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my reference mushrooms were warped & drying, but I maybe should have made these look more perfect. I also struggled w/believable light on the invented spider.

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4C digital pastel painting. Vignette edge

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4C digital pastel painting. Vignette edge

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The furrow spider hunts at night near the forest floor. It eats its web each day at dawn.

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Reworked this one a bit, post-course. (Softer background, better-looking gnat.)

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got some feedback to maybe be more meticulous on the water reflections and edges here. I'm a little afraid of digging back in though. Could get lost in minutiae

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I felt like this piece needed warm/cool color to help tell the story of hiding in the shade.

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Need to work out mid and rear legs with another reference photo. Will add moisture drops and wet texture to ground (oyster mushroom cap) and round it’s edge more. Want to make a hard diagonal shadow line across the sowbug’s face, but nervous about it.

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Reference for mushroom top with surface moisture. My photo.

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Almost done. Needs refining and tweaking. Charcoal has been tough. Every bit of paper has been worked and reworked many times. 😬 It’s holding up so far.

I’m struggling with making up the light source and shadow while also showing the sowbug’s form, translucency, surface pigmentation and textures... It’s a lot to juggle. It’s not reading as believable yet to me, but I think I can get it there. Need to take a break from it.

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Fungus gnat larvae eat and grow inside mushrooms. Some mammals eat mushrooms also.

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Robber fly (Diptera Asilidae). Hunts from perches. Preys on smaller insects flying or crawling within view. This one was seen remaining still near a bumblebee hive entrance (hole in the ground).

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Rough drawing. I think this composition worked best—although I will have to work out some believable light/shadow in details. I might build a clay model for this purpose. I do like how this version looks with the other B&W image (piece#1, sowbug). Has similar atmosphere.

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charcoal. not feeling happy with tonal range. switch to graphite? or digital?

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Will complete piece #0 after series of works is done (likely post-course)

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WORKED SOME OF THESE INTO MY OTHER PIECES

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WORKED SOME OF THESE INTO MY OTHER PIECES

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Idea for something more graphical and colorful.

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Robber fly waiting for prey (or eating prey?). Use values/light to create depth.

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Daddy Longlegs, earthworms, honey bees, bird, mammal...?

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Digital comp for final. Uses a patch of light to show the sowbug hiding in shadow… antennae are in light and feeling ahead. 

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Value Comp for a tight drawing. I want to edit this: put gnat in lower left corner, foreground. Break stem of background mushroom. In distance, add a mammal (deer?) who may have trampled these mushrooms. 

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Ghost pipe plant is a parasite of the Russula mushroom. It can not make energy of its own. Monotropa uniflora. Meanwhile, Russula and pine conifer have symbiotic relationship.

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Need to work out final composition with layering:

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Need to work out final composition with layering:

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Rough sketch. Human-eye view. Need to work on composition and layering.

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Hidden within this overall scene are characters featured in my smaller pieces.

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Hidden within this overall scene are characters featured in my smaller pieces.

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1. What is Fungi?

2. The Relationship Between Fungi and Honey Bees

3. Why Do Honey Bees Need Help?

4. Treatment Methods for Varroa Mites

5. How Fungus Metarhizium Can Help Honey Bees

6. How Mycelium Extracts Can Help Honey Bees

7. How are The Best Bees Company Beekeepers Helping Honey Bees?

What is Fungi?

What do you call someone that likes to party? A pretty Fungi!
What's that musical group that also likes to make bread? The Yeastie Boys!
What do the Fungi and The Yeastie Boys have in common? They can help our planet heal.

Fungi are somewhat of a mystery in the inner workings of Mother Nature. Most of us know fungi as tasty mushrooms that we put in our stir fry (or not tasty depending on who you talk to), mold that grows on two-week old strawberries, or yeast that's used to make some of our favorite brewskies. However, the world of fungi is incredibly vast. It is so vast, that scientists have identified 144,000 species of fungi, yet estimate there are between 2.2 million and 3.8 million total species. Before launching into a discussion about the wonders of fungi, here is a quick vocab breakdown:

Fungus/Fungi: Any organism that belongs to the Kingdom Fungi (such as yeast, mold, mildew, mushrooms, etc.)
Mycelium: The vegetative branching body of certain fungi found underground.
Mushroom: The fruiting body of mycelium.

The Relationship Between Fungi and Honey Bees

Paul Stamets, a world-renowned mycologist, is one of the few that have dedicated their lives to exploring the mysteries of fungi. Some of his many areas of include mycofiltration (how mycelium can filter out pathogens), mycoremediation (how mycelium can filter out toxins from the soil), mycopesticides (using mycelium to control insect populations), the medicinal properties of mycelium, evidence for mycelial intelligence, and, yes-how mycelium can help improve honey bee health. When Paul Stamets observed bees vivaciously foraging the oozing droplets of fungi growing in a wood chip bed, he had an "Aha" . He had previously worked on a project demonstrating the antiviral properties of mycelial extracts on human cells. Maybe those extracts could have a similar impact on honey bees. Thus, the relationship between mushrooms and honey bees was finally going to be explored.

For more information about Paul Stamets, visit his website: https://paulstamets.com/ . He is also the founder and co-owner of Fungi Perfecti, a business selling fungi-based products that benefit the health of humans and other beings alike. Check it out at https://fungi.com/ .

Why Do Honey Bees Need Help?

The most destructive parasite that European honey bees face today is the varroa destructor, otherwise known as the varroa mite. Varroa mites originally evolved alongside Asian honey bees, who have learned to successfully live with them. But, in , they jumped to the European honey bee and have since spread to every continent, minus Australia. They reproduce in capped honey bee pupa cells, making them hard for worker bees to detect and remove. Once newly developed bees emerge from their cells, the mites latch onto the backs of adult bees and feed off their hemolymph (blood). As a result, bees' fat stores decrease, their production of royal jelly for developing larva decreases, and their immune system functions are suppressed.

Eight viruses are known to be vectored by varroa mites, two common ones being deformed wing virus and chronic bee paralysis. There are at least twenty more that scientists suspect are vectored by varroa mites, and there are likely several more viruses that scientists don't even know about yet. If varroa mite infestations go unchecked, it is likely that a colony will collapse due to Parasitic Mite Syndrome (PMS). PMS is a condition that causes a honey bee colony to deteriorate and eventually dwindle away and die. More information about PMS can be found .

