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Culturally Responsive Teaching

When teachers make a point of recognizing the diversity of their students, they can help all students make deeper connections to what they're learning.

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Your students this year will come from many different backgrounds and hold different learning expectations. Because they bring a wealth of knowledge and experience into the classroom, a very effective approach to teaching is one that will consider and take advantage of their various cultures, backgrounds, skills, and languages. I'd like to share some teaching strategies that are responsive to students' cultures and individuality-methods that you might find helpful for students in middle and high school.

Setting Up Your Classroom

Do the posters on the walls reflect a diverse community of learners? Will your students see themselves reflected in the books you've selected for your classroom library? Plan to use tools and resources that reflect diversity across backgrounds and appeal to a wide variety of cultures. Some students may come from homes with a strong oral tradition and show engagement and interest in the class activities by speaking up in class.

Others may have trouble sitting still and being quiet; they may benefit from a designated area in the classroom where they can move around during lessons and incorporate movement into their studies. Plan to set up different learning stations that support different learning methods, and rotate students between tasks. One station might include watching a video, another might require students to read an article, and a third might involve creating a piece of artwork or constructing a puzzle.

Allow for free and flexible time whenever possible, so that students can use class time to their advantage. When possible, allow students to work in the way they prefer that day: Some might want to work independently and quietly while others listen to audiobooks or watch a video; and some students might opt for group activities, like playing a game that has learning objectives or collaborating to complete an assignment.

Getting to Know Your Students

Ask students what they valued and appreciated in past classes. Ask them one-on-one questions about their hobbies and extracurricular activities, or conduct a class-wide survey where students fill out an interest-based questionnaire. Incorporate your findings into your lesson plans; for example, if several of your students are soccer fans, you might include soccer references in word problems for math class.

Ask a lot of questions, but also be mindful that one student should not be seen as the representative of an entire cultural group-it's important that you see your students as individuals because they may not identify with their cultural background.

It's not a bad idea to visit Harvard University's Project Implicit to check yourself for implicit biases you may have about certain cultural groups and then work to counter them in your classroom.

Planning Engaging Lessons

We are wired to understand and pass on stories to one another; stories activate parts of the brain in a way that allows for a deep sense of emotional engagement with the lesson. So, whenever possible, plan to turn learning into a narrative and use storytelling whenever possible, especially when dealing with math and science. Word problems in math may be a little less abstract for students than just dealing with numbers, and this can make it easier for students to grasp concepts that may be difficult for them.

Some students may come from homes with a strong oral tradition, and storytelling in science may be helpful for them, and for all of your students. For example, you could explain world weather events by showing students examples of unusual weather events. Storytelling easily extends into other subject areas like social sciences and history. By telling stories about past events or present social conditions, you'll make the subject material easier to grasp.

Try making learning a game-some of your students may enjoy gaming, and this will help them feel comfortable in the classroom. Set up incentives for completing a task successfully, such as stickers or badges; write an instruction manual for an assignment with a rubric; and track the class's progress on a chart that is competitive in nature.

In most lesson plans, you can use problem-solving-based strategies. For example, you could discuss the logistical challenges of hosting a festival, or present your students with a sociological or anthropological issue that needs to be addressed, like the degradation of the environment in an area populated by people. Allow students to pitch ideas for projects, and then set up objectives for the lessons and let them use their imaginations to formulate ideas for lesson plans and activities that allow them to showcase their talents.

Whatever strategy you use, it's important to engage all students, including English language learners, who might be reluctant to raise their hands. Every student should feel they have a place in your classroom community.

Leveraging Collaboration

Break your class into collaborative learning groups, and encourage students to work together to solve problems and complete tasks that you assign to them; this allows them to develop in-depth collaborative relationships over time, retain information better, and gain a better understanding of diversity as something that extends beyond just ethnicity and cultural background.

Additionally, remember your partners who aren't in the classroom-the parents and guardians. They are important in children's education. Make sure to communicate the course material you will be covering in each unit by sending letters home with your students that explain the topics you'll be discussing and what is expected of each student in terms of homework. Make sure that your students' parents and guardians know that you are available to answer their questions. Keep in mind that some of them may not be able to communicate clearly with you, especially if they are learning English themselves.

Incorporating culturally responsive teaching practices help make learning relevant for a diverse group of students and increase cultural understanding in the classroom among various groups. Try some of the previously mentioned strategies and see which ones work for you. Any of them can help increase your students' feelings of belonging and lead them to realize that they have a stake in their education.

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Teaching Strategies That Support Students' Individuality

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When teachers make a point of recognizing the diversity of their students, they can help all students make deeper connections to what they're learning.

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Increasing team accountability, even at a distance

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Fostering remote accountability within teams is essential to ensure employees and managers alike feel supported.

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Education has shifted; although many schools are back to teaching in person, educators know that components of hybrid and virtual learning are here to stay. We know that in order to keep learning engaging, meaningful, and student-centered, we have to be flexible. But with flexible learning comes the challenge of keeping students accountable for their learning.

By utilizing effective online resources, co-creating norms, developing clear and consistent structures and deadlines, and keeping student needs in mind, educators can build a learning environment that reaches all learners and paves the way for student ownership. Here are some helpful strategies for accountability as well as coach tips to help you achieve the virtual, hybrid, or in-person learning environment you are envisioning.

Create clear norms and expectations with your students.

By creating clear norms and expectations with your students instead of just for them, you can hold students accountable for their behavior inside and outside of a lesson and use student voice to create community and increase engagement. This also ensures you are all on the same page and have agreed to these rules/norms.

Coach tip

Don't wait to do this! Do this in your lesson or before introducing a new online resource. Revisit these norms and expectations often with your students depending on their needs. Allow them to self-assess and give them a voice to adjust these norms as a class community if they feel necessary throughout the school year.

Prioritize relationships by using consistent structures for checking in/monitoring progress.

By creating time to check in as a class, set goals, and conference around those goals, you can strengthen and maintain those relationships and keep students on track. A class meeting is also a great time to allow students to brainstorm and share around what routines might need readjusting to better serve your entire class community.

