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Welcome to the course - Preventing the Zika Virus: Understanding and Controlling the Aedes Mosquito - London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine

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A video introduction to the course from Lead Educator, Dr James Logan.

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Health officials increase prevention efforts to address serious threats of Zika virus

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Health officials increase prevention efforts to address serious threats of Zika virus

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With most of the women in the study acquiring Zika infection during travel to an area where Zika was present, all jurisdictions within the United States must remain on alert and prepared due to travel-related cases and sexual transmission. Also, with warmer weather and mosquito season approaching, CDC's new Vital Signs report highlights the need for ongoing vigilance and sustained measures to prevent and manage cases of Zika, diagnose patients, increase lab capacity and vector control, and coordinate Zika-related birth defects surveillance activities, especially in parts of the United States where local transmission through the bite from the specific mosquito capable of carrying the Zika virus is possible.

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Mobilizing Research on Detection, Transmission, Newborn Health, and Public Communications

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Mobilizing Research on Detection, Transmission, Newborn Health, and Public Communications

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Leveraging our longstanding commitment to the region and our mission of improving the human condition, we are self-funding a number of projects in Latin America. Vector control, which attempts to limit or eradicate insects that transmit diseases, is a critical prevention strategy for Zika. In Guatemala, we are funding studies to conduct unmanned aerial vehicle (drone) surveillance for Aedes aegypti breeding sites, creating risk communication materials, and performing adult cohort followup and biorepository.

We are also evaluating the costs of ZIKV prevention and control, conducting followup of infants with microcephaly birth defects in in Brazil, and examining potential aerosol transmission of the virus.

Among externally funded projects, we are providing assistance with study design, data collection suppprt, and statistical analyses for an add-on to the REDS III project through the NIH. The objective is to give transfusion medicine experts and government officials more information to evaluate the need for blood screening implementation.

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NIH begins testing investigational Zika vaccine in humans

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NIH begins testing investigational Zika vaccine in humans

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he National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), part of the National Institutes of Health, has launched a clinical trial of a vaccine candidate intended to prevent Zika virus infection. The early-stage study will evaluate the experimental vaccine’s safety and ability to generate an immune system response in participants. At least 80 healthy volunteers ages 18-35 years at three study sites in the United States, including the NIH Clinical Center in Bethesda, Maryland, are expected to participate in the trial. Scientists at NIAID’s Vaccine Research Center (VRC) developed the investigational vaccine — called the NIAID Zika virus investigational DNA vaccine — earlier this year.

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Traces of Zika Found in Asian tiger mosquito in Brazil

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Traces of Zika Found in Asian tiger mosquito in Brazil

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In a recent test of Asian tiger mosquitoes collected in Brazil, researchers found fragments of Zika virus RNA, raising concerns that it may be carried by species other than Zika's known primary vector, the yellow fever mosquito. The research does not conclude that the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) can transmit Zika to humans, but it highlights the need for deeper research into additional potential vectors for the virus.

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What is Guillain-Barré syndrome?

Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is a rare neurological disorder in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks part of its peripheral nervous system-the network of nerves located outside of the brain and spinal cord. GBS can range from a very mild case with brief weakness to nearly devastating paralysis, leaving the person unable to breathe independently. Fortunately, most people eventually recover from even the most severe cases of GBS. After recovery, some people will continue to have some degree of weakness.

Guillain-Barré syndrome can affect anyone. It can strike at any age (although it is more frequent in adults and older people) and both sexes are equally prone to the disorder. GBS is estimated to affect about one person in 100,000 each year.

What causes Guillain-Barré syndrome?

The exact cause of GBS is not known. Researchers don't know why it strikes some people and not others. It is not contagious or inherited.

What they do know is that the affected person's immune system begins to attack the body itself. It is thought that, at least in some cases, this immune attack is initiated to fight an infection and that some chemicals on infecting bacteria and viruses resemble those on nerve cells, which, in turn, also become targets of attack. Since the body's own immune system does the damage, GBS is called an autoimmune disease ("auto" meaning "self"). Normally the immune system uses antibodies (molecules produced in an immune response) and special white blood cells to protect us by attacking infecting microorganisms (bacteria and viruses). In Guillain-Barré syndrome, however, the immune system mistakenly attacks the healthy nerves.

