storage must be considered. Without consideration of these lags, which is often the case, nitrate pollution control policy may appear not to be working. This may lead to more stringent but unnecessary measures that may adversely impact agricultural production and/or lead to disproportionate costs.

Methods

Estimates of vadose zone travel time

Travel time in the vadose zone was derived by estimating the depth to groundwater and nitrate velocity. Depth to groundwater mapping at 0.5° scale was derived from previously published global groundwater model forced by modern climate, terrain and sea level26. Velocity of nitrate ( V N O 3 , m year −1) in the vadose zone was calculated as follows:

where R is the recharge rate (m year −1) and ∅ is effective porosity (dimensionless). Global groundwater recharge mapping was derived from the PCR-GLOBWB model42, which has been used extensively in global-scale hydrological modelling. PCR-GLOBWB calculates vertical water fluxes between two soil layers and groundwater based on unsaturated hydraulic conductivity estimates for each layer46. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity was calculated using the degree of saturation of each layer. This was calculated based on average, saturated and residual soil moisture content, in turn derived by depth of water storage in each layer and the layer thickness. Global soil mapping47 and soil moisture characteristic curves48 were used to derive soil physical relationships for each layer, tabulated moisture retention, matric potential and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity values.

Although recharge estimates derived using PCR-GLOBWB account for increased hydraulic conductivity with increased saturation, vadose zone velocities can also decrease with increased saturation associated with an increased cross-sectional area of flow49. On the basis of previous catchment and regional scale approaches22,49,50,51, we accounted for this process separately from recharge in the calculation of deep vadose zone travel times. Estimates of travel time through the deep vadose zone calculated using Eq. 1 assumes a fully saturated matrix. This is supported by work that shows that vadose zone velocities calculated using this method agree well with observed velocities derived from vadose zone porewater profiles in limestone and sandstone aquifers10. However, in partially saturated media, assuming 100% effective saturation will result in unsaturated zone velocities being underestimated and hence vadose zone storage being overestimated. N storage in vadose zones of strongly karstified aquifers with limited matrix porosity will also be overestimated using this method. Global geological maps do not differentiate between karst and non-karst sedimentary carbonate rocks52, so we explored the impact of these assumptions on model results through sensitivity analysis (see below).

Estimates of nitrate leaching from the base of the soil zone

Nitrate leaching ( N leach, kg N 0.5° grid cell −1 year −1, same units for all N budget terms) at the base of the soil zone was derived from the global nutrient model IMAGE25 for 1900 to 2000. IMAGE has been detailed extensively elsewhere and the key soil zone N inputs, outputs and processes are described here for clarity and illustrated in Supplementary Fig. 1. IMAGE uses the concept of an annual steady state soil N budget surplus, defined as the balance between soil N inputs and outputs for a unit land area. Storage and release of N associated with changes in soil organic matter through time are not considered. Historic land cover data54 at the 0.5° scale, which distinguishes between 9 agricultural land use types and 17 different natural ecosystems was used as a basis to derive 5 broad land use groups for the soil N budget estimation (Supplementary Fig. 1). The soil N budget ( N budget) is calculated as follows:

where N fix is biological nitrogen fixation, N dep is atmospheric N deposition, N fert is application of N fertilizer, N man is addition of manure and N withdr and N vol are loss terms for N withdrawal from harvesting and ammonia volatilisation, respectively.