Coach tip

I always started my lessons by greeting each student so they knew I saw them and valued them. This automatically holds them accountable for being in class. Then, I moved into our class meeting time. By creating a routine around greeting students and meeting with students as a class and then individually, students know what to expect and that their presence, voice, and work matters. Additionally, by conferencing individually with students, I was able to get to know them on a deeper level and by strengthening that relationship, they stayed more accountable.

Be clear with goals and deadlines.

Another barrier to keeping students accountable is helping them stay on top of assignments and deadlines. It's important to use a calendar system so students know what they need to accomplish and where they are headed, especially in self-paced work. Show this calendar to the entire class and provide access and a copy for students. Depending on your grade level, you can give more support in this process if necessary.

Coach tip

Don't forget that many students have several teachers and subjects to balance. We all need deadlines to keep us on track. Planning towards deadlines is an important life skill; it also helps you as the teacher when you are planning and thinking about what your students need.

Keep students engaged throughout the learning process.

We all know that sometimes students "tune out" whether they're in person or across a screen. Provide stopping points or checkpoints for students to interact with each other, complete a quick exit ticket, or give peer feedback on assignments. If you are holding class in an online or hybrid environment, giving students online "jobs" can also make them feel more involved within the lesson.

By creating exit tickets, you can keep track of student progress and keep students accountable for the learning in each portion of the lesson. Many online platforms such as Google Forms can help you create a simple and quick exit ticket if you are working online.

A chalk talk or silent discussion is a great way to involve all students in the thinking at any part of a lesson or unit. In-person students can use sticky notes or colored markers. Online students can use platforms like Padlet or Google Jamboard.

Utilize peer feedback tools: Giving and receiving peer feedback helps students stay accountable for not just improving their own work, but also the work of others.

Coach tip

For online classrooms, reflect on the structures you used within the walls of a physical classroom and think about how you could bring those to life online. For example, many jobs in the in-person classroom can be transitioned into online learning, such as the "time keeper," and there is room for many roles that are unique to online learning, like the "chat monitor." Try classroom jobs to give students ownership and make them feel valued throughout the learning process. In my classroom, our favorite feedback tool in-person was "glow and grow" so while online we continued to give this feedback within different sharing options like Google Docs.

Create personalized pathways.

Creating personalized pathways can have the biggest impact on student accountability because it allows your students to take ownership of their learning, understand where they are, track progress, and work towards goals.

Use self-assessment tools to help students determine growth areas: Marzano's self-assessment rubric is a great way for students to gauge how much support they need and help them to determine the appropriate next steps or activity to choose.

Use goal setting/reflection templates to help students determine their strengths and areas in need of growth and encourage ownership and accountability for working towards those goals.

Try implementing an individual progress and mastery tracking system. This is the ultimate accountability strategy; competency-based learning gives students ownership over their learning and data. There are various approaches to this strategy and it can be personalized to you and your students.

Coach tip

Creating a competency-based learning system can feel overwhelming at first. Start small by implementing goal setting and self-assessment tools to help students be more reflective about where they are within a standard/concept. You can learn more about competency-based learning here.

Provide options for extra support.

In class, it may seem like your students "got it," but when they go to complete the assignment asynchronously or independently without you there, they may need help. Providing opportunities for extra support while you're not there will help your students stay accountable with trying out their work even when it feels difficult.

Coach tip

For online learning, one way to provide extra support is by using video for flipped learning environments. These videos can help students with specific skills and allow for quick checks for understanding. You can also use programs like Zoom, Loom, and Screencastify to record short videos of yourself to help your students better understand a concept, find where to access materials, or outline the goals of an assignment. This is also extremely helpful for families who are trying to support their children at home.

Motivate students by celebrating growth and success.

In order to stay accountable, students need to feel that their work is important and means something. A simple digital space to share and celebrate growth and success can make a huge difference.

A positive news board is a great place for students to recognize the growth that has emerged from their hard work. This board can be up in an in-person classroom or created in a digital space.

Coach tip

You can have students add to the board themselves by using Padlet or Google Jamboard in a virtual or hybrid environment. In-person students can easily add to a physical board with sticky notes or notecards. Encouraging students to celebrate themselves as well as their peers fosters key social-emotional skills such as relationship skills. You can take a brief period of time daily or each week (ex: five to ten minutes) to verbally share out bright spots or "glows" from the week.

By holding our students accountable, we hold ourselves as educators accountable. We ensure that our expectations and directions are clear, that we are strengthening our relationships with all students, that we know where we're headed, and that we can create systems to engage and support all students in their own learning journey-whether that's in a virtual, hybrid, or in-person classroom. Our students are very capable, but we have to help them get there. At the heart of this work is continuous improvement: trying, measuring, and learning (TML).

If you would like further support implementing these strategies, a BetterLesson instructional coach can help you get started. If you are interested in learning more about hybrid and virtual learning, explore this focus area here.

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15+ Strategies to Help With Student Accountability - BetterLesson

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Education has shifted; although many schools are back to teaching in person, educators know that components of hybrid and virtual learning are here to stay. We know that in order to keep learning engaging, meaningful, and student-centered, we have to be flexible. But with flexible learning comes the challenge of keeping students accountable for their learning.

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Peer Assessment Tool for TBL and Group Projects

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When we first introduce the group assignment to our students we establish our expectation for professional teamwork delivered by all teammates. We emphasise that we will adjust individual grades fairly, proportional to the peer-assessed contribution of each teammate to their team's delivered outputs. In short, we let the students know that we will be holding them accountable for their actions in the team and their contributions to the work produced by the team. In addition to informing students of our expectations, educators must also provide them with the tools to help students hold themselves accountable.

There is a smorgasbord of tactics from which the teacher can select to raise a student team's effectiveness through improved accountability. These tactics for accountability include class policy, contracts, project plans, team roles, and responsibilities, mandated collaborative tools, journaling, and the writing of a concluding reflective essay.

