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WHO: U.S. president Woodrow Wilson

WHAT: The League of Nations was an organization for international cooperation.https://www.britannica.com/topic/League-of-Nations

WHY: to promote international cooperation and to achieve peace and security.https://www.un.org/en/about-us/history-of-the-un/predecessor#:~:text=The%20predecessor%20of%20the%20United,to%20achieve%20peace%20and%20security.%22

WHERE: Geneva, Switzerland. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/league#:~:text=The%20League%20of%20Nations%20was,forum%20for%20resolving%20international%20disputes.

WHEN: It was established on January 10, 1920, at the initiative of the victorious Allied powers at the end of World War I and was formally disbanded on April 19, 1946.https://www.britannica.com/topic/League-of-Nations

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League of Nations, an organization for international cooperation established on January 10, 1920, at the initiative of the victorious Allied powers at the end of World War I.

The terrible losses of World War I produced, as years went by and peace seemed no nearer, an ever-growing public demand that some method be found to prevent the renewal of the suffering and destruction which were now seen to be an inescapable part of modern war. So great was the force of this demand that within a few weeks after the opening of the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919, unanimous agreement had been reached on the text of the Covenant of the League of Nations. Although the League was unable to fulfill the hopes of its founders, its creation was an event of decisive importance in the history of international relations. The League was formally disbanded on April 19, 1946; its powers and functions had been transferred to the nascent United Nations.

Origins of the League of Nations

The central, basic idea of the movement was that aggressive war is a crime not only against the immediate victim but against the whole human community. Accordingly it is the right and duty of all states to join in preventing it; if it is certain that they will so act, no aggression is likely to take place. Such affirmations might be found in the writings of philosophers or moralists but had never before emerged onto the plane of practical politics. Statesmen and lawyers alike held and acted on the view that there was no natural or supreme law by which the rights of sovereign states, including that of making war as and when they chose, could be judged or limited. Many of the attributes of the League of Nations were developed from existing institutions or from time-honoured proposals for the reform of previous diplomatic methods. However, the premise of collective security was, for practical purposes, a new concept engendered by the unprecedented pressures of World War I.

When the peace conference met, it was generally agreed that its task should include the establishment of a League of Nations capable of ensuring future peace. U.S. Pres. Woodrow Wilson insisted that this should be among the first questions to be dealt with by the conference. The work proceeded with far greater speed than that of territorial and military settlement, chiefly because the subject had been exhaustively studied during the war years. Unofficial societies in the United States, Great Britain, France, and some neutral countries had drawn up many plans and proposals, and in doing so they in turn had availed themselves of the efforts of earlier thinkers.

Over many years lawyers had worked out plans for the settlement of disputes between states by legal means or, failing these, by third-party arbitration, and the Hague conferences of 1899 and 1907 had held long debates on these subjects. The results had been unimpressive; the 1907 conference tried in vain to set up an international court, and though many arbitration treaties were signed between individual states, they all contained reservations which precluded their application in more dangerous disputes. However, though the diplomatists thus kept the free hand as long as possible, the general principle of arbitration-which in popular language included juridical settlement and also settlement through mediation-had become widely accepted by public opinion and was embodied as a matter of course in the Covenant.

Another 19th-century development which had influenced the plan makers was the growth of international bureaus, such as the Universal Postal Union, the International Institute of Agriculture, and numerous others, set up to deal with particular fields of work in which international cooperation was plainly essential. They had no political function or influence, but within their very narrow limits they worked efficiently. It was concluded that wider fields of social and economic life, in which each passing year made international cooperation more and more necessary, might with advantage be entrusted to similar international administrative institutions. Such ideas were strengthened by the fact that, during the war, joint Allied commissions controlling trade, shipping, and procurement of raw materials had gradually developed into powerful and effective administrative bodies. Planners questioned whether these entities, admitting first the neutrals and later the enemy states into their councils, could become worldwide centres of cooperation in their respective fields.