Biological nitrogen fixation in leguminous (pulses and soybeans) crops and natural ecosystems was estimated by crop production data and N content4,55. It was assumed that total biomass of leguminous crops was twice that of the harvested product, and that N is also released to the soil during the growing season53. Fixed N is available for harvesting, or volatilisation and leaching if released to the soil. Total N fixation during the growing season was therefore derived by multiplying the N in harvested product by three to account for this additional unharvested biomass and the plant-soil N flux53. Atmospheric N deposition for the year 2000 was estimated from an ensemble of global atmospheric chemistry models56 and estimated for 1900 to 2000 by scaling the N deposition field with historic emissions inventories4. Country level N fertilizer application rates divided by land use for 1900 to 2000 were derived from global databases55,57 and data on fixed N use in 191358. Country animal population data in conjunction with N excretion rate estimates59 were used to estimate addition of N in manure form. Animal populations back to 1900 were derived from statistical compilations by Mitchell and scaling of human population data63 for poultry and camels where data was limited. N loss through ammonia volatilisation was estimated using a empirical model of c. 1700 field measurements across a range of different crop types, fertilizer types and applications and environmental conditions64. Removal of N through harvesting was estimated from country crop production data, crop dry matter and N content estimates65. N budget inputs and outputs derived from crop type and production data ( N fix, N man, N withdr, N vol) were estimated back to 1900 by scaling 1960 crop production data with population numbers and land use data in the HYDE database66.

It is assumed that all reduced N compounds are nitrified to nitrate such that N budget = soil nitrate53. When N budget is positive, leaching, surface runoff and denitrification can occur. N leaching ( N leach) at the base of the soil zone is a fraction of the soil N budget excluding N loss via surface runoff ( N sro):

where the soil leaching fraction, f leach, is complementary to the fraction of soil N lost by denitrification ( f den):

f leach is estimated empirically using five denitrification factors, each with a range from 0 to 1, with a maximum value of 1:

where f climate, f text, f drain, f soc and f landuse are factors representing climate, soil texture, aeration, soil organic carbon content and land use, respectively25. f climate uses the Arrhenius equation and estimates of soil water capacity and potential recharge to estimate the effects of temperature and residence time on root zone denitrification25. f text, f drain, f soc were estimated using global-scale mapping of soil texture, drainage and organic carbon content53,67. f landuse was set to 1 for arable land areas, with grassland and natural vegetation having a value of 0.3668. For further detail on soil N budget inputs, outputs and processes the reader is referred to previous modelling studies4,53.

Calculation of nitrate storage in the vadose zone

Nitrate storage in the vadose zone was calculated using a simple summation approach. It was assumed that nitrate undertakes conservative transport in the vadose zone. This is supported by numerous studies69, which showed that the evidence for vadose zone denitrification is very limited, with just 1-2% of the nitrate leached from the soil zone removed70. In some specific local hydrogeological environments (eg, where anaerobic conditions and organic carbon are present69), vadose zone denitrification may occur, and in these areas the model may overestimate nitrate storage. However, at the global scale this was considered negligible. For a year t (years), the nitrate stored in vadose zone, N VZ (Tg N) for a grid cell with a vadose travel time, TT VZ (year) and a time variant nitrate leaching input, N leach (kg N), can be calculated as:

Global maps of the model input datasets and the derived vadose zone storage for the year 2000 are shown in Supplementary Fig. 2. We derive changes in nitrate storage in the vadose zone through time using a simple mass balance approach;

where N out (kg N) is the nitrate flux from the unsaturated zone to the saturated zone andΔ N VZ (kg N) is the change in nitrate storage in the vadose zone.

Sensitivity and cluster analysis

We undertook a heuristic sensitivity analysis by running the model using different inputs. We separately varied the vadose zone travel time and nitrate leaching input by +/−50%. We also varied vadose zone effective saturations (0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1) to account for variable cross-sectional area of flow in partially saturated media.

We aggregated vadose zone N storage data by lithology and catchments. We separated areas underlain by sedimentary carbonate rocks27 to account for rapid vadose zone transport in karstic aquifers with limited matrix porosity, and hence limited N storage. We normalised the catchment nitrate storage responses for 1900-2000 and used k-means clustering28 to identify spatial patterns of N storage responses. Two, three and four clusters were tested and three gave the most coherent spatial pattern. For each of the clusters, we calculated the mean annual nitrate-leaching input for 1900-2000 and the kernel density distribution of travel times for the catchments within the cluster.