Below is a graph showing varroa mite and honey bee population growth. This illustrates why varroa mites are so destructive, especially in the fall (represented by the right half of the x-axis).

Treatment Methods for Varroa Mites

There is a tier of treatment methods for varroa mites. First, control mite reproduction from the get-go. Second, use mechanical methods to kill mites (hand-killing mites, trapping them, etc.) Third, use soft (organic) chemicals for treatment. Fourth, use hard (synthetic) chemicals. This structure is illustrated in the graph below:

If a beekeeper uses multiple techniques within one tier and/or from different tiers shown in the graph above, this is called Integrated Pest Management. IPM, or using several methods of treatment, is by far the best way to treat varroa mites, as opposed to using only one exclusive method of treatment. The Best Bees Company beekeepers primarily use organic chemical treatments for varroa mites. When possible, they will remove drone brood (ripe varroa mite breeding ground) and freeze it to physically remove mites. However, what if there is a treatment that doesn't fall within this hierarchy at all? Something that kills varroa mites, isn't potentially chemically harmful to the bees, and is highly effective? Researchers at Washington State University may have found a solution.

A team of entomologists and mycologist Paul Stamets worked together to breed a strain of a common fungus found in soils, Metarhizium, to survive beehive temperatures up to 35 degrees Celsius (95 degrees Fahrenheit). During experiments in 48 live colonies in 2017 and 2018, a small petri dish of Metarhizium was placed on top of the frames in each hive. When spores contacted varroa mites, the spores germinated, drilled into the mite, and grew from inside the mite's body outward. During these experiments, honey bees had high immunity against the fungus, indicating that Metarhizium could be relatively safe to use in beehives. The next step is getting approval from the Environmental Protection Agency for use in agriculture. Steve Sheppard, one of the entomologists on the research team, said that he hopes in ten years, Metarhizium as a biocontrol will be widely used to control varroa mites instead of chemical miticides.

For more information, visit their publicly available published research paper: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-89811-2

Also, visit this press release of their research: https://news.wsu.edu/press-release/2021/05/27/fungus-fights-mites-harm-honey-bees/

Researchers include entomologists Steve Sheppard, Jennifer Han, Nicholas Naegar, Brandon Hopkins, and mycologist Paul Stamets.

How Mycelium Extracts Can Help Honey Bees

Researchers are also exploring new ways to improve the overall immune health of honey bee colonies. In 2018, the same research team at Washington State University studied how extracts of amadou and Reishi mycelium helped reduce virus loads in varroa mite-infested colonies, specifically Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) and Lake Sinai Virus. Fungi have been long known to produce chemicals that fight against bacteria, other fungi, and viruses. Coupled with this, bees have been observed foraging on mushroom mycelium. This suggests that honey bees have already been foraging from mushrooms to collect antimicrobial medicine to boost their collective immunity. In their field trials, the team found that feeding bees sugar water with the amadou and reishi mycelium extracts reduced DWV 79-fold on average, and Lake Sinai Virus 45,000-fold on average.

Paul Stamets and Dr. Sheppard are currently in the process of developing and patenting the extracts into a product called the BeeMushroomed™ Feeder. It is designed for anybody to place outside for free and easy honey bee access. Dr. Sheppard and his research team are doing more work to refine their research results while the feeder is still in development. Those who are interested in being kept up to date, can sign up for more information at https://fungi.com/pages/bees .

With this exciting research, there are still a lot of questions unanswered. Dr. Renata Borba, a specialist in the benefits that plant resins provide to honey bee health, questions how long the antiviral effect lasts, if the mycelium extracts interfere with bee gut microbial activity, and if there are any long term side effects. A long-term study would be necessary before approving and producing the extracts on a mass scale. To read more about the lingering questions, visit: https://americanbeejournal.com/mycelium-medicine/

While research is still in early development, this is a promising find that could significantly help reduce virus loads vectored by varroa mites. These viruses are typically the final nail in the coffin that make it so difficult for colonies to bounce back from heavy mite infestations. Both the metarhizium fungi and the mycelium extracts could potentially provide two lines of defense against varroa mites if used together (once research is conducted and published detailing how they interact together in beehives, first).

For more details regarding the team's published research, please visit their published article: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-32194-8 .

To view the press release, visit: https://news.cahnrs.wsu.edu/article/fungus-provides-powerful-medicine-in-fighting-honey-bee-viruses/

How are The Best Bees Company Beekeepers Helping Honey Bees?

The first line of defense is to help honey bees maintain healthy immune systems. They ensure that the bees are getting adequate nutrition and a balanced diet of carbohydrates and protein. This consists of honey and pollen, respectively. When honey and pollen aren't readily available, they will supplement hives with 1:1 or 2:1 sugar water with a probiotic called Hive Alive, fondant, and pollen patties. They also check to make sure the hive is sanitary. Honey bees are very hygienic creatures. They clean out diseased brood cells, clean out dead bees from their hive, go to the bathroom outside of the hive, and routinely clean each other. Beekeepers will check to make sure the bees are able to carry out their hygienic tasks. If they are having trouble cleaning, beekeeper will replace or add equipment to make it easier for bees to focus on staying healthy.

Even if a hive is incredibly healthy, varroa mites can still take over a colony. When this happens, Best Bees instructs its beekeepers to apply two different organic chemical treatments: Formic Pro in the summer, and Oxalic Acid in the fall. The word organic means derived from nature. No synthetic (human-made) chemicals are included. It also means that hives treated with organic chemicals can still have their honey harvested and safely consumed by humans. Formic Pro consists of strips made up of formic acid (commonly found in the venom of bees and ants) that slowly drips down into the brood cells, killing reproducing mites. Oxalic Acid is commonly found in leafy greens, like spinach and rhubarb. A solution of oxalic acid and sugar water is mixed together, dribbled over the seams in between frames, causing mites on adult bees to immediately fall off the bees and die. While beekeepers take all precautions necessary to administer these treatments safely, they still cause some amount of harm to the bees. However, until more treatments, like Metarhizium and mycelium extracts become available, the risk of varroa mite destruction to honey bee colonies is far greater than the effects of using organic chemical treatments.

For more information about Formic Pro, visit: https://nodglobal.com/usa/

For more information about Oxalic Acid, visit: https://www.betterbee.com/instructions-and-resources/how-to-do-an-oxalic-acid-dribble-treatment.asp

Let's hope that the Metarhizium fungus and mycelium extracts continue to be thoroughly researched, developed, and produced for widespread use in the near future! While there is still mush-room for growth, things are looking in-yeast-ingly up.