Other lessons of the war concerned the problems of armaments on the one hand and of diplomacy on the other. It was widely believed that the enormous increase in armaments undertaken by the great powers of Europe during the immediate prewar period had been not only a consequence, but also in itself a cause, of tension, hostility, and finally war. The naval arms race between the United Kingdom and Germany was an especially obvious manifestation of this phenomenon. Equally strong was the belief that "secret diplomacy," that is, the existence, under secret treaty, of commitments for reciprocal diplomatic or military support, had enabled statesmen and generals to run risks which public opinion would never have countenanced had they been known.

These general propositions-collective security, arbitration, economic and social cooperation, reduction of armaments, and open diplomacy-inspired in various degrees the plans drawn up during the war. It was urged from the first that they could become effective only through the creation of a great international organization charged with the duty of applying them and invested with the powers necessary to that end. Already in spring 1915 the name "League of Nations" was in general use among the small groups which were discussing the future organization of peace. Their ideas, encouraged by statesmen such as former Pres. William H. Taft in the United States and Sir Edward Grey and Lord Robert Cecil in Great Britain, gradually became known and supported. The League to Enforce Peace in the United States and the League of Nations societies in Britain acted as centres of discussion. In the presidential election of 1916 both parties advocated U.S. membership in a future league. A few months later the United States was a belligerent, and Wilson, entering on his second term, became, by right both of his personality and of his position as leader of the greatest world power, the chief spokesman of the Allied coalition. In January 1918, in the historic Fourteen Points in which he summed up U.S. war aims, he called for the formation of "a general association of nations...affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small States alike." The Fourteen Points were in due course accepted by all the Allies as an authentic statement of their war aims also. Thus what had seemed hardly more than a utopian hope was transmuted in a few months into the formal and official purpose of the soon-to-be-victorious Allies.

Meanwhile, both the British and French governments had appointed special committees to draw up plans for the new organization, and their reports were transmitted to Washington, where Wilson and his confidential adviser Edward M. House were drafting proposals in their turn. A further contribution of great importance was made by South African statesman Jan Smuts, who published in December 1918 The League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion. Smuts declared that the League must not be a mere diplomatic defense against war but "a great organ of the ordinary peaceful life of civilisation...woven into the very texture of our political system," and that in the long run its power to prevent war would depend upon the extent of its action in peace. To many of his contemporaries, this was a new vision of the real nature of an effective League of Nations.

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League of Nations | Definition & Purpose

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League of Nations, organization for international cooperation established at the initiative of the victorious Allied powers after World War I. Although the League was unable to fulfill the hopes of its founders, its creation was an event of decisive importance in the history of international relations.

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WHAT: The Teapot Dome Scandal of the 1920s shocked Americans by revealing an unprecedented level of greed and corruption within the federal government. The scandal involved ornery oil tycoons, poker-playing politicians, illegal liquor sales, a murder-suicide, a womanizing president and a bagful of bribery cash delivered on the sly.https://www.history.com/topics/roaring-twenties/teapot-dome-scandal

WHEN: The Teapot Dome scandal was a bribery scandal involving the administration of United States President Warren G. Harding from 1921 to 1923.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teapot_Dome_scandal#:~:text=The%20Teapot%20Dome%20scandal%20was,Harding%20from%201921%20to%201923.

WHY: Why did the Teapot Dome incident cause a scandal?

Secretary of the Interior Albert Bacon Fall had leased Navy petroleum reserves at Teapot Dome in Wyoming, as well as two locations in California, to private oil companies at low rates without competitive bidding.

WHO: United States President Warren G. Harding

WHERE: Secretary of the Interior Albert Bacon Fall had leased Navy petroleum reserves at Teapot Dome in Wyoming

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teapot_Dome_scandal#:~:text=Secretary%20of%20the%20Interior%20Albert,low%20rates%20without%20competitive%20bidding.