Model validation

We undertook a two step model validation: (1) comparison against previously published national and catchment scale estimates of nitrate storage and (2) comparison against nitrate concentrations in groundwater. Recent work has given estimates of nitrate storage for the United Kingdom and the USA9 and for the Thames catchment6, England. We estimated nitrate concentrations in recharge at the water table as follows:

Modelled estimates of nitrate concentrations in recharge were compared against observed groundwater nitrate data for Europe29 and America30. It should be noted that this comparison does not directly validate estimates of nitrate storage. Comparison against observed nitrate concentrations in groundwater provides a sense-check that the nitrate inputs and vadose zone travel time estimates are reasonable.

Data availability

Global input datasets (depth to groundwater table, recharge rate, porosity and nitrate leaching) and model validation data (groundwater nitrate concentrations) are publically available from the references cited in the 'Methods' section. Vadose zone nitrate storage data generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request.

Additional Information

Publisher's note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

References

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Acknowledgements

The research was funded by the British Geological Survey's Groundwater Directorate National Capability programme (Natural Environment Research Council). This paper is published with permission of the Executive Director, British Geological Survey (NERC).

Author information

Affiliations

1. British Geological Survey, Maclean Building, Crowmarsh, Oxfordshire, OX10 8BB, UK

M. J. Ascott

, D. C. Gooddy

, M. E. Stuart

& M. A. Lewis

2. British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Nicker Hill, Keyworth, Nottinghamshire, NG1 5GG, UK

3. Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YQ, UK

Contributions

M.J.A. conceived the research and undertook the modelling. M.J.A., D.C.G. and R.S.W. devised the cluster analysis approach. L.W., M.E.S., M.A.L. and A.M.B. developed the conceptual framework for unsaturated zone modelling. All authors contributed to the data analysis and interpretation and paper writing.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. J. Ascott.

Electronic supplementary material

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Global patterns of nitrate storage in the vadose zone

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Current global-scale nitrogen (N) budgets quantifying anthropogenic impacts on the N cycle do not explicitly consider nitrate storage in the vadose zone. Here, using estimates of depth to groundwater and nitrate leaching between 1900-2000, the authors show that the vadose zone is an important store of nitrate.

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Britain has lost many keystone species, such as beavers, wild boar, lynx and wolf, which drive natural processes through trophic cascades in the ecosystem.

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Positive action (or words at least) on Climate Change

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The US is set to become isolated in its stance on the Paris climate agreement, after reports that Syria is preparing to join the deal.

The Paris deal unites the world's nations in tackling climate change.

Syria and Nicaragua were the only nations outside the deal when it was agreed in 2015. Nicaragua signed in October.

In June the US said it would withdraw, but the rules of the agreement state that this cannot be done until 2020.

Syrian officials at climate talks in Bonn, Germany, were quoted as saying the country was about to send the UN its ratification documents.

Correspondents say Syria was effectively an international pariah when the accord was first signed, and the Paris meetings coincided with some of the fiercest fighting in Syria's civil war, meaning the country was in no position to sign.

Announcing the US decision in June, President Donald Trump said it was part of his "solemn duty to protect America" and he would seek a new deal that would not disadvantage US businesses.

However, the US more recently has hinted that it may shift its position on withdrawing from the deal.

Scientists point out that work to implement the Paris accord must be stepped up if it is to have any chance of success.

The agreement commits the US and 187 other countries to keeping rising global temperatures "well below" 2C and "endeavour to limit" them even more, to 1.5C.

Historically, the US, Europe and China account for almost half of the world's carbon emissions.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Syria 'to join Paris accord', isolating US

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The US is set to become isolated in its stance on the Paris climate agreement, after reports that Syria is preparing to join the deal. The Paris deal unites the world's nations in tackling climate change. Syria and Nicaragua were the only nations outside the deal when it was agreed in 2015.