Most cases usually start a few days or weeks following a respiratory or gastrointestinal viral infection. Occasionally surgery will trigger the syndrome. In rare cases vaccinations may increase the risk of GBS. Recently, some countries worldwide reported an increased incidence of GBS following infection with the Zika virus.

What are the symptoms of GBS?

Unexplained sensations often occur first, such as tingling in the feet or hands, or even pain (especially in children), often starting in the legs or back. Children will also show symptoms with difficulty walking and may refuse to walk. These sensations tend to disappear before the major, longer-term symptoms appear. Weakness on both sides of the body is the major symptom that prompts most people to seek medical attention. The weakness may first appear as difficulty climbing stairs or with walking. Symptoms often affect the arms, breathing muscles, and even the face, reflecting more widespread nerve damage. Occasionally symptoms start in the upper body and move down to the legs and feet.

Most people reach the greatest stage of weakness within the first two weeks after symptoms appear; by the third week 90 percent of affected individuals are at their weakest.

In addition to muscle weakness, symptoms may include:

Difficulty with eye muscles and vision

Difficulty swallowing, speaking, or chewing

Pricking or pins and needles sensations in the hands and feet

Pain that can be severe, particularly at night

Coordination problems and unsteadiness

Abnormal heart beat/rate or blood pressure

Problems with digestion and/or bladder control.

These symptoms can increase in intensity over a period of hours, days, or weeks until certain muscles cannot be used at all and, when severe, the person is almost totally paralyzed. In these cases, the disorder is life-threatening-potentially interfering with breathing and, at times, with blood pressure or heart rate.

What happens in GBS?

Many of the body's nerves are like household wires. There is a central conducting core in the nerves called the axon that carries an electric signal. The axon (an extension of a nerve cell) is surrounded by a covering, like insulation, called myelin. The myelin sheath surrounding the axon speeds up the transmission of nerve signals and allows the transmission of signals over long distances.

Weakness
When we move, for example, an electric signal from the brain travels through and out of the spinal cord to peripheral nerves along muscles of the legs, arms, and elsewhere-called motor nerves. In most cases of GBS, the immune system damages the myelin sheath that surrounds the axons of many peripheral nerves; however, it also may also damage the axons themselves. As a result, the nerves cannot transmit signals efficiently and the muscles begin to lose their ability to respond to the brain's commands. This causes weakness.

The weakness seen in GBS usually comes on quickly and worsens over hours or days. Symptoms are usually equal on both sides of the body (called symmetric). In addition to weak limbs, muscles controlling breathing can weaken to the point that the person must be attached to a machine to help support breathing.

Sensation changes
Since nerves are damaged in GBS, the brain may receive abnormal sensory signals from the rest of the body. This results in unexplained, spontaneous sensations, called paresthesias, that may be experienced as tingling, a sense of insects crawling under the skin (called formications), and pain. Deep muscular pain may be experienced in the back and/or legs.

How does nerve damage occur?

Various ideas have been proposed to explain how GBS develops. One explanation is known as the "molecular mimicry/innocent bystander" theory. According to this explanation, molecules on some nerves are very similar to or mimic molecules on some microorganisms. When those microbes infect someone, the immune system correctly attacks them. And if the microbe and myelin look similar, the immune system makes a mistake and attacks the myelin.

Different mechanisms may explain how the molecular mimicry concept may work. When Guillain-Barré syndrome is preceded by a viral or bacterial infection, it is possible that the infecting agent has changed the chemical structure of some nerves. The immune system treats these nerves as foreign bodies and mistakenly attacks them. It is also possible that the virus makes the immune system itself less discriminating and no longer able to recognize its own nerves. Some parts of the immune system-special white blood cells called lymphocytes and macrophages-perceive myelin as foreign and attack it. Specialized white blood cells called T lymphocytes (from the thymus gland) cooperate with B lymphocytes (that originate in bone marrow) to produce antibodies against the person's own myelin and damage it.

In some forms of GBS, antibodies made by the person to fight a Campylobacter jejuni bacterial infection attack axons in the motor nerves. This causes acute motor axonal neuropathy, which is a variant of GBS that includes acute paralysis and a loss of reflexes without sensory loss. Campylobacter infections can be caused by ingesting contaminated food or from other exposures. The infected person's body then makes antibodies against Campylobacter. Some Campylobacter molecules resemble molecules in the person's nerve axons, so when the person's antibodies fight the Campylobacter bacteria they also attack the look-alike axons. This slows nerve conduction and causes paralysis. Scientists are investigating various GBS subtypes to find why the immune system reacts abnormally in this syndrome and other autoimmune diseases.