Class policy for group assignments

Class policy refers to your institution's policies and your own expectations regarding teamwork. Relevant institutional policies include

Academic integrity

Peer assessment and self-assessment

Equity and diversity

Countering harassment

Student complaints resolution

Student disciplinary process

Your personal policy or expectations could include

Recommended process for managing and/or excluding teammates who freeloader.

Advice on managing personal workload and stress

Advice on keeping teammates advised of changed personal circumstances

A statement that you use teammate peer assessment as a basis for adjusting personal grades above or below the team result you will award for each team's delivered outputs. Later you'll explain how the peer assessment works and you'll give students practice at using the peer assessment process.

Examples of how these policies and expectations are presented in an extract from a course syllabus by Peter Mellalieu. Peter recalls
"I make it clear to students that they need not carry a freeloader in their team. However, they must first seek to manage the free-loader to give them the opportunity to contribute. If that fails, they can apply my 'three strikes' process. A strike against a student includes behaviors such as failing to respond to communications, failing to attend a scheduled meeting, or delivering unsuitable, unprofessional, or plagiarised material. However, I explain I must know in advance that a team is proceeding towards excluding a teammate. There may be a special circumstance of which the team might not be aware that requires my diplomatic intervention."
Teammate peer assessment, feedback, and grading

The ultimate accountability is awarding students individual grades based on their contribution to task and contribution to team harmony and performance. The process that we recommend begins with teammate peer assessment, proceeds to teammate peer feedback, and concludes with a personal result derived from teammate peer assessment.

Teammate peer assessment engages teammates using a form of peer assessment to rate each other's contribution to their team's processes, outputs, and outcomes as they pursue together a group assignment. The peer assessment typically includes quantitative ratings and qualitative evidence to support the awarded ratings. Based on each student's relative peer-assessed contribution, a personal (grade) result may be calculated and awarded.

Teammate peer feedback communicates to teammates in a personalised report the quantitative and qualitative results of teammate peer assessment. Ideally, the report includes developmental advice from each teammate directed towards raising the report recipient's individual effectiveness for their current and future group assignments. Typically, the communication of the peer feedback report is the first stage for constructive, courageous conversations between teammates as they clarify understanding of the feedback received, and the implications for the adjusted behaviours recommended by their teammates.

Personal result from teammate peer assessment is a grade awarded to one teammate calculated from the relative teammate peer-assessed score received by that teammate combined mathematically with the team result awarded by the teacher for that team's total outputs (essays, reports, presentations, software, designs, prototypes, posters...). Typically, the personal result is calculated automatically above or below the team result in proportion to the relative (peer assessed) contribution of each teammate.

Psychological contracts, project plans, and team responsibilities
Psychological contracts
Using Psychological contracts as part of your group assignments is a great way to hold students accountable. Psychological contracts allow students to take an active role in setting the tone for group interaction, group contracts can help "motivate ownership of learning" ( Hesterman, 2016, p. 5 ). Writing group Psychological contracts can also help students identify expectations of one another, communicate those expectations, and practice articulating their expectations.

The Teaching, Learning, and Technology Center at UC Irvine has a great sample group psychological contract form as does the University of Waterloo . The important thing to remember is that you dedicate time in class for the student teams to craft their own contracts. Having students co-create their group contracts will result in better engagement and individual accountability.
Project plans
If you've got a real meaty project for your students, then requiring them to develop a simple project plan as part of the assessment is a fantastic way for students to understand all of the tasks that need to be done in order to complete the project. Once they understand the tasks and dependencies, then they can decide who is going to do what and the date that the task needs to be completed. Remember, a project plan is a living document. You will have teams that underestimate the time required to complete a task or discover that they left out a task. It's ok to amend and adjust as necessary.

Project management tools that we recommend are the following:

- excellent tool that integrates well with Google Drive.

- easy to use and integrates well with Slack

- easy to use and also integrates well with Slack

Team responsibilities
Some projects may lend themselves to have students mimic workplace roles such as project lead, project manager, writer, researcher, editor, and so forth. If this is the case, then it is a great opportunity to have rotating roles to ensure that each student in the group has a go at each of the roles, thus ensuring that all of the students have greater exposure to as many areas of the project as possible. Again, this tactic inhibits students pursuit of a 'divide and conquer' approach).

Rather than mimic workplace roles, students can choose from a list of general project roles such as facilitator, checker, explorer, Carnegie Mellon presents a list of possible roles for group projects that will get the ball rolling. You can even have students create their own roles.

Collaborative tools (Google Docs and Slack)

Having insight into the assessment groups' progress, processes and communication is critical. The level of insight to which we refer means that you would be able to quickly see when groups actually start working on their projects, the level of participation from each group member, and the quality of their communication. This can be realized if you use collaborative tools like Google Docs and Slack to which you are a shared viewer. We believe that it is important to note that it is not enough to simply require your students to use these tools. You must demonstrate that you are taking a hands-on approach. This need not be more complex than commenting on their communication in Slack or adding a comment to their Google Doc. For example, "It looks like you guys are running a bit behind schedule. You need to pick it up."

We wrote a detailed blog post on using Google Docs for group projects that will help you get started.

While Google Docs will give you insight into progress and processes, Slack is the tool that will provide insight into their communication. If you are not yet familiar with Slack, it is one of the most popular communications tools used in industry. Slack is also catching on with leading-edge tech adopters in education , as Professor Phil Simon of ASU reflects
As I entered my second year as a full-time college professor , I wanted to shake things up a bit inside the classroom. I had known for a few years about how was gaining traction as a new communication and collaboration tool in the private sector. I was intrigued. I did some and, this semester decided to give it a shot. My rationale here was straightforward. First, I was curious to noodle with a tool that has received so much hype . Second, in all likelihood, my students will not use a proper learning management system (LMS) such as Blackboard or Canvas after they receive their diplomas. On the other hand, they will almost certainly use a new collaboration tool at some point in their careers. Why not introduce one of the most powerful and ones while they are still in school?
We, too, came to the realization that learning management systems tend, in practice, to be little more than a one-way communications platform 'broadcasting' content and communications outward from the teacher. Specifically, Patrick adopted Slack as the communications tool of choice for all of his classes. He now has insight into all group discussions. He can see immediately if groups are struggling and can identify unconstructive communication. Another advantage of using Slack is that it connects seamlessly with apps that are already used to manage group projects like Google Docs, Trello, and Asana. Since adopting Slack, Patrick has found his students are much more engaged and productive in their group projects.

