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Ephemeral mapping in Nyukani (left), sketched by community members (right)—Data Collected August 12, 2012

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Participatory Map from Gantundu (July 17, 2012), sketched by community members

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4. Geographical and seasonal variations of WEP consumption

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4. Geographical and seasonal variations of WEP consumption

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(A) Dramatically different seasonal trends in availability of fruit from the farm as compared to the hill and river harvest area. (B) Consistent seasonal trends in vegetables found on the farm: abundance drives consumption. (C) A spike in consumption in fruit found on the farm, during the second hot/dry season despite low abundance.

However, in general, WEP consumption reaches higher levels in April and October (start of the rainy seasons), when crops have not yet matured and stores from the previous harvest are often exhausted. While it reaches lower levels in September, December, and January because of greater species availability during the rainy season.

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Relationship between motivations for harvesting/consuming WEP and types of harvest areas

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Relationship between motivations for harvesting/consuming WEP and types of harvest areas

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Some areas such as farms, neighbors' farms and riverbanks were visited for WEPs especially for hunger or vitamins motivations.
Instead, homes or riverbanks were often WEP collection sites for those seeking fruits that taste good or for fun.

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Enhancing food and nutritional security of rural households in semi-arid Kenya by understanding and encouraging the use of WEPs as a means to increase social-ecological resilience of smallholder farming systems.

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Data collection: surveys and interviews of randomly selected households; focus group sessions and participatory activities for the whole community

Data analysis: quantitative data analysis (using Stata 11.2); spatial data analysis (using ArcGIS analysis and participatory mapping activities) and qualitative data analysis (to better explain the quantitative data collection and analysis)

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The researchers then examined the role of WEPs in more depth using an integrated resilience framework, using variables potentially affecting WEP consumption

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The researchers began their analysis by presenting an overall description of WEP consumption in two communities

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This case study tried to identify and analyze the major factors correlated with demographic groups that rely heavily on WEPs - especially with the increase of climate change, failed crops and food insecurity-, with the purpose of helping NGOs and governments to target projects that foster social-ecological resilience in those specific groups of people, by identifying and protecting their local indigenous knowledge - a precious source of information about the collection and use of WEPs.

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WEPs have several qualities which can be exploited by local households to overcome the food-instability and lack of nutrients in the diet:

1. they are present in local communities (and their use is based on traditional ecological knowledge);

2. they are low-input and low-cost;

3. they are resilient, so they're available during times of drought and tolerate water stress (better than their domesticated relatives);

4. they represent an important benefit for vulnerable populations.

For these reasons, they need to be protected from over-exploitation and degradation, and they need to be equally accessible to everyone in need.

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Resilience is a combination of flexibility to disturbance and capacity to adapt to change.

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It's the local ecological knowledge. It is an important component of WEP harvest and consumption, the latter strongly depending on the knowledge of WEPs habitat, toxicity or seasonal abundance.

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G antundu is located 10 km far from Nyukani, and it's characterized by higher household assets and lower food insecurity, also probably thanks to the greater educational level and off-farm employment of the household head.
On the other hand, Nyukani is located near the Kijege Reserve (an important conservation area) and it has lower income and higher food insecurity, probably caused by the close presence of biodiversity hotspots and conservation areas, which seem to increase rural poverty and under-nutrition rates.
In both cases the types of harvest areas studied were: personal homes, personal farms, neighbors' farms and off-farm natural areas such as riverbanks, hills and forests.

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Both villages considered, Gantundu and Nyukani, are located in the semi-arid region of Kenya, but they have peculiar characteristics which modify their habits in the usage of WEPs.

WEPs collection and consumption seemed overall more frequent in the village of Nyukani, where these plants were harvested especially in off-farm areas (with the 93% of households collecting WEPs).
Differently, Gantundu households consumed less WEPs (principally because of wealthier households associating WEPs with "the food of the poorest"), with households percentages following a similar trend for each harvest site.

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Their trends were consistent between the two sites:

Vegetables were often consumed due to hunger, medicinal needs, and perceived vitamin benefits

Fruits tended to be eaten for "fun" or their taste

Food-insecure households often collected WEPs due to hunger

Households with high levels of assets were likely to base their harvests on taste and less likely to collect vegetables also because of the social stigma of eating "the food of the poorest"

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Two local social-ecological systems in Southern Tharaka Constituency (Kenya), were studied in:

1. levels of WEP harvest;

2. types of harvest areas;

3. motivations behind WEPs use;

4. geographical and seasonal variations of consumption

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The ability to overcome system instability by working within existing infrastructure and alternative livelihood strategies

LEK
found to vary by gender and age - males and household heads<40 were correlated with lower levels of WEP consumption

ACCESS - using as proxies:
proximity to harvest areas: longer travel times and distance were correlated with a decrease in WEP consumption frequency in off-farm areas
farm size: larger farms were correlated with an increase in WEP consumption

REGULATION
harvest restrictions on public land and permission requirements for private holdings - both correlated with a decrease in WEP consumption frequency

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This theoretical model suggests that increased resilience can be achieved by reducing system sensitivity while also increasing access to adaptive measures

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Independent variables of the study, affecting wild edible plants (WEPs) consumption

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Independent variables of the study, affecting wild edible plants (WEPs) consumption

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The likelihood of suffering consequences from environmental or social changes (variables: household food insecurity and assets, number of children, off-farm employment, age, education, residency, marital status of the household head)

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Wild edible plants, also known as WEPs, are defined by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) as “plants that grow spontaneously in self-maintaining populations in natural or semi-natural ecosystems and can exist independently of direct human action”. These characteristics make them particularly helpful in semi-arid areas, such as Kenya, where drought and famine caused by conflicts or crop failure are very common, and where food-instability affects many households of the local communities.