What disorders are related to GBS?

Guillain-Barré syndrome is one of several disorders involving weakness due to peripheral nerve damage caused by the person's immune system. While GBS comes on rapidly over days to weeks, and the person usually recovers, other disorders develop slowly and can linger or recur.

The most common type of GBS seen in the United States is acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (AIDP). In AIDP, the immune response damages the myelin coating and interferes with the transmission of nerve signals. In two other types of Guillain-Barré syndrome, acute motor axonal neuropathy (AMAN) and acute motor-sensory axonal neuropathy (AMSAN), the axons themselves are damaged by the immune response.

Miller-Fisher syndrome is a rare, acquired nerve disease that is a variant of Guillain-Barré syndrome. It is characterized by abnormal muscle coordination with poor balance and clumsy walking, weakness or paralysis of the eye muscles, and absence of the tendon reflexes. Like GBS, symptoms may follow a viral illness. Additional symptoms include generalized muscle weakness and respiratory failure. Most individuals with Miller Fisher syndrome have a unique antibody that characterizes the disorder.

Related peripheral nerve disorders with slow onset and persisting or recurrent symptoms include chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP) and multifocal motor neuropathy. CIDP features weakness that can recur, repeatedly, over the course of years. Multifocal motor neuropathy typically affects many different muscles in a small part of a limb or limbs. Usually the symptoms are more severe on one side of the body.

How is Guillain-Barré syndrome diagnosed?

The initial signs and symptoms of GBS are varied and there are several disorders with similar symptoms. Therefore, doctors may find it difficult to diagnose GBS in its earliest stages.

Physicians will note whether the symptoms appear on both sides of the body (the typical finding in Guillain-Barré syndrome) and the speed with which the symptoms appear (in other disorders, muscle weakness may progress over months rather than days or weeks). In GBS, deep tendon reflexes in the legs, such as knee jerks, are usually lost. Reflexes may also be absent in the arms. Because the signals traveling along the nerve are slow, a nerve conduction velocity test (NCV, which measures the nerve's ability to send a signal) can provide clues to aid the diagnosis. There is a change in the cerebrospinal fluid that bathes the spinal cord and brain in people with GBS. Researchers have found the fluid contains more protein than usual but very few immune cells (measured by white blood cells). Therefore, a physician may decide to perform a spinal tap or lumbar puncture to obtain a sample of spinal fluid to analyze. In this procedure, a needle is inserted into the person's lower back and a small amount of cerebrospinal fluid is withdrawn from the spinal cord. This procedure is usually safe, with rare complications.

Key diagnostic findings include:

Recent onset, within days to at most four weeks of symmetric weakness, usually starting in the legs

Abnormal sensations such as pain, numbness, and tingling in the feet that accompany or even occur before weakness

Absent or diminished deep tendon reflexes in weak limbs

Elevated cerebrospinal fluid protein without elevated cell count.This may take up to 10 days from onset of symptoms to develop.

Abnormal nerve conduction velocity findings, such as slow signal conduction

Sometimes, a recent viral infection or diarrhea.

How is Guillain-Barré treated?

There is no known cure for Guillain-Barré syndrome. However, some therapies can lessen the severity of the illness and shorten recovery time. There are also several ways to treat the complications of the disease.

Because of possible complications of muscle weakness, problems that can affect any paralyzed person (such as pneumonia or bed sores) and the need for sophisticated medical equipment, individuals with Guillain-Barré syndrome are usually admitted and treated in a hospital's intensive care unit.
Acute care
There are currently two treatments commonly used to interrupt immune-related nerve damage. One is plasma exchange (PE, also called plasmapheresis); the other is high-dose immunoglobulin therapy (IVIg). Both treatments are equally effective if started within two weeks of onset of GBS symptoms, but immunoglobulin is easier to administer. Using both treatments in the same person has no proven benefit.