Conclusion

The foundation for every successful group assignment is student accountability. Set the expectation when you introduce the group assignment by including the class policy for group assignments. Once you've set the stage, then create student buy-in by letting them co-create their psychological contracts. From this point on it's about providing students with the tools to communicate and collaborate effectively and that provides the educator with the visibility to monitor group activity if needed. Having a formative peer assessment activity halfway through the project will allow students to see how their peers believe they are performing. If this is done at the midpoint of an assignment, then there will be enough time for students to get back on track if they did not meet their peers' performance expectations.

Though accountability is crucial to the success of group assignments, it is but one piece of the puzzle. To help you with the other pieces, we have written an ebook titled, "How to teach using team assignments: The 7 step formula for fair and effective team assessment."

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Accountability: The Key to Successful Group Assignments - Peer Assessment Tool for TBL and Group Projects

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When we first introduce the group assignment to our students we establish our expectation for professional teamwork delivered by all teammates. We emphasise that we will adjust individual grades fairly, proportional to the peer-assessed contribution of each teammate to their team's delivered outputs.

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What is Reciprocity | Explained in 2 min

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Being Responsible | Little Mandy Manners | TinyGrads | Children's Videos | Character Songs

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Cite this guide: Brame, C.J. & Biel, R. (2015). Setting up and facilitating group work:
Using cooperative learning groups effectively. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-cooperative-learning-groups-effectively/.

Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students' learning. Whether the goal is to increase student understanding of content, to build particular transferable skills, or some combination of the two, instructors often turn to small group work to capitalize on the benefits of peer-to-peer instruction. This type of group work is formally termed cooperative learning, and is defined as the instructional use of small groups to promote students working together to maximize their own and each other's learning (Johnson, et al., 2008).

Cooperative learning is characterized by positive interdependence, where students perceive that better performance by individuals produces better performance by the entire group (Johnson, et al., 2014). It can be formal or informal, but often involves specific instructor intervention to maximize student interaction and learning. It is infinitely adaptable, working in small and large classes and across disciplines, and can be one of the most effective teaching approaches available to college instructors.

What can it look like?

Informal cooperative learning groups
In informal cooperative learning, small, temporary, ad-hoc groups of two to four students work together for brief periods in a class, typically up to one class period, to answer questions or respond to prompts posed by the instructor.

Additional examples of ways to structure informal group work
Think-pair-share
The instructor asks a discussion question. Students are instructed to think or write about an answer to the question before turning to a peer to discuss their responses. Groups then share their responses with the class.
Peer Instruction
This modification of the think-pair-share involves personal responses devices (e.g. clickers). The question posted is typically a conceptually based multiple-choice question. Students think about their answer and vote on a response before turning to a neighbor to discuss. Students can change their answers after discussion, and "sharing" is accomplished by the instructor revealing the graph of student response and using this as a stimulus for large class discussion. This approach is particularly well-adapted for large classes.
Jigsaw
In this approach, groups of students work in a team of four to become experts on one segment of new material, while other "expert teams" in the class work on other segments of new material. The class then rearranges, forming new groups that have one member from each expert team. The members of the new team then take turns teaching each other the material on which they are experts.
Formal cooperative learning groups
In formal cooperative learning students work together for one or more class periods to complete a joint task or assignment (Johnson et al., 2014). There are several features that can help these groups work well:

The instructor defines the learning objectives for the activity and assigns students to groups.

The groups are typically heterogeneous, with particular attention to the skills that are needed for success in the task.

Within the groups, students may be assigned specific roles, with the instructor communicating the criteria for success and the types of social skills that will be needed.

Importantly, the instructor continues to play an active role during the groups' work, monitoring the work and evaluating group and individual performance.

Instructors also encourage groups to reflect on their interactions to identify potential improvements for future group work.

This video shows an example of formal cooperative learning groups in David Matthes' class at the University of Minnesota:

There are many more specific types of group work that fall under the general descriptions given here, including team-based learning, problem-based learning, and process-oriented guided inquiry learning.

What's the theoretical underpinning?

The use of cooperative learning groups in instruction is based on the principle of constructivism, with particular attention to the contribution that social interaction can make. In essence, constructivism rests on the idea that individuals learn through building their own knowledge, connecting new ideas and experiences to existing knowledge and experiences to form new or enhanced understanding (Bransford, et al., 1999). The consideration of the role that groups can play in this process is based in social interdependence theory, which grew out of Kurt Koffka's and Kurt Lewin's identification of groups as dynamic entities that could exhibit varied interdependence among members, with group members motivated to achieve common goals. Morton Deutsch conceptualized varied types of interdependence, with positive correlation among group members' goal achievements promoting cooperation.

Lev Vygotsky extended this work by examining the relationship between cognitive processes and social activities, developing the sociocultural theory of development. The sociocultural theory of development suggests that learning takes place when students solve problems beyond their current developmental level with the support of their instructor or their peers. Thus both the idea of a zone of proximal development, supported by positive group interdependence, is the basis of cooperative learning (Davidson and Major, 2014; Johnson, et al., 2014).

Cooperative learning follows this idea as groups work together to learn or solve a problem, with each individual responsible for understanding all aspects. The small groups are essential to this process because students are able to both be heard and to hear their peers, while in a traditional classroom setting students may spend more time listening to what the instructor says.

Cooperative learning uses both goal interdependence and resource interdependence to ensure interaction and communication among group members. Changing the role of the instructor from lecturing to facilitating the groups helps foster this social environment for students to learn through interaction.

Is there evidence that it works?