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What is Fungi? The Relationship Between Fungi and Honey Bees Why Do Honey Bees Need Help? Treatment Methods for Varroa Mites How Fungus Metarhizium Can Help Honey Bees How Mycelium Extracts Can Help Honey Bees How are The Best Bees Company Beekeepers Helping Honey Bees? What do you call someone that likes to party?

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Nematodes are drawn toward hairlike hyphae underground. Nodes on oyster mushroom hyphae will paralyze and absorb the attracted nematodes.

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Slugs love to eat and drink from mushrooms. Will consume decomposing material.

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Comp for the B&W charcoal piece featuring sowbug

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Porcellio scaber (rough woodlouse, sowbug) is a land crustacean who eats fungi and seeks moist dark places during the day. Depicted here sheltering amongst oyster mushrooms.

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My pic

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Mollusks : Carnegie Museum of Natural History

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Link to species info and reference photos

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Mollusks : Carnegie Museum of Natural History

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Photo(s): Arion subfuscus un-striped form © Ken Hotopp. Striped form, extended, by Eric Veldhus, modified by Tom Meijer, on Wikipedia; Arion subfuscus darker form on leaf, and of different ages on mushroom © John Maunder. Illustrations © Kathy Schmidt from her seri…

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more species info

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Dusky slug – Slugwatch | John Innes Centre

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Scientific name: Arion subfuscus Size 5-7cm at maturity. Appearance Body colour ranges from light yellow grey to dark brown grey; however is most commonly orange brown. A pair of brown lateral bands…

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Do Deer Eat Mushrooms? Complete Mushroom Guide

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Deer eating mushrooms

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It is no secret that deer have a hugely varied diet, and they enjoy snacking on many different plants, flowers, shrubs, and trees. But do deer eat mushrooms, and can you feed mushrooms to deer?

Mushrooms are not a foodstuff to be taken lightly, and most of us rely on experts to tell us which ones are safe to eat. Let's find out what deer think of mushrooms, and whether they enjoy snacking on fungi!

Do Deer Eat Mushrooms?

Deer have a remarkably varied diet and will eat a huge range of different plants, shrubs, herbs, and trees, as well as mushrooms and lichens.

So, do deer eat mushrooms? Yes! They appear to like the taste of mushrooms and will seek out their favorite mushroom varieties as they forage through woodland.

Do Deer Eat White Mushrooms?

White mushrooms are the type most commonly sold for human consumption and are also known as button mushrooms, common mushrooms, or table mushrooms.

We normally eat them at their immature stage, when they are round and pure white in color. When fully mature, they open out to reveal a brown underside - at this stage, they are sold as portobello mushrooms.

The scientific name for white mushrooms is Agaricus bisporus, and as well as being one of the most popular varieties of cultivated mushrooms, they can also be found growing in the wild. White mushrooms are not a particularly common variety of wild mushroom and tend to occur mostly on grassland after periods of heavy rain.

Deer will eat white mushrooms, and they appear to enjoy the flavor of this nutritious fungi. However, white mushrooms usually grow in grassland, whereas deer prefer to browse for food in woodland areas.

Do Deer Eat Poisonous Mushrooms?

The unusual thing about deer is that they appear to instinctively know which mushrooms are safe to eat. They can also eat some mushroom varieties that are toxic to humans! So, just because you've seen a deer eat a mushroom, this doesn't mean it is safe for you to eat as well!

A study by a team of scientists in Quebec found 580 mushroom species that were consumed by adult deer, which is a remarkable amount!

Deer have a strong sense of smell that can pick out intricate aromas. This enables them to tell the difference between edible and toxic mushrooms, helping them to pick out the best ones to eat.

This sense of smell is also vital to help deer forage for mushrooms at times of the year when other food sources are scarce. During the winter months, fresh foliage is hard to find, and mushrooms can be a useful source of nutrition to fill this gap.

Can Deer Eat Morel Mushrooms?

Common morel mushroom (Morchella esculenta)

Some species of deer will seek out and eat morel mushrooms, whilst others will only eat them when other food is in short supply.

Deer that enjoy eating morel mushrooms include moose, mule deer, and elks. These species of deer live in cooler climates with long winter months, which may explain why they are more accustomed to eating morels.

White-tailed deer and other warm-climate species are not as reliant on morel mushrooms for nutrition and do not tend to eat them.

The interesting thing about morel mushrooms is that they are mildly toxic to humans, and we cannot eat them raw. Deer do not seem to have this problem, and will snack away happily on a patch of morels without any issues!

Can You Feed Deer Mushrooms?

Depending on the time of year and availability of other foodstuffs, mushrooms can be a beneficial addition to the diet of a deer. However, not all mushrooms are safe for deer to eat, so caution is definitely required!

Most mushrooms are a good source of highly digestible protein, making them more energy-dense than grasses and shrubs. They contain high levels of water, as well as essential nutrients and vitamins.

Because of this, many deer will actively seek out and consume non-toxic mushrooms, particularly when fresh plant growth is scarce. They tend to come across mushrooms as they browse woodland in search of seeds and fruits.

Things to Consider About Feeding Deer

So, does this mean that feeding mushrooms to deer is a good idea?

Well, the first thing to remember is that in some regions and states, feeding deer is an illegal activity! While we love these majestic creatures, remember to stay within the boundaries of the law when creating a deer-friendly garden.

Most deer will find all the mushrooms they need in the wild, but you could consider leaving a patch of edible mushrooms in your yard for any passing visitors. Most mushrooms are surprisingly difficult to grow and very fussy about their living conditions, but you can help them along by providing plenty of partially-rotted woodchip mulch.

Alternatively, invest in inoculated logs. You can get logs with specific types of mushroom spores, such as shitake, golden oyster, or lion's mane. You'll need to keep them in a cool damp nook in your yard, and will reward you with a crop of mushrooms that you and your local friendly deer population will both enjoy!

Deer Resistant Mushrooms

Mushroom chart of edible and poisonous varieties

Mushrooms don't often feature as part of a garden or backyard plan, and with good reason. Although we're great admirers of fungi, trying to control when or where they will grow is an almost impossible task! Mushrooms are a good indicator that your soil health is thriving, but you're more likely to find that they pop up spontaneously despite any efforts to cultivate them.