In the process of plasma exchange, a plastic tube called a catheter is inserted into the person's veins, through which some blood is removed. The blood cells from the liquid part of the blood (plasma) are extracted and returned to the person. This technique seems to reduce the severity and duration of the Guillain-Barré episode. Plasma contains antibodies and PE removes some plasma; PE may work by removing the bad antibodies that have been damaging the nerves.

Immunoglobulins are proteins that the immune system naturally makes to attack infecting organisms. IVIg therapy involves intravenous injections of these immunoglobulins. The immunoglobulins are developed from a pool of thousands of normal donors. When IVIg is given to people with GBS, the result can be a lessening of the immune attack on the nervous system. The IVIg can also shorten recovery time. Investigators believe this treatment also lowers the levels or effectiveness of antibodies that attack the nerves by both "diluting" them with non-specific antibodies and providing antibodies that bind to the harmful antibodies and take them out of commission.

Miller-Fisher syndrome is also treated with plasmapheresis and IVIg.

Anti-inflammatory steroid hormones called corticosteroids have also been tried to reduce the severity of Guillain-Barré syndrome. However, controlled clinical trials have demonstrated that this treatment is not effective.

Supportive care is very important to address the many complications of paralysis as the body recovers and damaged nerves begin to heal. Respiratory failure can occur in GBS, so close monitoring of a person's breathing should be instituted initially. Sometimes a mechanical ventilator is used to help support or control breathing. The autonomic nervous system (that regulates the functions of internal organs and some of the muscles in the body) can also be disturbed, causing changes in heart rate, blood pressure, toileting, or sweating. Therefore, the person should be put on a heart monitor or equipment that measures and tracks body function. Occasionally GBS-related nerve damage can lead to difficulty handling secretions in the mouth and throat. In addition to the person choking and/or drooling, secretions can fall into the airway and cause pneumonia.
Rehabilitative care
As individuals begin to improve, they are usually transferred from the acute care hospital to a rehabilitation setting. Here, they can regain strength, receive physical rehabilitation and other therapy to resume activities of daily living, and prepare to return to their pre-illness life.

Complications in GBS can affect several parts of the body. Often, even before recovery begins, caregivers may use several methods to prevent or treat complications. For example, a therapist may be instructed to manually move and position the person's limbs to help keep the muscles flexible and prevent muscle shortening. Injections of blood thinners can help prevent dangerous blood clots from forming in leg veins. Inflatable cuffs may also be placed around the legs to provide intermittent compression. All or any of these methods helps prevent blood stagnation and sludging (the buildup of red blood cells in veins, which could lead to reduced blood flow) in the leg veins. Muscle strength may not return uniformly; some muscles that get stronger faster may tend to take over a function that weaker muscles normally perform-called substitution. The therapist should select specific exercises to improve the strength of the weaker muscles so their original function can be regained.

Occupational and vocational therapy help individuals learn new ways to handle everyday functions that may be affected by the disease, as well as work demands and the need for assistive devices and other adaptive equipment and technology.

What is the long-term outlook for those with Guillain-Barré syndrome?

Guillain-Barré syndrome can be a devastating disorder because of its sudden and rapid, unexpected onset of weakness-and usually actual paralysis. Fortunately, 70% of people with GBS eventually experience full recovery. With careful intensive care and successful treatment of infection, autonomic dysfunction and other medical complications, even those individuals with respiratory failure usually survive.

Typically, the point of greatest weakness occurs days to at most 4 weeks after the first symptoms occur. Symptoms then stabilize at this level for a period of days, weeks, or, sometimes months. Recovery, however, can be slow or incomplete. The recovery period may be as little as a few weeks up to a few years. Some individuals still report ongoing improvement after 2 years. About 30 percent of those with Guillain-Barré have residual weakness after 3 years. About 3 percent may suffer a relapse of muscle weakness and tingling sensations many years after the initial attack. About 15 percent of individuals experience long-term weakness; some may require ongoing use of a walker, wheelchair, or ankle support. Muscle strength may not return uniformly.

Ongoing fatigue, pain, and other annoying sensations can sometimes be troublesome. Fatigue is best handled by pacing activities and providing time for rest when fatigue sets in. Those with Guillain-Barré syndrome face not only physical difficulties, but emotionally painful periods as well. It is often extremely difficult for individuals to adjust to sudden paralysis and dependence on others for help with routine daily activities. Individuals sometimes need psychological counseling to help them adapt. Support groups can often ease emotional strain and provide valuable information.