David Johnson, Roger Johnson, and Karl Smith performed a meta-analysis of 168 studies comparing cooperative learning to competitive learning and individualistic learning in college students (Johnson et al., 2006). They found that cooperative learning produced greater academic achievement than both competitive learning and individualistic learning across the studies, exhibiting a mean weighted effect size of 0.54 when comparing cooperation and competition and 0.51 when comparing cooperation and individualistic learning. In essence, these results indicate that cooperative learning increases student academic performance by approximately one-half of a standard deviation when compared to non-cooperative learning models, an effect that is considered moderate. Importantly, the academic achievement measures were defined in each study, and ranged from lower-level cognitive tasks (e.g., knowledge acquisition and retention) to higher level cognitive activity (e.g., creative problem solving), and from verbal tasks to mathematical tasks to procedural tasks. The meta-analysis also showed substantial effects on other metrics, including self-esteem and positive attitudes about learning. George Kuh and colleagues also conclude that cooperative group learning promotes student engagement and academic performance (Kuh et al., 2007).

Springer, Stanne, and Donovan (1999) confirmed these results in their meta-analysis of 39 studies in university STEM classrooms. They found that students who participated in various types of small-group learning, ranging from extended formal interactions to brief informal interactions, had greater academic achievement, exhibited more favorable attitudes towards learning, and had increased persistence through STEM courses than students who did not participate in STEM small-group learning.

The box below summarizes three individual studies examining the effects of cooperative learning groups.

What are approaches that can help make group work effective?
Preparation Articulate your goals for the group work, including both the academic objectives you want the students to achieve and the social skills you want them to develop. Determine the group conformation that will help meet your goals.
In informal group learning, groups often form ad hoc from near neighbors in a class.

In formal group learning, it is helpful for the instructor to form groups that are heterogeneous with regard to particular skills or abilities relevant to group tasks. For example, groups may be heterogeneous with regard to academic skill in the discipline or with regard to other skills related to the group task (e.g., design capabilities, programming skills, writing skills, organizational skills) (Johnson et al, 2006).

Groups from 2-6 are generally recommended, with groups that consist of three members exhibiting the best performance in some problem-solving tasks (Johnson et al., 2006; Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992).

To avoid common problems in group work, such as dominance by a single student or conflict avoidance, it can be useful to assign roles to group members (e.g., manager, skeptic, educator, conciliator) and to rotate them on a regular basis (Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992). Assigning these roles is not necessary in well-functioning groups, but can be useful for students who are unfamiliar with or unskilled at group work.
Choose an assessment method that will promote positive group interdependence as well as individual accountability.
In team-based learning, two approaches promote positive interdependence and individual accountability. First, students take an individual readiness assessment test, and then immediately take the same test again as a group. Their grade is a composite of the two scores. Second, students complete a group project together, and receive a group score on the project. They also, however, distribute points among their group partners, allowing student assessment of members' contributions to contribute to the final score.

Heller and Hollabaugh (1992) describe an approach in which they incorporated group problem-solving into a class. Students regularly solved problems in small groups, turning in a single solution. In addition, tests were structured such that 25% of the points derived from a group problem, where only those individuals who attended the group problem-solving sessions could participate in the group test problem. This approach can help prevent the "free rider" problem that can plague group work.

The University of New South Wales describes a variety of ways to assess group work, ranging from shared group grades, to grades that are averages of individual grades, to strictly individual grades, to a combination of these. They also suggest ways to assess not only the product of the group work but also the process. Again, having a portion of a grade that derives from individual contribution helps combat the free rider problem.
Helping groups get started Explain the group's task, including your goals for their academic achievement and social interaction. Explain how the task involves both positive interdependence and individual accountability, and how you will be assessing each.
Assign group roles or give groups prompts to help them articulate effective ways for interaction. The University of New South Wales provides a valuable set of tools to help groups establish good practices when first meeting. The site also provides some exercises for building group dynamics; these may be particularly valuable for groups that will be working on larger projects.

Regularly observe group interactions and progress, either by circulating during group work, collecting in-process documents, or both. When you observe problems, intervene to help students move forward on the task and work together effectively. The University of New South Wales provides handouts that instructors can use to promote effective group interactions, such as a handout to help students listen reflectively or give constructive feedback, or to help groups identify particular problems that they may be encountering.

Assessing and reflecting

In addition to providing feedback on group and individual performance (link to preparation section above), it is also useful to provide a structure for groups to reflect on what worked well in their group and what could be improved. Graham Gibbs (1994) suggests using the checklists shown below.

The University of New South Wales provides other reflective activities that may help students identify effective group practices and avoid ineffective practices in future cooperative learning experiences.

References

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., and Cocking, R.R. (Eds.) (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Bruffee, K. A. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and the authority of knowledge. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Cabrera, A. F., Crissman, J. L., Bernal, E. M., Nora, A., Terenzini, P. T., & Pascarella, E. T. (2002). Collaborative learning: Its impact on college students' development and diversity. Journal of College Student Development, 43(1), 20-34.

Davidson, N., & Major, C. H. (2014). Boundary crossing: Cooperative learning, collaborative learning, and problem-based learning. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25 (3&4), 7-55.

Dees, R. L. (1991). The role of cooperative leaning in increasing problem-solving ability in a college remedial course. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22(5), 409-21.

Gokhale, A. A. (1995). Collaborative Learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology Education, 7(1).

Heller, P., and Hollabaugh, M. (1992) Teaching problem solving through cooperative grouping. Part 2: Designing problems and structuring groups. American Journal of Physics 60, 637-644.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2006). Active learning: Cooperation in the university classroom (3 rd edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Holubec, E.J. (2008). Cooperation in the classroom (8 th edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2014). Cooperative learning: Improving university instruction by basing practice on validated theory. Journl on Excellence in College Teaching 25, 85-118.

Jones, D. J., & Brickner, D. (1996). Implementation of cooperative learning in a large-enrollment basic mechanics course. American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference Proceedings.

Kuh, G.D., Kinzie, J., Buckley, J., Bridges, B., and Hayek, J.C. (2007). Piecing together the student success puzzle: Research, propositions, and recommendations (ASHE Higher Education Report, No. 32). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Love, A. G., Dietrich, A., Fitzgerald, J., & Gordon, D. (2014). Integrating collaborative learning inside and outside the classroom. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25(3&4), 177-196.