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Return of the native | The Wildlife Trusts

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The Eurasian beaver ( Castor fiber) is a large herbivore, a mammal that was formerly native to these shores and once played an important part in our landscape from prehistoric times until it was hunted to extinction in the 16th century for its fur, meat and scent glands.

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A circular economy is an alternative to a traditional linear economy (make, use, dispose) in which we keep resources in use for as long as possible, extract the maximum value from them whilst in use, then recover and regenerate products and materials at the end of each service life.

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New diesel and petrol cars and vans will be banned in the UK from 2040 in a bid to tackle air pollution, the government has announced.

Ministers have also unveiled a £255m fund to help councils tackle emissions, including the potential for charging zones for the dirtiest vehicles.

But the £3bn clean air strategy does not include a scrappage scheme, calling previous ones "poor value" for money.

Local government leaders welcomed the funding but called for more detail.

Local authorities will be given direct financial support from the government, with £40m of the fund being made immediately.

They can use the funds for a range of measures, such as changing road layouts, implementing new technologies or encouraging residents on to public transport.

If those measures do not cut emissions enough, charging zones could be the next step - but the government says these should only be used for "limited periods".

The timetable for councils to come up with initial plans has been cut from 18 months to eight, with the Department for Environment, Farming and Rural Affairs (Defra) wanting to "inject additional urgency" into the process.

It follows the government being given its own deadline of 31 July after High Court judges said it was failing to meet EU pollution limits.

The funding pot will come from changes to tax on diesel vehicles and reprioritising departmental budgets - the exact details will be announced later in the year.

Councils could change road layouts, retrofit public transport, and encourage local people to leave their cars at home.

A Clean Air Fund would allow local authorities to bid for additional money to put in more air quality control measures.

A new Automated and Electric Vehicles Bill will allow the government to require the installation of charge points for electric vehicles at motorway service areas and large fuel retailers.

Local Government Association environment spokesman Martin Tett said the plans to allow councils to switch their focus from monitoring air quality to improving air quality was the right move and welcomed the additional funding.

However, he opposed the view of the government to hold off on a scrappage scheme, arguing "this immediate intervention could help increase the uptake of lower emission vehicles".

Industry interests

Ministers have been wary of being seen to "punish" drivers of diesel cars, who, they argue, bought the vehicles after being encouraged to by the last Labour government because they produced lower carbon emissions.

The industry trade body, the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders, said it was important to avoid outright bans on diesels, which would hurt the sector.

SMMT chief executive Mike Hawes said demand for alternatively fuelled vehicles was growing but still at a very low level.

"The industry instead wants a positive approach which gives consumers incentives to purchase these cars. We could undermine the UK's successful automotive sector if we don't allow enough time for the industry to adjust."

The AA said significant investment would be needed to install charging points across the country and warned the National Grid would come under pressure with a mass switch-on of recharging after the rush hour.

The UK announcement comes amid signs of an accelerating shift towards electric cars instead of petrol and diesel ones, at home and abroad:

Analysis

By Roger Harrabin, BBC environment analyst

So how will the air be cleaned up? Plans for a diesel scrappage scheme for old vehicles have been rejected by the Treasury as poor value for money. They may be reconsidered in the autumn.

The government has told councils to solve pollution on their own streets by improving public transport and considering restrictions on dirty diesel vehicles at peak times.

If that doesn't work, councils will be told to charge diesel drivers to come into towns.

The councils aren't happy to take the rap for the controversial policy when it was the government that encouraged the sale of diesel vehicles in the first place.

Today's government plan is not comprehensive - it doesn't address pollution from construction, farming and gas boilers.

And clean air campaigners say the government is using the 2040 electric cars announcement to distract from failings in its short-term pollution policy.

Air pollution is thought to be linked to about 40,000 premature deaths a year in the UK, and transport also contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.