What research is being done?

The mission of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke () is to seek fundamental knowledge of the brain and nervous system and to use that knowledge to reduce the burden of neurological diseases. The NINDS conducts research on disorders including Guillain-Barré syndrome and funds research at major institutions and universities. The NINDS is a component of the National Institutes of Health (), the leading supporter of biomedical research in the world.

Neuroscientists, immunologists, virologists, and pharmacologists are working collaboratively to learn how to prevent GBS and to make better therapies available when it strikes.

Scientists are concentrating on finding new treatments and refining existing ones. Scientists are also looking at the workings of the immune system to find which cells are responsible for beginning and carrying out the attack on the nervous system. The fact that many cases of Guillain-Barré syndrome begin after a viral or bacterial infection suggests that certain characteristics of some viruses and bacteria may activate the immune system inappropriately. Investigators are searching for those characteristics. Certain proteins or peptides in viruses and bacteria may be the same as those found in myelin, and the production of antibodies to neutralize the invading viruses or bacteria could trigger the attack on the myelin sheath.

Some studies show that normal variations in certain genes could increase risk of developing Guillain-Barré syndrome; however, more research is necessary to identify and confirm associated genes. Since many of the genes that may increase the risk of Guillain-Barré syndrome are involved in the immune system, their roles in fighting infection might contribute to the development of the condition.

NINDS-funded researchers have developed a mouse model with an altered autoimmune regulator gene that generates autoimmunity against the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Using this model, scientists hope to identify which PNS proteins are at greatest risk of autoimmune attack and which components of the immune system contribute to the autoimmune response against the PNS. A greater understanding of how the immune system damages the PNS could lead to better treatments for autoimmune disorders such as GBS.

Other NINDS-funded researchers are investigating the mechanisms by which IVIg treatment lessens the symptoms of GBS. By understanding these mechanisms, it may be possible to develop more effective treatments.

Where can I get more information?

For more information on neurological disorders or research programs funded by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, contact the Institute's Brain Resources and Information Network () at:

Information also is available from the following organizations:

GBS/CIDP Foundation International
375 East Elm Street
Conshohocken, PA 19428
610-667-0131
866-224-3301

National Library of Medicine
8600 Rockville Pike
Bethesda, MD 20894
301-594-5983

"Guillain-Barré Syndrome Fact Sheet", , Publication date June 2018.

Publication No. 18-NS-2902

Back to Guillain-Barré Syndrome Information Page
See a list of all NINDS disorders Publicaciones en Español Síndrome de Guillain-Barré
Prepared by:
Office of Communications and Public Liaison
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
National Institutes of Health
Bethesda, MD 20892

health-related material is provided for information purposes only and does not necessarily represent endorsement by or an official position of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke or any other Federal agency. Advice on the treatment or care of an individual patient should be obtained through consultation with a physician who has examined that patient or is familiar with that patient's medical history.

All NINDS-prepared information is in the public domain and may be freely copied. Credit to the or the is appreciated.

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Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is a rare neurological disorder in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks part of its peripheral nervous system-the network of nerves located outside of the brain and spinal cord. GBS can range from a very mild case with brief weakness to nearly devastating paralysis, leaving the person unable to breathe independently.

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Here is the link to a very interesting story of various people with microcephaly. It is about how they survived until they are now today and the hardships and difficulties that they had been through: https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2016-03-04/microcephaly-after-diagnosis-a-life-of-uncertainty

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This is one of the diseases caused by Zika virus. Normally, even without being infected by Zika virus, there is a chance of this birth defect happening to a child, but if the baby's mother is infected with the Zika virus, the baby may develop a more severe microcephaly than just a general microcephaly. Microcephaly is basically the condition where the baby's head is much smaller than expected when compared to other babies of the same sex and age.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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Microcephaly is a birth defect where a baby's head is smaller than expected when compared to babies of the same sex and age. Babies with microcephaly often have smaller brains that might not have developed properly.
What is microcephaly?

Microcephaly is a condition where a baby's head is much smaller than expected. During pregnancy, a baby's head grows because the baby's brain grows. Microcephaly can occur because a baby's brain has not developed properly during pregnancy or has stopped growing after birth, which results in a smaller head size. Microcephaly can be an isolated condition, meaning that it can occur with no other major birth defects, or it can occur in combination with other major birth defects.