Smith, M. E., Hinckley, C. C., & Volk, G. L. (1991). Cooperative learning in the undergraduate laboratory. Journal of Chemical Education 68(5), 413-415.

Springer, L., Stanne, M. E., & Donovan, S. S. (1999). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 96(1), 21-51.

Uribe, D., Klein, J. D., & Sullivan, H. (2003). The effect of computer-mediated collaborative learning on solving ill-defined problems. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(1), 5-19.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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Group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively

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by Cynthia J. Brame and Rachel Biel Print Version Cite this guide: Brame, C.J. & Biel, R. (2015). Setting up and facilitating group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-cooperative-learning-groups-effectively/. Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students' learning.

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5 Learning Theories in Education and How to Apply Them | University of Phoenix

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Find out more about the key learning theories in education, why they are important, how they influence learning and how to apply them as a teacher.

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Teamwork Theory

Tuckman's Stages of Group Development
Probably the most famous teamwork theory is Bruce Tuckman's "team stages model".
First developed in 1965, Tuckman's model is widely known as a basis for effective team building. Yet how many people really know how to use it? Below we explain Tuckman's model before offering some fresh insights on how to take it further.

Tuckman's model is significant because it recognizes the fact that groups do not start off fully-formed and functioning. He suggests that teams grow through clearly defined stages, from their creation as groups of individuals, to cohesive, task-focused teams.

Tuckman's Teamwork Theory

Tuckman describes working with a team of social psychologists, on behalf of the U.S. navy. The team studied small group behaviour, from several perspectives. In doing so, Tuckman reviewed 50 articles on group development and noticed that there were two features common to these small groups: the interpersonal or group structure, and the task activity. From this he identified that groups evolved into teams via four common stages.

Firstly an orientation, testing phase which often led to a period characterized by a degree of conflict. This then generally resolved itself, leading to a more socially cohesive phase. Finally, groups settled to a functional phase, during which they focused on role-relatedness. To summarize these four phases, Tuckman coined the oft-quoted terms: "forming", "storming", "norming" and "performing".

Tuckman's teamwork theory is best illustrated on a graph which shows the link between group relationships (the horizontal axis) and task focus (the vertical axis). The optimal or "performing" position is reached when relationships have developed within the group and it has started delivering with a clear focus on the task.

However, Tuckman's ideas clearly indicate that it takes time to reach the "performing" stage, and it's normal for these teams to go through ups and downs as they develop relationships. Particularly in the early period, which is perhaps why Tuckman called it the "storming" phase!

The 4 Phases of Tuckman's Teamwork Theory

Forming:

The initial stage of team development during which individuals have not yet gelled together. Everybody is busy finding their place in the team, sizing each other up, and asking themselves why they are here! Find out more in our articles: Team Building Techniques and Teamwork Tips. The first offers advice on starting a new team while the second will help you take over an existing team (perhaps a far more common situation).

Storming:

People begin to see themselves as part of a team. However at this stage they may challenge each other, and the team leader, about such things as what the team is doing, and how things should be done. As the stage title suggests, conflict and confrontation typify this stage, as differences surface. This may result in some loss of performance or focus on the task, as the diagram illustrates.

Norming:

This is the phase where team members start to come together, developing processes, establishing ground rules, clarifying who does what, and how things will be done. This phase is characterized by a growing sense of "togetherness". Find out more about both the Storming and Norming phases in our article: Team Building Concepts.

Performing:

This is the final stage where increased focus on both the task, and on team relationships, combine to provide synergy. Performance is delivered through people working effectively together. We have written two articles to further develop this stage. Team Building in the Workplace will help you build a performing team. Characteristics of Effective Teamwork will help you and your team sustain that performance.

Thinking about Tuckman's Model

The value of Tuckman's model is that it helps us understand that teams evolve. It also helps us to consider how they may encounter different problems at different stages of their development.

One limitation of the model may be that it makes team building appear too linear and sequential. Although it's a useful analytical tool, we must remember that some teams may "loop" around in their development.

For example, not all teams evolve smoothly through Tuckman's stages but may yo-yo between norming and storming until they either begin to function, or are disbanded! Regardless of limitations, all well-conceived models can be useful in helping us to understand and better manage our circumstances.

Adjourning

Tuckman's famous phases are part of a teamwork theory based on stages of team development. His theory may have gained popularity partly due to the catchy labels for each of his stages. Indeed, in 1977 Tuckman proposed an update to his model, introducing a fifth stage: adjourning. This was meant to reflect the period after a team disbands, having achieved its objectives or perhaps being broken-up for other reasons. The issues for managers here can include:

Capturing the knowledge/expertise of the team for future use or reference.

Dealing with any sense of loss amongst team members, where successful or well-established teams are being broken up.

Understanding the causes and ramifications of team dysfunction, where the team is being disbanded because it has not worked.

Beyond Tuckman's Theory

Tuckman's theory provides a useful and simple way to think about how we humans interact in team situations. Firstly by illustrating that it's normal for teams go through stages as they develop. Secondly, by highlighting the need to manage different aspects of team behaviour at each stage of that development. The beauty and usefulness of Tuckman's model is perhaps in its simplicity. Follow this for more information on this theory or click here to read Tuckman's original article.

Team development theories such, as Tuckman's group development stages, recognise that teams develop through different stages, from forming through to performing. Whilst these theories give a useful understanding of different team requirements at different times, there are a number of questions that aren't particularly well answered by the models. For example:

How should you lead at the different stages of a team's development?

How do you identify when you are progressing through a stage?

How does the team develop in the organisational setting?

How is it affected by other outside influences?

The theory of group stages alone doesn't answer these questions. To do so, and thus to build a more robust teamwork concept, ideas about team leadership and outside factors need to be introduced. We've done just this in our STAR team performance model. You can see how this model applies to group stages in: Stages of Team Development.

This is the first of ten articles in our teamwork series. But for some practical tips on using teamwork theory, look at our great-value guides (below), or at our Team Building Exercises for all team stages.