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The Teapot Dome scandal was a bribery scandal involving the administration of United States President Warren G. Harding from 1921 to 1923. Secretary of the Interior Albert Bacon Fall had leased Navy petroleum reserves at Teapot Dome in Wyoming, as well as two locations in California, to private oil companies at low rates without competitive bidding.

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Reader's Digest The Reader’s Digest is published

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Reader's Digest The Reader’s Digest is published

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Who: DeWitt Wallace and Lila Bell Wallace.

What: A condensed magazine featuring articles from various sources.

When: February 1921.

Where: United States.

Why: Created to provide a digest of news and articles for readers with limited time.

citation: The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Reader’s Digest | American Magazine.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 6 Sept. 2017, www.britannica.com/topic/Readers-Digest.

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Who: F. Scott Fitzgerald.

What: A novel portraying the Jazz Age and the American Dream.

When: April 10, 1925.

Where: United States.

Why: Critically acclaimed for its portrayal of wealth, love, and the American Dream.

citation: Wikipedia Contributors. “F. Scott Fitzgerald.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 4 Dec. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._Scott_Fitzgerald.

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Who: United States Congress.

What: Granted citizenship to Native Americans born in the U.S.

When: June 2, 1924.

Where: United States.

Why: Recognized Native Americans as citizens, but many rights were still restricted.

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Who: United States Congress.

What: Limited immigration by establishing quotas by nationality.

When: May 26, 1924.

Where: United States.

Why: Aimed to restrict immigration, particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe.

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Who: Fashion trends among young women.

What: Iconic fashion representing independence and liberation.

When: Peak popularity around 1925.

Where: Primarily in the United States.

Why: Symbolized the changing role of women in society post-World War I.

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 Robert H. Goddard demonstrates the first liquid fueled rockets

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 Robert H. Goddard demonstrates the first liquid fueled rockets

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Robert H. Goddard demonstrates the first liquid fueled rockets

Who: Robert H. Goddard, physicist and engineer.

What: Successful demonstration of a liquid-fueled rocket.

When: March 16, 1926.

Where: Auburn, Massachusetts, USA.

Why: Marked a significant milestone in the development of rocketry and space exploration.

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Charleston Dance invented

Who: Originated from African American communities.

What: Energetic and popular dance style.

When: Gained popularity in the mid-1920s.

Where: United States, particularly in Charleston, South Carolina.

Why: Became emblematic of the Roaring Twenties' vibrant and liberated culture.

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Who: Henry Luce and Briton Hadden.

What: A news magazine covering current events.

When: March 3, 1923.

Where: United States.

Why: To provide concise news coverage for a broad audience.

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Who: Associated with Capone's gang and rival gangs.

What: A violent conflict resulting in the killing of seven members of a rival gang.

When: February 14, 1929.

Where: Chicago, Illinois, USA.

Why: Part of a territorial dispute between criminal organizations in Chicago during Prohibition.

citation: The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Saint Valentine’s Day Massacre | Mass Murder, Chicago, Illinois, United States [1929].” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/event/Saint-Valentines-Day-Massacre.

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Who: Warren G. Harding, Republican candidate.

What: Elected as the 29th President of the United States.

When: November 2, 1920.

Where: United States.

Why: His campaign promised a "return to normalcy" after World War I.

citation: The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Warren G. Harding | Facts, Accomplishments, & Biography.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 29 Oct. 2018, www.britannica.com/biography/Warren-G-Harding.

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Who: Various nations post-World War I.

What: An international organization aimed at maintaining world peace.

When: January 10, 1920.

Where: Geneva, Switzerland (headquarters).

Why: To prevent future conflicts and promote diplomacy.

citation: Office of the Historian. “Milestones: 1914–1920 - Office of the Historian.” State.gov, 2018, history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/league.

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Calvin Coolidge wins the Presidential election

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Calvin Coolidge wins the Presidential election

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Who: Calvin Coolidge, Republican candidate.