If you're lucky enough to have an area of woodland, you will find many different types of mushrooms growing throughout the cooler seasons. But are any of these mushrooms resistant to deer, or will they eat them all?

Deer can and will eat most mushrooms that are edible to humans, and can also safely consume some varieties that are toxic. So, any attempt at growing edible mushrooms will need to be in an area fenced off from deer, unless you are growing them specifically for deer to enjoy.

Mushrooms that are resistant to deer tend to have a stronger smell and flavor, and unfortunately, you will most likely find that these species are toxic to both humans and deer, as well as your household pets.

Deliberately cultivating any type of toxic mushroom in your yard or garden is a big risk, and not something we would recommend.

Our best advice would be to admire the mushrooms that do spontaneously appear in your garden, and if you want to eat wild mushrooms then seek the advice of an experienced foraging expert first.

Keep reading!

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Do Deer Eat Mushrooms? Complete Mushroom Guide

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It is no secret that deer have a hugely varied diet, and they enjoy snacking on many different plants, flowers, shrubs, and trees. But do deer eat mushrooms, and can you feed mushrooms to deer? Mushrooms are not a foodstuff to be taken lightly, and most of us rely on experts to tell us which ...

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Mushrooms serve as 'main character' in most ecosystems

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Fungal biotechnology is an ever-growing industry as new uses for mushrooms, like blewits and chantarelles, are being discovered and developed every day. Credit: Katarina Kukolj

A team of Western mycologists (fungi experts) spent the past two summers digging deep in Newfoundland dirt to investigate the might of mushrooms and found what lies beneath truly is 'the main character' in most terrestrial ecosystems.

Fungi, which produce mushrooms, are critically important in most earthbound ecosystems as they provide life-sustaining mineral nutrients to plants while decomposing their remains, and recycling both organic and inorganic byproducts throughout the biome as they grow and reproduce.

"A lot of ecologists are beginning to realize that mushrooms really run the world. We've quite naturally spent a lot of our time focusing on things above ground, things that we see like plants, animals, and birds," said Western biology professor Greg Thorn. "But in fact, the plants are very closely associated with fungi, and basically wouldn't be there (above ground) without them."

Fungi make nutrients available to plants either through decomposition and nutrient cycling, or by directly transporting nutrients to the plants, or in some cases, both processes occur.

"Diversity and composition of the fungal community in a place really dictates what happens there ecologically both in terms of plant composition and productivity," said Thorn. "If the plants are growing more, then there's more for animals to eat. So really, a whole lot of things that we actually care about start off in the ground with the fungi driving those things."
Nature's vacuum cleaner
Katarina Kukolj, a master's student in the Thorn lab, leads a study investigating the effects of the edible blewit mushroom (Lepista nuda) on the soil environments in coastal regions of Newfoundland, specifically in the community of Lumsden.

Building on Thorn's research, Kukolj wants to know how and why blewits basically 'attack' microfauna (microscopic animals and organisms) living in the soil and serving as nature's vacuum cleaner by eating bacteria, decomposing surplus nutrients, and producing new ones.

Previous studies on blewits have shown their antimicrobial properties and powers in the lab, but there have been no previous field studies to observe how soil and the organisms in it could be changed by growth of blewit mushrooms in the natural environment.

Kukolj's field study included sampling soil at various time points from known naturally occurring blewit patches (known as fairy rings), nearby plots of land inoculated with Blewit mycelium (root-like structure of a fungus) produced by industry partner Nuspora Life Sciences Inc., and geographic areas without blewits altogether.

With the discovery phase of her research still underway, Kukolj doesn't have all the answers to her questions just yet, but one thing's for sure: these mushrooms are huge.

"The blewit mushrooms we're studying are just so big, and so heavy," said Kukolj. "Where they grow, there isn't much soil, so they don't have as much material to decay. As a result, we're thinking that there's bacteria involved. So, the question is: What's in the soil? And that's exactly what I'm studying."

Now back in the lab, Kukolj is classifying arthropod (insects, arachnids, and crustaceans), nematode (non-segmented worms, typically 0.05 millimeters in length), bacterial, and fungal members in the specific soil communities and distinguishing their relative abundance using DNA extraction, identification, and sequencing.

A blewit mushroom in its natural environment at Shalloway Beach, Newfoundland in 2021. Credit: Katarina Kukolj

Kukolj believes her research could also provide important supporting data for the use of blewits as a biopesticide in organic farming. Blewitt mushrooms would be an environmentally friendly alternative to some synthetic chemical pesticides. They're also non-toxic and there would be no leaching into the waterways.

"I've always had an interest in nature and fungi, and in helping the environment. And agriculture is really one of those things where we can do better, in terms of reducing the toxic pesticides being used. It's just so damaging," said Kukolj. "With organic farming becoming more popular, and people learning pesticides aren't good for the environment, if the blewit can replace one of these toxic pesticides, that would be that would be amazing."

As an edible mushroom that is commonly foraged, Kukolj suggests blewits could also be a potential co-crop for farmers in addition to being a biopesticide, but future studies would need to investigate this further.
Root of the matter
Alicia Banwell, also a master's student in the Thorn lab, is focused on forestry regeneration and the role fungi plays in replenishing Canada's forests.

When a forest, like the one Banwell studies in Gander Bay, Newfoundland, is deforested, often nursery-grown tree seedlings are planted at the deforested site to replace the forest for the next generation.

While these seedlings are growing in the nursery during the first few years of their life, they develop a fuzzy mat of fungi connected to their roots, called ectomycorrhizal fungi.

The forest also develops its own fuzzy mat of ectomycorrhizal fungi, which can be seen by pulling up the top layer of moss and soil. These fungi form an underground network in the forest, which allows trees connected within network to transfer resources such as carbon, nitrogen, and other important nutrients among each other, in addition to producing many edible mushrooms, such as chanterelles.

For her study, Banwell sampled roots of naturally occurring trees found in the forest and the seedlings she planted there, typical of the local forest industry. Only a few mushrooms colonize the nurseries, but in the forest, there is a diverse network of mushrooms, such as the chantarelle mushroom (Cantharellus enelensis), and trees working together to regenerate Newfoundland's forests. Again, this is despite the poor soil.