Team Building Exercises and Team Stages

Our e-guide: Team Building Exercises has been specifically designed to help you understand and use a team stages model. It contains a tool for each stage to help you build a high-performing team - as quickly as possible. The exercises in the guide are grouped according to our own team stages model. Remember, each team is unique and needs to be led through several developmental stages. These include:

If you're creating a new team or taking over an existing team

Exercise 1: Being a TEAM together
Exercise 2: True or false
Exercise 3: Who does what in a team?
Exercise 4: Getting the mix right
Exercise 5: Doing something for the first time
Exercise 6: Two years from now

If you're developing an existing team

Exercise 7: A clearer vision
Exercise 8: Mad, sad or glad
Exercise 9: Seeing the bigger picture
Exercise 10: Positive feedback
Exercise 11: Conflicting views

If you're team is already performing and achieving results

Exercise 12: Did you notice?
Exercise 13: Limiting beliefs

If you're trying to sustain good team performance

Exercise 14: Scarce resources
Exercise 15: Keeping going

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Teamwork Theory | Tuckman's Stages of Group Development - The Happy Manager

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Probably the most famous teamwork theory is Bruce Tuckman's 'team stages model'. Tuckman's model is widely used for effective team building.

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Building parent involvement is the single most important thing that parent groups do. Often, it's the most difficult, too. And that's too bad because there are many compelling reasons why parents-all parents-should get involved in their children's education. If you're having trouble building involvement, the problem might be that you're not making the right argument. You simply need better ammunition.

A common way to think about getting people involved is to counter their objections. People say they don't have time, so you make it clear you only need them for an hour or two. People don't feel comfortable at school, so you work to make it more welcoming. Schedules won't allow busy people to come to the school, so you find ways they can contribute from home.

Each time you address the "don't" issues, you open up your group to more people: people with time and schedule issues, those who haven't felt welcome in the past, dads, grandparents, people who don't speak English well.

All of that is important. But don't assume that once you tear down the barriers, people will flock to get involved. They should, sure. But they should go to the dentist more often, too.

It's up to you to make a stronger case for parents to get involved than "It's for the kids." For many people, that's simply not enough to get them energized. The good news is that there are compelling, definitive reasons to get involved, and they are backed up by volumes of research. Plus, they apply to everyone-no matter their bank balance, ethnicity, work schedule, education level, or anything else.

What Every Parent Should Know

Researchers have been studying the effects parent attitudes and actions have on their children's academic success for more than 30 years. The results have been consistent. Anne Henderson and Nancy Berla summed it up in their book A New Generation of Evidence: The Family Is Critical to Student Achievement, which reviewed the existing research: "When parents are involved in their children's education at home, they do better in school. And when parents are involved in school, children go farther in school and the schools they go to are better."

Much of the information here is taken from publications by Henderson, a consultant at New York University's Institute for Education and Social Policy, and various coauthors that examine parent involvement research; and from publications by Joyce Epstein, director of the National Network of Partnership Schools at Johns Hopkins University; the National Center for Parent Involvement in Education, which Henderson helped found; and summaries of research prepared by the Michigan Department of Education, San Diego Unified School District, and others.

We created a 2-minute video in English and Spanish summarizing these benefits for parent group leaders to share with families. Play it at your back-to-school night or put it on your PTO website.

Major Benefits

Research shows that when parents are involved in their children's education, the children are more likely to:

earn better grades.

score higher on tests.

pass their classes.

attend school regularly.

have better social skills.

show improved behavior.

be more positive in their attitude toward school.

complete homework assignments.

graduate and continue their education.

More Is Better

Parents can serve many different roles in the educational process: home teachers, advocates for their children, volunteers, fundraisers, boosters. And they can even serve in decisionmaking and oversight roles for the school. The more parents participate in a sustained way at each of these levels, the better for student achievement.

Start Early

When parents get involved early in their children's education, the results are more pronounced and long-lasting.

At All Levels

Studies indicate that parent involvement in education has a positive effect at all grade levels: elementary, middle, and high school.

Dads Matter

In both two-parent and father-only households where dads are highly involved in their schools, children are more likely to:

They are less likely to:

A Significant Difference

One study found that students from families with above-average parent involvement were 30 percent more successful in school than those with below-average involvement. Success was measured by GPA; test scores in math, science, reading, and social studies; promotion and retention rates; and teacher ratings.

Also Significant

Another study found that in schools where teachers reported high levels of outreach to parents, test scores grew at a rate 40 percent higher than in schools that reported low levels of outreach to parents.

Home and School

A three-year study of 12,000 high school student concluded that "When parents come to school regularly, it reinforces the view in the child's mind that school and home are connected and that school is an integral part of the whole family's life."

Reading and the Parent Group

A two-year study of home and school influences on literacy achievement among children from low-income families found that the single variable most positively connected to all literacy skills was formal involvement in parent-school activities such as PTO participation, attending school activities, and serving as a volunteer.

Tell the Principal

Schools with involved parents enjoy:

better morale among teachers.

higher ratings of teachers by parents.

more support from families.

a better reputation in the community.

Parents Benefit, Too

When parents become involved in their children's education, the parents are more likely to:

be more confident at school.

be more confident in themselves as parents and their ability to help their children learn.

be held in higher esteem by teachers and have teachers expect more from their children.

enroll in continuing education to advance their own schooling.

A Final Note

Why should parents get involved? Because involvement can make a dramatic difference for their children.

Why should school administrators encourage involvement? Because it can make a significant difference, both in school atmosphere and in the success rate of students-especially when parents are included as partners in the educational process.

Parent involvement is a powerful tool. Spread the word.