What is severe microcephaly?

Severe microcephaly is a more serious, extreme form of this condition where a baby's head is much smaller than expected. Severe microcephaly can result because a baby's brain has not developed properly during pregnancy, or the brain started to develop correctly and then was damaged at some point during pregnancy.

Other Problems

Babies with microcephaly can have a range of other problems, depending on how severe their microcephaly is. Microcephaly has been linked with the following problems:

Seizures

Developmental delay, such as problems with speech or other developmental milestones (like sitting, standing, and walking)

Intellectual disability (decreased ability to learn and function in daily life)

Problems with movement and balance

Feeding problems, such as difficulty swallowing

Hearing loss

Vision problems

These problems can range from mild to severe and are often lifelong. Because the baby's brain is small and underdeveloped, babies with severe microcephaly can have more of these problems, or have more difficulty with them, than babies with milder microcephaly. Severe microcephaly also can be life-threatening. Because it is difficult to predict at birth what problems a baby will have from microcephaly, babies with microcephaly often need close follow-up through regular check-ups with a healthcare provider to monitor their growth and development.

How Many Babies are Born with Microcephaly?

Microcephaly is not a common condition. Researchers estimate that about 1 in every 800-5,000 babies is born with microcephaly in the United States.

Causes and Risk Factors

The causes of microcephaly in most babies are unknown. Some babies have microcephaly because of changes in their genes. Other causes of microcephaly, including severe microcephaly, can include the following exposures during pregnancy:

Certain infections during pregnancy, such as rubella, toxoplasmosis, or cytomegalovirus

Severe malnutrition, meaning a lack of nutrients or not getting enough food

Exposure to harmful substances, such as alcohol, certain drugs, or toxic chemicals

Interruption of the blood supply to the baby's brain during development

Some babies with microcephaly have been reported among mothers who were infected with Zika virus while pregnant. CDC scientists announced that enough evidence has accumulated to conclude that Zika virus infection during pregnancy is a cause of microcephaly and other severe fetal brain defects.

CDC continues to study birth defects, such as microcephaly, and how to prevent them. If you are pregnant or thinking about becoming pregnant, talk with your doctor about ways to increase your chances of having a healthy baby.

Diagnosis

Microcephaly can be diagnosed during pregnancy or after the baby is born.

During Pregnancy

During pregnancy, microcephaly can sometimes be diagnosed with an ultrasound test (which creates pictures of the body). To see microcephaly during pregnancy, the ultrasound test should be done late in the 2nd trimester or early in the third trimester. For more information about screening and confirmatory tests during pregnancy, visit CDC's birth defects diagnosis web page.

After the Baby is Born

To diagnose microcephaly after birth, a healthcare provider will measure the distance around a newborn baby's head, also called the head circumference, during a physical exam. The provider then compares this measurement to population standards by sex and age. Microcephaly is defined as a head circumference measurement that is smaller than a certain value for babies of the same age and sex. This measurement value for microcephaly is usually more than 2 standard deviations (SDs) below the average. The measurement value also may be designated as less than the 3rd percentile. This means the baby's head is extremely small compared to babies of the same age and sex.

Head circumference growth charts for newborns, infants, and children up to age 20 years in the United States can be found on CDC's growth charts website. Head circumference growth charts based on gestational age at birth (in other words, how far along the pregnancy was at the time of delivery) are also available from INTERGROWTH 21stexternal icon . CDC recommends that health care providers use the WHO growth charts to monitor growth for infants and children ages 0 to 2 years of age in the United States.

Microcephaly can be determined by measuring head circumference (HC) after birth. Although head circumference measurements may be influenced by molding and other factors related to delivery, the measurements should be taken on the first day of life because commonly-used birth head circumference reference charts by age and sex are based on measurements taken before 24 hours of age. The most important factor is that the head circumference is carefully measured and documented. If measurement within the first 24 hours of life is not done, the head circumference should be measured as soon as possible after birth. If the healthcare provider suspects the baby has microcephaly, he or she can request one or more tests to help confirm the diagnosis. For example, special tests like like magnetic resonance imaging can provide critical information on the structure of the baby's brain that can help determine if the newborn baby had an infection during pregnancy. They also can help the healthcare provider look for other problems that might be present.