"There are fungal spores everywhere. Every tree seedling in the nursery has the same few fungi colonizing their root systems," said Banwell. "I want to know how it works when these are introduced into natural spaces. Do the ectomycorrhizal fungi of the nursery-grown tree seedlings affect the ectomycorrhizal fungi that are in the forest, including the edible chanterelles? Do they replace the ectomycorrhizal fungi of the forest? Or do the ectomycorrhizal fungi of the forest replace them?"

There is not enough data yet to report any findings, but the answers to these questions will tell Banwell what is happening to the ectomycorrhizal fungi of the forest after reforestation, and potentially lead to further research on how reforestation practices can be improved to preserve fungal biodiversity.
The future is fungi
As Kukolj and Banwell complete their studies under Thorn's supervision, the future is bright for the budding mycologists. Like fungi itself, Thorn said fungal biotechnology is an ever-growing industry as new uses for mushrooms, like blewits and chantarelles, are being discovered and developed every day.

"People are using mushrooms for all kinds of things that hadn't been thought of before. Mushrooms are being used to create Styrofoam alternatives, meat substitutes for vegan foods, and even new medicines. There are all kinds of novel antibiotics being developed from mushrooms. It's amazing and it's an exciting time to be studying mushrooms."

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Mushrooms serve as 'main character' in most ecosystems

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A team of Western mycologists (fungi experts) spent the past two summers digging deep in Newfoundland dirt to investigate the might of mushrooms and found what lies beneath truly is 'the main character' in most terrestrial ecosystems. Fungi, which produce mushrooms, are critically important in most earthbound ecosystems as they provide life-sustaining mineral nutrients to plants while decomposing their remains, and recycling both organic and inorganic byproducts throughout the biome as they grow and reproduce.

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Larinioides Cornutus, commonly known as the furrow spider, is an orb weaver species that can be found throughout the Northern Hemisphere and in every US state. They are often found near human constructions, like porches, but are not dangerous for humans.

Larinioides Cornutus Description

The abdomen of the Furrow Spider is nearly twice the size of the cephalothorax when it is at its largest. Usually of an off-white or light brown coloring with a distinct pattern which runs down the middle. The furrow spider has a very distinctive pattern on its large abdomen.

The beautiful patterns on the abdomen of the furrow orb weaver can be seen here.

Similar spiders: The furrow spider can be confused with the missing sector orb weaver that occurs in the eastern and western coastal areas in the United States. Generally, the furrow spider does not have a hairy abdomen which the missing sector orb weaver might have. If the web is missing a sector (like a slice of a pizza), you might be looking at a missing sector orb weaver, Zygiella x-notata.

Size

The body of the adult female will grow to about ¾ of an inch (20 mm) and with the legs included, can reach nearly 1 ¼" (32 mm) across.

Eye pattern

The furrow spider has eight eyes of which only six are usually visible to the human eye. They have a row of six eyes at the bottom and another pair of eyes in the middle of their head.

Web

Like any orb weaver, the furrow spider creates circular webs that catch any flying small insects. As they are a nocturnal spider species, some furrow spiders have been seen eating their web in the morning before they hid away during the daytime.

Furrow Spider Bite

The bite of a furrow spider may, at worst, only cause a mild discomfort. The symptoms are usually negligible. Only on very rare occasions, they might cause some local swelling or minor pain.

Photography by: Steve-Fox - Goodrich, Michigan

Larinioides Cornutus Scientific Classification

Common names

Furrow spider, furrow orb weaver, furrow orb spider, foliate spider

Distribution of the furrow orb weaver in the USA

Larinioides Cornutus - Furrow Spider

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Larinioides Cornutus - Furrow Spider - USA Spiders

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Larinioides Cornutus, commonly known as the furrow spider, is an orb weaver species that can be found throughout the Northern Hemisphere and in every US state. They are often found near human constructions, like porches, but are not dangerous for humans.

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“The basidiomycete oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus is a carnivorous fungus that preys on nematodes to supplement its nitrogen intake under nutrient- limiting conditions.”

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Species info

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The Asilidae are the robber fly family, also called assassin flies. They are powerfully built, bristly flies with a short, stout proboscis enclosing the sharp, sucking hypopharynx. The name "robber flies" reflects their notoriously aggressive predatory habits; they feed mainly or exclusively on other insects and, as a rule, they wait in ambush and catch their prey in flight.

The Asilidae are a family in the order Diptera, the true flies. The common name for members of the family is the robber flies. The Asilidae are cosmopolitan, with over 7000 described species. Latreille was the authority for establishing the family in 1802. The Asilidae, together with Bombyliidae and Therevidae, are the most representative families of the superfamily of Asiloidea and they form one of the most characteristic groups of the lower Brachycera.

Robber flies have stout, spiny legs and three simple eyes ( ocelli) in a characteristic depression on the tops of their head between their two large compound eyes. They also have a usually dense moustache of stiff bristles on the face; this is called the mystax, a term derived from the Greek mystakos meaning "moustache" or "upper lip". The mystax has been suggested to afford some protection for the head and face when the flies deal with struggling prey; various Asilidae prey on formidable species including stinging Hymenoptera, powerful grasshoppers, dragonflies and even other Asilidae, in fact practically anything of a suitable size. Some Asilidae do, however, specialize in smaller prey, and this is reflected in their more gracile build.

In general, the family attacks a very wide range of prey, including other flies, beetles, butterflies and moths, various bees, ants, dragonflies and damselflies, ichneumon wasps, grasshoppers, and some spiders. They do so apparently irrespective of any repugnatorial chemicals the prey may have at their disposal. Many Asilidae when attacked in turn do not hesitate to defend themselves with their probosces and may deliver intensely painful bites if handled incautiously.

The antennae are short, have three segments, and sometimes bear a bristle-like structure called an arista.

Though they are a very characteristic group for such a large family, the Asilidae may easily be confused with the related and less widely known family Therevidae. Some points of contrast between the families include that the labium in the Therevidae is not a piercing, predatory organ, but ends in two fleshy labella adapted to the sucking of liquid foods. Again, the Therevidae commonly have fluffy setae above the mouthparts, unlike the stiff chaetae comprising the mystax of the Asilidae. Furthermore, in the Asilidae the depression on the vertex between the eyes tends to be more obvious than in the Therevidae.

The fly attacks its prey by stabbing it with its short, strong proboscis, injecting the victim with saliva containing neurotoxic and proteolytic enzymes which very rapidly paralyze the victim and soon digest the insides; the fly then sucks the liquefied material through the proboscis.