What: Elected as the 30th President of the United States.

When: November 4, 1924.

Where: United States.

Why: Continued policies of limited government intervention and economic growth.

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Who: Ku Klux Klan members.

What: March through Washington, D.C.

When: August 1925.

Where: Washington, D.C., United States.

Why: A demonstration of the KKK's influence and to assert their beliefs.

citation:Congress, Library. “Ku Klux Klan Parade, Washington, D.C., Sept. 13, 1926.” Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA, 13 Sept. 1926, www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3b39318/.

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(FBI) (J. Edgar Hoover leads the Federal Bureau of Investigation)

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(FBI) (J. Edgar Hoover leads the Federal Bureau of Investigation)

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Who: J. Edgar Hoover, law enforcement official.

What: Became director of the FBI.

When: May 10, 1924.

Where: United States.

Why: Played a significant role in shaping the modern FBI and its investigative techniques.

citation:FBI. “J. Edgar Hoover, May 10, 1924 - May 2, 1972 | Federal Bureau of Investigation.” Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2016, www.fbi.gov/history/directors/j-edgar-hoover.

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(Langston Hughes's poem “I, Too, Sing America”)

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(Langston Hughes's poem “I, Too, Sing America”)

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Who: Langston Hughes, poet and writer.

What: A poem expressing African American identity.

When: 1925.

Where: United States.

Why: Captured the African American experience and promoted equality and national unity.

citation:Hughes, Langston. “I, Too .” Poetry Foundation, 1926,

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Charles Lindbergh flies the first non-stop transatlantic flight

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Charles Lindbergh flies the first non-stop transatlantic flight

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Who: Charles Lindbergh, aviator.

What: Solo flight from New York to Paris.

When: May 20-21, 1927.

Where: From Roosevelt Field, New York, USA, to Le Bourget Airport, Paris, France.

Why: Showed the potential for long-distance air travel and gained Lindbergh immense fame.

Citation:“The First Solo, Nonstop Transatlantic Flight.” Pioneersofflight.si.edu, 20 Dec. 2023, pioneersofflight.si.edu/content/first-solo-nonstop-transatlantic-flight#:~:text=On%20May%2021%2C%201927%2C%20Charles.

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Who: Organizers and contestants.

What: Beauty pageant showcasing contestants from various states.

When: September 7, 1921.

Where: Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA.

Why: Aimed to extend the summer tourist season beyond Labor Day.

citation:https://www.atlanticcityexperience.org/exhibits/exhibit-nucky-johnson-prohibition/miss-america-1921.html#:~:text=Atlantic%20City%20was%20home%20to,hat)%20won%20the%20first%20competition.

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Who: Multiple inventors and film industry figures.

What: Introduction of synchronized sound in movies.

When: Late 1920s, specifically 1927-1928.

Where: Film studios in the United States.

Why: Revolutionized the film industry, changing the way movies were made and experienced.

citation:https://news.smugmug.com/when-was-photography-invented-a-brief-timeline-of-photographic-history-f883c79c405f

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Who: Investors, financial institutions.

What: Sudden and severe decline in stock prices.

When: October 29, 1929 (Black Tuesday).

Where: United States (but had global economic repercussions).

Why: Marked the beginning of the Great Depression, leading to economic hardship worldwide.

Citation:Tikkanen, Amy. “Stock Market Crash of 1929 | Summary, Causes, & Facts.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 27 Apr. 2018, www.britannica.com/event/stock-market-crash-of-1929.

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Who: John T. Scopes, William Jennings Bryan, Clarence Darrow.

What: Trial over the teaching of evolution in schools.

When: July 10-21, 1925.

Where: Dayton, Tennessee, USA.

Why: A clash between religious fundamentalism and modern science education.

citation: Wikipedia Contributors. “Scopes Trial.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 20 Mar. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopes_Trial.