Sources
Mikaela J. Dufur, Toby L. Parcel, and Kelly P. Troutman (2013): Does capital at home matter more than capital at school? Social capital effects on academic achievement. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 31, pages 1-21. Joyce L. Epstein and Associates (2008): School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Your Handbook for Action. Third Edition. Corwin Press. Thousand Oaks, Calif. Anne T. Henderson, Ed; Nancy Berla, Ed. (1994): A New Generation of Evidence: The Family is Critical to Student Achievement. National Committee for Citizens in Education, Washington, D.C. Anne T. Henderson and Karen L. Mapp (2002): A New Wave of Evidence: The Impact of School, Family, and Community Connections on Student Achievement. National Center for Family and Community Connections with Schools. Austin, Texas. Originally posted in 2006 and updated regularly.
The best PTO advice, ideas, and inspiration delivered weekly. Don't miss it!

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Involvement Matters: What To Tell Parents - PTO Today

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Building parent involvement is the single most important thing that parent groups do. Often, it's the most difficult, too. And that's too bad because there are many compelling reasons why parents-all parents-should get involved in their children's education. If you're having trouble building involvement, the problem might be that you're not making the right argument.

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It's important to start teaching the most important lessons in life as early as possible. The younger kids start learning skills, the more comfortable they are using those skills throughout their lives. One of the most important lessons kids can learn, one that will continue to benefit them their entire lives, is how to work with others as a part of a team. Teamwork is important not only in childhood, but it also helps kids succeed as adults.

The benefits of team building for kids can have immediate results and will last them their entire lives.

Teamwork Teaches Communication and Social Skills

The most important lesson kids can learn from working together as a team is how to communicate effectively with others. Social skills are useful in almost every situation and can help people succeed no matter their career or situation.

How to Listen

Teamwork first teaches kids how to listen, which is the first step in effective communication. Without listening, it is impossible to have a dialogue with others - communication becomes one-sided, and any sense of teamwork is lost.

Members of a team first have to listen to their coaches in order to learn how to perform their individual roles. Next, they have to learn how to listen to each other in order to function as a cohesive unit. Last, they have to learn how to listen to their opponents. This is a different type of listening that involves picking up on social cues. These social cues are an integral part of the social skills they will rely on throughout their lives.

A side effect of teaching kids how to listen is respect for others, which is an essential aspect not just of being a member of a team but of being a member of society. When kids are taught to listen, not just to hear, then they are taught that what others have to say is valid and worthy of consideration.

How to Speak

Once kids have learned how to listen to others, they can begin to learn how to speak. Of course, they already know how to talk, but speaking is something different. Speaking is about reaching an audience, about understanding how to communicate with them instead of just talking at them. While listening teaches kids to respect the ideas of others, speaking allows kids to put that respect into practice. The way in which people speak with others demonstrates their level of understanding and respect, which is a crucial part of working together as a team.

Teamwork also requires each member of the team to be able to express their own ideas and opinions effectively. Learning how to speak with others properly is an essential part of this communication. Expressing yourself effectively involves social skills, but it also involves self-confidence, which brings us to the next benefit of teamwork for kids.

Teamwork Improves Self-Confidence

When kids understand that their voices are respected and valued, they gain self-confidence. Knowing that they are being heard gives them a sense of worth and encourages participation in the team.

In this environment, even the quietest or shyest members of the team feel encouraged to participate, which can help embolden them. The more members of the team feel encouraged to participate, the better the team will perform. The more valued and respected people feel, the more their insecurities evaporate. This lessening of insecurities allows for more and better communication, which allows for better teamwork. This can become a self-sustaining cycle where participation in a team increases kids' social skills and decreases their insecurities, both of which enhance their enjoyment of and participation in the team.

Teamwork Reduces Bullying

Teamwork Builds Successful Adults

Kids who are self-confident and have well-developed social skills turn into well-rounded adults. Adults with these skills are, on average, happier and more successful people. Adults who work well as a member of a team are generally happier with their careers and find their work more satisfying than adults who cannot get along well with others.

There are very few careers that don't involve working closely with at least a small group of people. The better someone is able to communicate and the better their social skills, the happier they will be as a member of this group. Employers also prefer employees who have these skills. Employees who work well with others are happier and more productive in their jobs. Of course, happy, productive employees do better in a company, leading to better pay, more promotions, more happiness, and more productivity.

Once again, we see a self-sustaining cycle that begins will good communication and social skills. Teamwork learned as a child will develop these skills early and continue to build those skills throughout life. Teamwork helps kids succeed - not only during their childhood but also as adults.

Teaching Kids Teamwork Takes a Team

Teamwork will help kids communicate with others, increase their social skills and self-confidence, and help them to develop into happier adults. Teamwork also teaches kids important skills and life lessons, but like any other skill, having a good teacher or coach is a critical aspect of the process. It takes someone with specialized knowledge and experience to guide kids through the process.

Having someone who can help kids understand how to develop these skills and show them why they are important can make a big difference. Quality instruction in team building can have a tremendous impact on how well kids learn these lessons and how quickly results from participation in a team are visible. It's important to involve kids early in team activities that are led by a qualified and trained professional. Teamwork learned as a kid will continue to have a positive impact on the rest of a child's life. Teamwork helps kids succeed!

If you are interested in ways you can connect, grow, and positively influence your students, we offer many free resources you can utilize today! Check out our Blog page!

Group Dynamix also offers plenty of and activities that can be done anywhere in the U.S. to help connect and grow your students. Click to request a quote for a team building event!

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How Teamwork Helps Kids Succeed In Life - Group Dynamix

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Learn about the importance of teamwork in helping kids succeed in life. Explore our experiential learning programs designed to foster collaboration, communication, and leadership skills.

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24 Ways to Encourage Students to Work Effectively in a Group Setting - The Edvocate

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Spread the loveAre you looking for ways to encourage students to work effectively in a group setting? If so, keep reading. 1. Give the learner the chance to select a cooperative learning experience and the group members (e.g., along with the teacher, decide what the learning experience will be and d…

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Supporting Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Maximizing In-Person Learning and Implementing Effective Practices for Students in Quarantine and Isolation

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Nevertheless, there may be situations when an individual or multiple members of a school community may need to isolate or quarantine due to positive COVID-19 cases. Isolation is a strategy used to separate people who have COVID-19 or symptoms of COVID-19 from those who are not infected or showing symptoms in order to prevent transmission of COVID-19.