A government spokesman said poor air quality was "the biggest environmental risk" to public health in the UK.

2020s switch-over

The measures are "good" in the long term but "not very effective" in the short, industry expert David Bailey said.

A switch-over to electric cars would likely come in the mid-2020s, he predicted, when electric cars would out-compete petrol and diesel ones on factors like cost.

"This sets a very clear direction of travel, but petrol and diesel cars won't exist by 2040," he said.

He said more incentives were needed now, otherwise urban air quality would not improve.

Emissions hotspots

Environmental law firm ClientEarth welcomed the measures, but said it wanted to see more detail.

Chief executive James Thornton said the law found ministers must bring down illegal levels of air pollution as soon as possible.

Green Party MP Caroline Lucas welcomed a ban but said it did not go "nearly far enough or fast enough".

Friends of the Earth said the plan was a "cynical" move which passed the buck of saving lives to local authorities.

Labour said the government was only acting after being taken to court.

Environment, Food and Rural Affairs spokeswoman Sue Hayman MP said the government had a "squeamish" attitude to clear air zones, and was shunting the problem on to local authorities.

"With nearly 40 million people living in areas with illegal levels of air pollution, action is needed now, not in 23 years' time," she said.

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New diesel and petrol vehicles to be banned from 2040 in UK

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New diesel and petrol cars and vans will be banned in the UK from 2040 in a bid to tackle air pollution, the government has announced. Ministers have also unveiled a £255m fund to help councils tackle emissions, including the potential for charging zones for the dirtiest vehicles.

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The level of household waste which is recycled in the UK has fallen for the first time, figures have shown.

The Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs statistics show that 44.3% of household rubbish was recycled in 2015, down from 44.9% in 2014.

It is the first fall since 2010 when monitoring began, though is still the second-highest annual rate on record.

Waste company Biffa Municipal warned that recyclables that are not clean can cause "lorry-loads" to be rejected.

There is a European Union target for the UK to recycle at least 50% of household waste by 2020.

'Work harder'

Levels of waste recycled from England's homes fell in 2015, from 44.8% the previous year to 43.9%, the first time it has dipped below 44% since 2011.

In Northern Ireland, the rate fell from 42.5% in 2014 to 42% 2015.

But recycling levels rose in Scotland in the same period, from 41% to 42%, and in Wales from 54.8% to 55.8%.

David Palmer-Jones, chief executive of SUEZ recycling and recovery UK, called for a "polluter pays" approach to consumer goods which would see producers or manufacturers taxed according to how much material was not recyclable, with the cost added to the product.

"The tax would help pay for better household collection of recyclables and help address the huge funding challenge that local government faces," he said.

He said the company's analysis showed England's recycling rate had dropped for the first time in 16 years since separate records began in 2000.

Biffa Municipal's managing director Roger Edwards said: "We should all work harder to ensure that household recyclables such as paper, card, plastics, and metal and glass containers are as clean as possible when put out for collection, and that they aren't adulterated.

"Contamination can cause entire lorry-loads of recyclables to be rejected, at high cost to already-stretched councils."

What can be recycled?
Yes:

Paper: cardboard boxes, newspapers, magazines, envelopes, junk mail, food and drink cartons including Tetra Pak

Plastic: margarine and ice cream tubs, yogurt pots, fruit punnets and ready meal trays

Bottles: drink, shampoo and detergent bottles

Tins and cans: both steel and aluminium, as well as aerosols

Kitchen foil and foil trays

Glass: all colours but no broken glass or ovenware

No:

Tissue and kitchen roll

Plastic wrap, cling film, bubble wrap and plastic bags

Coffee cups

Plastic and paper contaminated with food - including grease-stained pizza boxes (some councils may take clean pizza boxes) and paper food plates

Crisp packets and sweet wrappers

Polystyrene

Nappies

Soft plastic / metallic packaging like pet food pouches

(but check your individual council's policy as they vary)
What can be collected from households varies between councils.