Many Asilidae have long, tapering abdomens, sometimes with a sword-like ovipositor. Others, for instance are fat-bodied bumblebee mimics.

Female robber flies deposit whitish-colored eggs on low-lying plants and grasses, or in crevices within soil, bark, or wood. Egg-laying habits depend on the species and their specific habitat; most species lay their eggs in masses, which are then covered with a chalky protective coating.

After hatching, robber fly larvae generally seem to live in soil, rotting wood, leaf mold, and similar materials, some being predatory and others detrivorous. Larvae are also predacious, feeding on eggs, larvae, or other soft-bodied insects. Robber flies overwinter as larvae and pupate in the soil. Pupae migrate to the soil surface and emerge as adults, often leaving behind their pupal casing. Complete development ranges from one to three years, depending on species and environmental conditions.

Adults are generally medium to large in size, with an average body width of 1 to 1.5 cm (0.39 to 0.59 in), but with a range of 3 cm (1.2 in) to more than 5 cm (2.0 in) in length. The shape is generally elongated, due to the conformation of the long tapering abdomen, however there are also compact species with broad abdomens. The integument is covered with thick hair, especially on the head and thorax and liveries are often showy, with colors ranging from brown to black to grey, sometimes in contrast with other colors such as red and yellow. Frequently they are aposematic, imitating the livery of Hymenoptera.

The head is free and mobile and dichoptic in both sexes and has three ocelli arranged in a characteristic depression formed by the elevation of the compound eyes. This feature is clearly visible in the front view and is a morphological peculiarity of Asilidae. The occipital region has one or more rows of bristles aligned behind the posterior margin of the eye. The facial region has a convex profile with a characteristic dense bundle of bristles, called a "mystax". The mystax helps protect the head and face when the fly encounters prey bent on defense. Other bristles are arranged on the ocellar tubercle.

The antennae are of the aristate type, composed typically of five segments but sometimes from three to four, depending on the structure of the stylus. The scape and pedicel are generally relatively short and hairy; the third segment (or first flagellomere) has an oval or oblong shape, is generally longer than the two basal segments, and bears a stylus generally composed of two segments, of which the basal is very short. In some asilids, the stylus can be monoarticolate or absent.

The mouthparts are short and modified for piercing-sucking. They consist of a strongly sclerotized proboscis which includes the labium and maxillae which form a food canal, the labrum and a piercing organ, the hypopharynx. The proboscis is rounded in cross section or laterally or dorsoventrally compressed and is usually stout, and straight and sometimes able to penetrate through the hard integument of Coleoptera. The maxillary palpi are at the base beside the labium, two-segmented in all Dasypogoninae or single segmented in Asilinae and Leptogastrinae.

The thorax is robust and compact. Unlike in other lower Brachycera, it bears long bristles (macrochaeta) useful as taxonomic characters. Bristles of this type are always present on the notopleuron (notopleural bristles) and, in two series, on mesonotum (dorsocentral, supralar and postalar). Other bristles are present on the metanotum (dorsocentral bristles on the ventral episternum and at the apex of the mesoscutellum.

The legs are relatively long and strong, with many macrochaetes performing a raptatorial function. The wings are well developed, often relatively narrow for speedy flight; the alula is generally well developed, with the exception of the Leptogastrinae and part of Dasypogoninae. The venation is much as in the Rhagionidae, Tabanidae, and Therevidae; the radial R is always four-branched, with R2+3 unbranched. Details of wing venation determine subfamilies and lower taxa. The wings are most often hyaline, but sometimes smoky or dark colored, or partly infuscated in many genera or completely darkened.

The abdomen consists of six to eight visible segments preceding the genitalia in males, but the eighth segment is sometimes entirely or partially concealed, and terminal forming the ovipositor. It is long and narrow conical in most species, but wide, dorsoventrally flattened and short in bee mimics. In the Leptogastrinae, the abdomen is extremely long and slender. In some tribes, the male undergoes axial torsion of 180°.

The egg is hyaline or pigmented and of variable shape from spherical to oval and up to 2 mm in length. The surface is smooth or bears microsculptures, which are generally polygonal and visible only in the electron microscope.

The larva is apodous, cylindrical, and elongated, more or less flattened dorsoventrally and tapered at the cephalic and caudal ends. The colour is white or yellowish. The head is small, rugged, dark-pigmented and hypognathous, the abdomen is composed of eight apparent urites, with the last two often fused and more or less reduced. The respiratory system is amphineustic, with two pairs of spiracles, one thoracic and one abdominal. Also, rudimentary and nonfunctional stigmata occur in other abdominal segments.

The pupa is naked, as in the majority of the Orthorrhapha, exarate and therefore able to move.

The Asilidae are predators, in both the juvenile and the adult stages, and feed on small arthropods, mainly insects. Although predatory forms in the adult stage are present in other taxonomic groups of Diptera, the Asilidae are the most representative for the number of species and for uniformity of feeding behavior. They are aggressive to the point of earning the common name, in English, of "robber flies". The combination of high biodiversity and high predatory activity leads to this family playing an important role in the ecological stability of entomofauna.

The lifecycle takes place in 1-3 years. The postembryonic development consists of four larval stages ( instars) and one pupa. The larvae of the first instar differ from other stages in both ethology and trophic regime. The larvae of most known asilids live in the soil or in the case of some taxonomic groups, in rotting organic material, usually wood and the bark of dead trees. With regards to feeding behavior, most of the literature describes Asilidae larvae as entomophagous, but doubts remain about the real nature of the trophic regime and its mechanisms. The entomophagy of some species had indeed been already hypothesized by some authors of the 19th century, based on the findings of larvae of asilids associated with larvae of other insects, but Melin (1923) asserted that, in reality, predation was occasional and secondary to the plant-based diet. More recent studies have confirmed the entomophagy of some asilids without extending this species' feeding behavior for the whole family. Less certain, however, is the mechanism of entomophagy: in general, the behavior is cited as predation, but for some species may be ectoparasitoids. Musso (1983) described the feeding behavior of the larvae of Machimus rusticus: the larvae of the first instar does not feed on insects, those of the second instar feed on secretions by larvae of beetles (and may cause death), while the larvae of the third and fourth instars actually behave like predators. In short, the feeding behavior of larval asilids can be intermediate between predation and ectoparasitism.