Treatments

Microcephaly is a lifelong condition. There is no known cure or standard treatment for microcephaly. Because microcephaly can range from mild to severe, treatment options can range as well. Babies with mild microcephaly often don't experience any other problems besides small head size. These babies will need routine check-ups to monitor their growth and development.

For more severe microcephaly, babies will need care and treatment focused on managing their other health problems (mentioned above). Developmental services early in life will often help babies with microcephaly to improve and maximize their physical and intellectual abilities. These services, known as early interventionexternal icon , can include speech, occupational, and physical therapies. Sometimes medications also are needed to treat seizures or other symptoms.

Other Resources
The views of these organizations are their own and do not reflect the official position of CDC.
Mother To Babyexternal icon (on behalf of the Organization of Teratology Information Specialists)
This website provides comprehensive information to mothers, healthcare professionals, and the general public about exposures during pregnancy.

References

National Birth Defects Prevention Network. Major birth defects data from population-based birth defects surveillance programs in the United States, 2006-2010. Birth Defects Research (Part A): Clinical and Molecular Teratology. 2013;97:S1-S172.

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Facts about Microcephaly | Birth Defects | NCBDDD | CDC

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Microcephaly is a birth defect where a baby's head is smaller than expected when compared to babies of the same sex and age. Babies with microcephaly often have smaller brains that might not have developed properly. Microcephaly is a condition where a baby's head is much smaller than expected.

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Here's is an article on How is the Zika Virus spread!

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Here is a look at how the virus is spread after t hree patients were diagnosed with Zika in UK at Calderdale and Huddersfield NHS Foundation Trust.

How is the Zika virus transmitted?

Zika virus is primarily spread through the bite of mosquitoes known as Aedes, most commonly the Aedes aegypti species.

If mosquitoes drink the blood of an infected patient, they become infected themselves and can transmit the virus to other people.

The same mosquitoes also spread other diseases such as dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever.

As well as biting at night, the insects are aggressive daytime biters - unlike the mosquitoes that spread malaria.

Aedes aegypti mosquitoes are not present in the UK but they are frequently found in tropical and subtropical areas of the world.

Is the Zika virus transmitted through sex?

The Zika virus can be spread from a man to his sexual partners, according to health authorities in the US.

The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) said the Zika vrisu can stay in semen longer than in blood.

The CDC warns: "Zika can be passed before symptoms start, while he has symptoms, and after his symptoms end."

Heath authorities had thought that sexual transmission was very rare because there are only a few known cases.

"While almost all cases of Zika are acquired via mosquito bites, a small number of cases have occurred through sexual transmission," said agency Public Health England.

British men returning from Zika affected regions have been advised to wear condoms for eight weeks once back in the UK.

Is the Zika virus transmitted from mother to child?

There is mounting evidence that an infected mother can pass the Zika virus on to her fetus via the placenta during pregnancy.

"A mother already infected with Zika virus near the time of delivery can pass on the virus to her newborn around the time of birth, but this is rare," said the CDC.

The Zika outbreak in Brazil has been linked to an increase in the number of babies with unusually small heads - a birth defect called microcephaly.
WHAT BIRTH DEFECTS CAN ZIKA VIRUS CAUSE?
Is the Zika virus transmitted through blood transfusions?

There are currently investigations into multiple reports of transmission via blood transfusion in Brazil.

As a precaution, the NHS Blood and Transplant service recommends that donors should not give blood for 28 days following a trip to Zika affected countries.

What are the symptoms of Zika?

Zika symptoms include mild fevers, skin rashes, conjunctivitis, muscle and joint pain and headaches.

These symptoms tend to last for two to seven days, according to the World Health Organisation.

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How is the ZIKA virus spread? Outbreak explained

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Here is a look at how the virus is spread after t hree patients were diagnosed with Zika in UK at Calderdale and Huddersfield NHS Foundation Trust. Zika virus is primarily spread through the bite of mosquitoes known as Aedes, most commonly the Aedes aegypti species.

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hey guys, here's an article I found regarding zika virus

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The risk of the infection being spread by means other than mosquito bites is still unclear and is likely to be a very rare occurrence. There is evidence to suggest that the virus can be sexually transmitted.