Many other items including textiles, electronics, plastic bags and batteries can also be recycled at designated centres and some supermarkets.

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UK recycling figure drops for first time

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The level of household waste which is recycled in the UK has fallen for the first time, figures have shown. The Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs statistics show that 44.3% of household rubbish was recycled in 2015, down from 44.9% in 2014.

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5 essential facts about the UK environment | Visual.ONS

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We've pulled together a range of UK data to show the contribution the environment makes to the economy, the impact the economy has on the environment and some steps being taken to respond to environmental issues.

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The UK is consuming less energy than it did in 1998 and more of the energy we are consuming is coming from renewable sources.

However, at the same time, the decline in North Sea oil and gas production has meant the UK has become increasingly dependent on imports of energy.

But just how dependent are we? How do we compare to our European neighbours? And what are we importing and where is it coming from?

UK energy: consumption down and renewable energy up

There was a 17% fall in the amount of energy used by the UK between 1998 and 2015.

This may be explained by:

the increased use of energy-efficient technologies by households and firms

government policies designed to reduce energy consumption

a decline of UK manufacturing, especially in energy-intensive industries

Total energy consumed by the UK, 1998 to 2015 Download the data.
At the same time, the percentage of energy coming from renewable and waste sources (such as wind, hydro power and biomass) has risen from 1% of total UK energy consumption to 9%.
Percentage of total energy consumed by the UK that comes from renewable or waste sources, 1998 to 2015 Download the data.
Reliance on imported energy rises back up to 1970 levels

Despite the overall fall in UK energy consumption and the increasing use of renewable and waste sources, the UK's reliance on imported energy has returned to the levels last seen around the mid-to late-1970s.

In recent years our reliance on imported energy has been on an upward trend but it has now fallen from its recent peak in 2013.
UK energy import dependency: the percentage of UK energy supply made up of net imports, 1970 to 2015 Download the data.
All EU countries now import more energy than they export

All EU countries imported more energy than they exported in 2014. In terms of rankings, of the 28 EU countries the UK was the 12th most dependent on foreign sources of energy; less reliant than Germany and Italy but more reliant than Sweden and the Netherlands.

Furthermore, in 2014 the UK's import dependency was below the EU average and the UK was the least dependent on foreign sources of energy out of the five EU countries who consumed the largest amounts of energy overall (namely Germany, France, Italy, Spain and the UK).

However, even though the UK's reliance on imported energy is still below its EU neighbours, the UK is now more in line with them than it has been in recent history.

Since 1998 the UK has gone from being a net exporter to a net importer of energy while Germany, Spain, France and Italy have all consistently imported more energy than they exported.
Import dependency in the EU: percentage of energy supply made up of net imports for the EU's five biggest energy consumers and the EU average, 1998 to 2014 Download the data.
From oil and natural gas from Norway to coal and diesel from Russia - just where do our energy imports come from?

In 2015 the UK's main types of imported fuel were crude oil, natural gas and petroleum products (for example, petrol and diesel). We also imported electricity and coal and other types of solid fuel (like wood) in smaller amounts.
Energy imported into the UK by energy type, 2015 Download the data. Crude oil imports
In 2015 a third of the UK's fuel imports were crude oil and half of these crude oil imports came from Norway.
Countries the UK imported crude oil from, 2015 Download the data.
Norway is a key import partner for crude oil due to the pipeline network that runs between Norway and the UK.

However, the proportion of imported crude oil coming from Norway has fallen in recent years. Instead more is coming from the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC) which is made up of Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. In 2015, 36% of crude oil imports came from these countries.
Natural gas imports
Natural gas made up around 29% of the UK's fuel imports in 2015 with Norway again being a key import partner for this type of fuel.
Countries the UK imported natural gas from, 2015 Download the data.
Most of the gas we import comes through pipelines laid underneath the sea bed. We have established pipelines with Norway and the Netherlands which accounted for 61% and 7% of our 2015 gas imports respectively. We also have established pipelines with Belgium but gas imports from Belgium only accounted for 0.4% of our 2015 gas imports.