Much better known and described in detail is the behavior of adults. In general, predation in adults is concentrated in the hottest hours in open, sunny spaces, while at night, they take refuge in dense vegetation. The Asilidae are excellent flyers, and in most of the family, capture prey in flight. They are often seen stationed to ambush prey at strategic points. This behavior signifies that sight plays an essential role in the detection of prey and their capture. The prey is caught with the tarsi and injected with a paralyzing saliva. The asilid pierces the integument of the prey with the prepharyx (hyopharynx) in preferential points of least resistance such as the eyes, the membranous area of transition between the head and thorax (neck) or between thorax and abdomen, or between the last urotergiti. Puncture is followed by the injection of saliva, whose active components perform two functions: The neurotoxins cause paralysis of the victim, while proteolytic enzymes lead to the breakup and liquefaction of internal tissues; in a short time, the predator is able to feed by sucking the internal fluids through the alimentary canal.

With regards to interspecific trophic relationships, a large number of reports exists on the prey captured by the Asilidae. Lavigne (2003) has developed a database comprising over 13,000 reports. The prey of Asilidi are predominantly represented by other insects, mostly winged, but several cases in which they have attacked spiders have also been reported. Within the insects, orders that include the most frequent prey of asilids include a wide range of families within the Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, other Diptera, Hemiptera, and Lepidoptera; prey belonging to various other orders ( Odonata, Neuroptera, Isoptera, Thysanoptera, Blattodea, etc.) are also mentioned.

With regards to the specificity of the trophic relationship, Wood (1981) mentions some studies in the literature on the subject. Some genera have been found to be monophagic, but more generally the Asilidae are polyphagic with behaviors that vary from stenophagia to euriphagia. However, cases are reported of stenohage asilids, which if necessary, focus their predatory activity against a species when this forms large populations.

Other studies have shown that the ratio between the size of the prey and the asilid varies from 1.8:1 to 3.7:1, with an average of 2.6:1. The ratio tends to increase with decreasing size of the predator.

Egg-laying takes place, according to the species, with three different behaviors that relate to the structure and the morphology of the abdomen. Females with an undifferentiated ovipositor release eggs randomly and independently from the substrate. In other cases, however, the abdomen bears a differentiated, specialized ovipositor to lay eggs in the soil or sand, or lay them in cavities within plant tissues.

Asilidae generally occur in habitats that are open, sunny, and dry, even arid. They favour open or scattered vegetation, and some species even frequent bare ground. Typical habitats include savannah, forest steppe, open steppe, semi desert, maquis shrubland, and related shrubland types such as fynbos and chaparral. Their biodiversity is lower in forested ecosystems, and where asilids do occur in such environments, they tend to concentrate in the glades and margins. In those conditions, the interrupted canopy leaves space for various species of shrubs and herbaceous plants suited to asilid styles of predation.

In general, the biology of the Asilidae is still poorly known, but various authors have studied the population distribution in particular regions and ecosystems. They have classified the behavioral patterns in terms of microenvironments, ecological, and trophic factors, showing how different species of Asilidae favour particular habitats suited to particular patterns of reproduction and predation. Specific studies show correlations between the floristic composition and predatory behaviour.

Asilidae occur in all zoogeographical regions except Antarctica. In the Northern Hemisphere, some species are even adapted to tundra. Alpine species occur at altitudes exceeding 4000 meters/13,000 feet. However, the highest levels of biodiversity are in warm climates; tropical or subtropical and arid or semi-arid regions tend to have the greatest variety of species, followed by areas where rainfall is highly seasonal.

The Asilidae currently include over 7500 described species in about 556 genera. Their taxonomy is still under study in the light of new specimens and cladistic analysis. The 14 accepted subfamilies are:

Clade showing relationship of Asiloidea

Carl Linnaeus (Linné; 1758), in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae, erected the genus Asilus, including 11 species, and added four others in the 12th edition (1767). Asilus crabroniformis (1758) is the type of the genus. The rank of family is credited to Leach in Samouelle (1819). Johan Christian Fabricius in five publications dated from 1775 to 1805, erected the genus Damalis and described 76 exotic and European species. Wiedemann, in publications appearing between 1817 and 1830, described 235 species, many exotic. Johann Wilhelm Meigen in an early work of 1803 erected four genera, three of which now represent subfamilies. He also described many species in Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europäischen zweiflügeligen Insekten (1800 to 1838). During the rest of the 19th century, significant contributions were made by Hermann Loew in particular. Other prominent authors dealing with the Asilidae during the 19th century included Pierre-Justin-Marie Macquart, Francis Walker, Camillo Rondani, and Jacques-Marie-Frangile Bigot.

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The Asilidae are the robber fly family, also called assassin flies. They are powerfully built, bristly flies with a short, stout proboscis enclosing the sharp, sucking hypopharynx. The name "robber flies" reflects their notoriously aggressive predatory habits; they feed mainly or exclusively on other insects and, as a rule, they wait in ambush and catch their prey in flight.

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Estoy de Acuerdo / I agree

Common Name: Robber Flies

General Category: Predator

Taxonomic Classification: Diptera: Asilidae

Scientific Name: Many species

Description

Because of their large size and loud buzz when flying, these generalist predators are often confused with horse flies and other biting flies. However, because they are not blood feeders they will not fly around your head or try to land on you, and will only bite if mishandled. When they do alight on foliage, the distinctive bearded face, concavity between the eyes, long legs and usually long tapering abdomen give away their identity. Some are also bee and wasp mimics. Adults are predaceous on flying insects. Larvae are associated with soil or decaying wood, and are predaceous on larvae of other insects.

Identification

Review the images for tips on how to identify these predators.

Adults

Concavity between eyes, bearded face around beak-like mouthparts. Long legs with fleshy pads at end. Usually long, tapering abdomen. One pair of wings (as in all other flies) with stubby halteres in place of the hind pair.

Larvae

Rarely seen because of their location in the soil or rotting wood. They tend to pupate near the soil surface so they can emerge more easily from their pupal cases

Value in Pest Management

Because they feed on insects, they are generally regarded as being beneficial. However, because of their generalist feeding behavior they do not contribute to management of specific pests. They are not sold commercially.