The remaining gas imports came to the UK as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) with LNG from Qatar making up 29% of the UK's gas imports in 2015.
Imports of petroleum products (for example, petrol, diesel, jet fuel etc)
Petroleum products made up 27% of our fuel imports in 2015 which came from many different countries around the world - the top three were Russia, Sweden and the Netherlands.
Countries the UK imported petroleum products from, 2015 Download the data.
Traditionally the UK has exported more petroleum products than it has imported but the closure of the Coryton and one of the Milford Haven refineries has lead to a reduction of UK exports of petroleum products. Consequently in 2013 the UK imported more of these products than it exported for the first time since 1973.

In 2015 the UK imported 9.5 million tonnes more petroleum products than it exported - the highest since the miners' strike in 1984 which caused the UK to import petroleum products for power generation.
Imports of coal and other solid fuels
Coal and other solid fuels made up 10% of the UK's energy imports in 2015 with Russia being our biggest import partner for these types of fuel.
Countries the UK imported coal and other solid fuels from, 2015 Download the data.
Most of the coal the UK imports is used for electricity generation. The other main type of solid fuel the UK imports is wood.
Electricity imports
It might seem strange but the UK does actually import electricity that is created elsewhere. Imports of electricity made up 1% of our fuel imports in 2015.

This electricity is imported via interconnectors and it comes mainly from France and the Netherlands.

For more information, please contact: environment.accounts@ons.gov.uk

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UK energy: how much, what type and where from?

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The UK is consuming less energy than it did in 1998 and more of the energy we are consuming is coming from renewable sources. However, at the same time, the decline in North Sea oil and gas production has meant the UK has become increasingly dependent on imports of energy.

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Explaining the Circular Economy and How Society Can Re-think Progress | Animated Video Essay

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Oil production forecasts on which predictions of peak oil are based are often made within a range which includes optimistic (higher production) and pessimistic (lower production) scenarios. Optimistic estimations of peak production forecast the global decline will begin after 2020, and assume major investments in alternatives will occur before a crisis, without requiring major changes in the lifestyle of heavily oil-consuming nations.

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national aeronautics and space administration

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Interactives - Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet

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Vital Signs of the Planet: Global Climate Change and Global Warming. Current news and data streams about global warming and climate change from NASA.

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Calculate your environmental footprint and learn how you can reduce your impact with WWF's Footprint Calculator.

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Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet

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It's important to remember that scientists always focus on the evidence, not on opinions. Scientific evidence continues to show that human activities ( primarily the human burning of fossil fuels) have warmed Earth's surface and its ocean basins, which in turn have continued to impact Earth's climate. This is based on over a century of scientific evidence forming the structural backbone of today's civilization.

NASA Global Climate Change presents the state of scientific knowledge about climate change while highlighting the role NASA plays in better understanding our home planet. This effort includes citing multiple peer-reviewed studies from research groups across the world, illustrating the accuracy and consensus of research results (in this case, the scientific consensus on climate change) consistent with NASA's scientific research portfolio.

With that said, multiple studies published in peer-reviewed scientific journals show that climate-warming trends over the past century are extremely likely due to human activities. In addition, most of the leading scientific organizations worldwide have issued public statements endorsing this position. The following is a partial list of these organizations, along with links to their published statements and a selection of related resources.

AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES

Statement on Climate Change from 18 Scientific Associations

"Observations throughout the world make it clear that climate change is occurring, and rigorous scientific research demonstrates that the greenhouse gases emitted by human activities are the primary driver." (2009) ²

SCIENCE ACADEMIES

International Academies: Joint Statement

"Climate change is real. There will always be uncertainty in understanding a system as complex as the world's climate. However there is now strong evidence that significant global warming is occurring. The evidence comes from direct measurements of rising surface air temperatures and subsurface ocean temperatures and from phenomena such as increases in average global sea levels, retreating glaciers, and changes to many physical and biological systems. It is likely that most of the warming in recent decades can be attributed to human activities (IPCC 2001)." (2005, 11 international science academies)

U.S. GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

INTERGOVERNMENTAL BODIES

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

"It is unequivocal that the increase of CO ₂, methane, and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere over the industrial era is the result of human activities and that human influence is the principal driver of many changes observed across the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere, and biosphere.

"Since systematic scientific assessments began in the 1970s, the influence of human activity on the warming of the climate system has evolved from theory to established fact." ¹³⁻¹⁷

OTHER RESOURCES

List of Worldwide Scientific Organizations

The following page lists the nearly 200 worldwide scientific organizations that hold the position that climate change has been caused by human action.
http://www.opr.ca.gov/facts/list-of-scientific-organizations.html

U.S. Agencies

The following page contains information on what federal agencies are doing to adapt to climate change.
https://www.c2es.org/site/assets/uploads/2012/02/climate-change-adaptation-what-federal-agencies-are-doing.pdf
Technically, a "consensus" is a general agreement of opinion, but the scientific method steers us away from this to an objective framework. In science, facts or observations are explained by a hypothesis (a statement of a possible explanation for some natural phenomenon), which can then be tested and retested until it is refuted (or disproved). As scientists gather more observations, they will build off one explanation and add details to complete the picture. Eventually, a group of hypotheses might be integrated and generalized into a scientific theory, a scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena.
References​

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Scientific Consensus: Earth's Climate is Warming

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Vital Signs of the Planet: Global Climate Change and Global Warming. Partial list of leading scientific organizations endorsing human-induced climate change, along with a selection of related resources.

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The Met Office 3rd annual State of the UK Climate report, released today, shows 2016 was the 13th warmest year (records dating back to 1910).

2016 has been 0.5 °C warmer than average and the last decade 0.3 °C warmer (1981-2010) over the UK as a whole and for many it was also sunny with sunshine levels 4% above the 30 year average (1981-2010) for the UK overall.

Mark McCarthy, Head of the Met Office's National Climate Information Centre, said: "Although 2016 may not be regarded as remarkable for temperature, it does feature within a notable decade for temperature records. The trend towards warmer temperatures is clear, but of course natural variation in our climate will always mean that increases are not always even year on year."

Winter 2016 (December 2015 to February 2016) was the mildest winter on record for England and Wales in records dating back to 1910, with the winter mean temperature more than 2 °C above the long-term average across the southern half of the UK. Over the last decade there have been seven per cent fewer air frosts and nine per cent fewer ground frosts, compared with the long-term average (1981-2010).

As far as UK precipitation is concerned the report shows that 2016 as a whole had 95% of expected rainfall. Winter 2016 was the second-wettest winter on record for the UK in records dating back to 1910, with winter 2014 wettest. In contrast, the second half of the year was notably dry, particularly in the south.

Although we saw some snow during 2016 it was not a particularly snowy year for the UK overall and it was the first year on record from 1959 where there was no observed snow depths of 20 cm or more.

You can find out the current forecast in your area using our forecast pages and by following us on Twitter and Facebook, as well as using our mobile app which is available for iPhone from the App store and for Android from the Google Play store.
Correction
A correction was made at 12:30 27/07/17 removing a reference to the Central England Temperature record showing 2007-2016 was the warmest decade in over three centuries as it is not correct.

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The Met Office 3rd annual State of the UK Climate report, released today, shows 2016 was the 13th warmest year (records dating back to 1910). 2016 has been 0.5 °C warmer than average and the last decade 0.3 °C warmer (1981-2010) over the UK as a whole and for many it was also sunny with sunshine levels 4% above the 30 year average (1981-2010) for the UK overall.