Origin and Distribution

Native, throughout North America.
Discover Life - Asilidae
For More Information

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Common Name: Robber Flies General Category: Predator Taxonomic Classification: Diptera: Asilidae Scientific Name: Many species Description Because of their large size and loud buzz when flying, these generalist predators are often confused with horse flies and other biting flies.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Monotropa uniflora, also known as ghost plant, ghost pipe, or Indian pipe, is an herbaceous perennial plant native to temperate regions of Asia, North America, and northern South America, but with large gaps between areas.[1][2] The plant is sometimes completely waxy white, but often has black flecks or pale pink coloration.[3] Rare variants may have a deep red color. The name "Monotropa" is Greek for "one turn" and "uniflora" is Latin for "one flowered" as there is one sharply curved stem for each single flower.

The stems reach heights of 5-30 centimetres (2-12 in), sheathed with highly reduced leaves 5-10 millimetres (3⁄16 -3⁄8 in) long, best identified as scales or bracts. These structures are small, thin, and translucent; they do not have petioles but instead extend in a sheath-like manner out of the stem.

As its scientific name suggests, and unlike the related Monotropa hypopitys (but like the close relation Monotropastrum humile), the stems bear a single flower 10-20 mm (3⁄8 -13⁄16 in) long, with 3-8 translucent petals, 10-12 stamens and a single pistil.[4][5][6][7] It flowers from early summer to early autumn, often a few days after rainfall. The fruit, an oval capsule-like structure, enlarges and becomes upright when the seeds mature, at this point stem and capsule looking desiccated and dark brown or black.

The seeds of M. uniflora are small, ranging between 0.6-0.8 mm (3⁄128 -1⁄32 in) in length.[8]

Unlike most plants, it is white and does not contain chlorophyll.[9] Instead of generating food using the energy from sunlight, it is parasitic, and more specifically a mycoheterotroph. Its hosts are certain fungi[9] that are mycorrhizal with trees, meaning it ultimately gets its food from photosynthetic trees. Since it is not dependent on sunlight to grow, it can grow in very dark environments as in the understory of dense forest.[10] The complex relationship that allows this plant to grow also makes propagation difficult.

Genetics

M. uniflora is found in three general distribution areas: Asia, North America, and Central and northern South America. DNA analysis has shown that these three populations are genetically distinct from one another.[1] Furthermore, the North American population and the Central/South American population appear to be more closely related to each other than either are related to the Asian population.

The species has 48 chromosomes.[11]

It was formerly classified in the family Monotropaceae, but is now included within the Ericaceae. It is of ephemeral occurrence, depending on the right conditions (moisture after a dry period) to appear full grown within a couple of days.

The flowers of M. uniflora are visited by various bee and fly species, most commonly bumblebees.[12] Bumblebees are an important pollen dispersal agent for the plant.

Like most mycoheterotrophic plants, M. uniflora associates with a small range of fungal hosts, all of them members of Russulaceae.[13]

It is often associated with beech trees.[10]

The plant contains glycosides and may be toxic to humans.[14]

In addition to various reported medical uses,[14] the plant has been used as an anxiolytic in herbal medicine since the late 19th century.[15]

Despite possibly being toxic, the entire plant can be cooked, which lends it an asparagus-like flavor.[14]

Each of ten anthers open via two curving slits.

Plant displaying its common
light pink coloring

1. ^ Neyland, Ray; Hennigan, Melissa K. (2004). "A Cladistic analysis of Monotropa uniflora (Ericaceae) inferred from large ribosomal subunit (26S) rRNA gene sequences". Castanea. 69 (4): 265-271. doi:10.2179/0008-7475(2004)069<0265:ACAOMU>2.0.CO;2. S2CID 86010737.

2. ^ Sullivan, Steven. K. (2018). "Monotropa uniflora". Wildflower Search.

3. David Matthews ^ "Indian Pipes, Ithaca NY" Archived 2012-09-05 at the Wayback Machine

4. ^ Klinkenberg, Brian, ed. (2017). "Monotropa uniflora". E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Plants of British Columbia [eflora.bc.ca]. Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver.

5. ^ Giblin, David, ed. (2018). "Monotropa uniflora". WTU Herbarium Image Collection. Burke Museum, University of Washington.

6. ^ "Monotropa uniflora". in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora. Jepson Herbarium; University of California, Berkeley. 2018.

7. ^ "Indian Pipe (Monotropa uniflora) Species Page". www.bio.brandeis.edu.

8. ^ Olson, A. Randall (July 1980). "Seed Morphology of Monotropa Uniflora L. (Ericaceae)". American Journal of Botany. 67 (6): 968-974. doi:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1980.tb07728.x. ISSN 0002-9122.

9. ^ Fagan, Damian (2019). Wildflowers of Oregon: A Field Guide to Over 400 Wildflowers, Trees, and Shrubs of the Coast, Cascades, and High Desert. Guilford, CT: FalconGuides. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-4930-3633-2. OCLC 1073035766.

10. ^ "Indian Pipe".

11. ^ Maloney, Kathleen; Finocchio, Alfred F. (1981-11-01). "Chromosomes of Monotropa uniflora". Journal of Heredity. 72 (6): 458. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a109563. ISSN 0022-1503.

12. ^ Klooster, Matthew R.; Culley, Theresa M. (2009). "Comparative analysis of the reproductive ecology of Monotropa and Monotropsis: Two mycoheterotrophic genera in the Monotropoideae (Ericaceae)". American Journal of Botany. 96 (7): 1337-1347. doi:10.3732/ajb.0800319. ISSN 1537-2197. PMID 21628282.

13. ^ Yang, S.; Pfister, D. H. (2006). "Monotropa uniflora plants of eastern Massachusetts form mycorrhizae with a diversity of russulacean fungi". Mycologia. 98 (4): 535-540. doi:10.3852/mycologia.98.4.535. PMID 17139846.

14. ^ "Monotropa uniflora Indian Pipe". Plants for a Future.

15. ^ Wickes Felter, Harvey; Uri Lloyd, John (1898). King's American dispensatory (19th 3rd rev ed.). Ohio Valley Co. p. 1277.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Toggle the table of contents From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Monotropa uniflora , also known as ghost plant, ghost pipe, or Indian pipe, is an herbaceous perennial plant native to temperate regions of Asia, North America, and northern South America, but with large gaps between areas.[1] [2] The plant is sometimes completely waxy white, but often has black flecks or pale pink coloration.[3] Rare variants may have a deep red color.