# data[].attributes.headline
The Biggest Coral Reef Restoration Effort In The World!

# data[].attributes.subject
The Biggest Coral Reef Restoration Effort In The World!

# data[].attributes.body
Coral reefs are some of the most diverse ecosystems in the world. Coral polyps, the animals primarily responsible for building reefs, can take many forms: large reef building colonies, graceful flowing fans, and even small, solitary organisms.

# data[].attributes.headline
Harmful fishing practices, overfishing, sedimentation, has caused damage and complete loss of reef areas.

# data[].attributes.subject
Harmful fishing practices, overfishing, sedimentation, has caused damage and complete loss of reef areas.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Abstract

In the Philippines, coral reef fisheries provide for more than a million small-scale fishers who contribute almost US$ 1 billion annually to the country's economy. The rapidly growing population needs increasing amounts of fish and other marine organisms. However, overfishing, destructive fishing methods and sedimentation have damaged or destroyed many reef areas. Fish catches have fallen well below the sustainable levels of healthy reefs. The economic losses to the livelihood coastal fishing population are considerable. Various programmes have and are trying to counter coral reef decline by establishing sustainable management regimes. The economic benefits of such programmes appear to exceed their investment costs. As an example, the start-up and maintenance costs of a successful island marine reserve project have been compared to the losses caused by reef destruction and the gains from reef management. The results clearly show that the economic benefits from a managed reef area due to higher catches and revenue from small-scale tourism far exceed costs. Coral reefs are also a major attraction for an increasing number of local and international tourists. In addition to providing income for the tourism industry, these reef visitors are often willing to contribute to the costs for reef management. The annual willingness-to-pay assessed in three popular diving destinations are significant. An estimated US$ 300 000 could be collected annually as entrance fees or donations in Mabini, Batangas alone. It is estimated that the 27 000 km ² of reef in their degraded condition still contribute at least US$ 1.35 billion annually to the economy. Reef management involving local fishing communities, local governments and other concerned organizations is a cost-effective way to alleviate the pressure on the numerous threatened coral reefs. In addition, economic valuation and cost-benefit analysis can provide essential information to support more investment in reef conservation.

Introduction

Coral reefs are the coastal ecosystem that provides the most substantial and sustainable source of sustenance to people in the Philippines White, 1987, Alcala, 1988, McAllister, 1988, Gomez et al., 1994, White and Cruz-Trinidad, 1998. The 18 000 km of coastline in the country is estimated to have about 27 000 km ² of fringing reefs or submerged offshore reefs or coral atolls. This area is equal to slightly more than 10% of the total land area of the country (Gomez et al., 1994). It is estimated that more than one million small-scale fishers depend directly on reef fisheries for livelihood (BFAR, 1997). In addition, reef fisheries supply a sizable amount of protein in a country where more than 50% of the animal protein is derived from marine fisheries and aquaculture.

The overall condition of the coral reefs in the country is not good. Most reef areas have been adversely affected by human activities and less than 5% (as measured by coral cover) are considered to be in excellent condition (Fig. 1) (Gomez et al., 1994). As coral reefs are destroyed, fisheries, tourism, coastal protection and biodiversity values are diminished or lost Rubec, 1988, Spurgeon, 1992, White and Cruz-Trinidad, 1998.

The approximate economic losses being incurred from the destruction of coral reefs as well as the potential economic gains from reef management are presented in this paper. These losses or gains, expressed in thousands of dollars per year per square kilometer of coral reef, have their greatest impact on local fishing communities and local tourism establishments. The economic losses reflect a general decrease in the recruitment of fish that could have emanated from damaged reef areas and foregone opportunities for reef tourism if they were still intact. The economic values and benefits of coral reef products and ecosystems to the Philippines are also highlighted.

Section snippets

Uses, Benefits and Abuses of Coral Reefs in the Philippines

Coral reefs in the Philippines can supply up to 35 t/km ²/yr (the highest reported fish yield from Sumilon Island in 1983) of edible and economically valuable fish and invertebrates assuming that ecologically sound fishing methods are used (Alcala, 1988) (Table 1). Other contributions include: diving and snorkeling fees and other existing tourism and recreation revenues, natural protection provided by reefs to shoreline structures from waves and storms, recruitment of fish and invertebrates to

What is Lost as Philippine Reefs are Destroyed?

A current trend in education about the values of coral reefs in the Philippines is to highlight what is lost, in an economic sense, when they are destroyed. It is hoped that this information will stimulate more investment in coral reef conservation. A few of the examples used to illustrate economic losses in the Philippines are:

*
Healthy coral reefs can produce, on a sustainable basis, 20 t or more of fish and other edible products per square kilometer per year; once destroyed by use of dynamite

Economic Gains from Coral Reef Protection (Philippines and other Countries)

The returns from coral reef protection and management are really just the other side of the destruction and loss equation. First, it is useful to summarize the productive fishery aspects of reefs and the potential gains from well-managed tourism. Some potential benefits from 1 km ² of good quality and healthy coral reef are shown in Table 3. These values assume a typical coral reef in the Philippines with no over-fishing or destruction and some moderate level of tourism potential. The range of

Discussion and Conclusions

These facts provide the economic justification and show the need to manage coral reefs and their associated habitats and fisheries. The decline of reefs in the Philippines is increasingly evident in economic and quality of life loss to individuals, communities and the society at large. The large losses are becoming obvious as the government and donors attempt to pay to make the reparations required to recover the health and quality of these coastal resources. Unfortunately, the reality that

Acknowledgements

Work in the sites discussed was made possible by a long-term association with several Philippine institutions and persons. Dr Angel Alcala, Dr Nida Calumpong, Ms Felina Tiempo, Ms Ester Delfin and Ms Louella Dolar of Silliman University; Dr Edgardo Gomez and Dr Liana McManus of the University of the Philippines, Marine Science Institute; Ms Christi Nozawa and Mr Ed Tongson of the Haribon Foundation and Mr Vic Milan of the Tubbataha Foundation have all been supportive. The International Center

Alcala, A. C. (1981) Fish yield of coral reefs of Sumilon Island, Central Philippines. National Research Council...

Alcala, A. C. (1988) Effects of protective management of marine reserves on fish abundances and fish yields in the...

Alcala, A. C. and Gomez, E. D. (1985) Fish yields of coral reefs in Central Philippines. In Proceedings of the Fifth...

Alcala, A. C. and Luchavez, T. (1981) Fish yield of the coral reef surrounding Apo Island, Negros Oriental, Central...

Alcala, A. C. and Russ, G. R. (1990) A direct test of the effects of protective management on abundance and yield of...

Arin, T. (1997) Survey on diver valuation of coral reefs using the contingent valuation method. Coastal Resource...

Arquiza, Y. and White, A. T. (1999) Tales from Tubbataha, natural history, resource use, and conservation of the...

Barber, C. V. and Pratt, V. R. (1997) Sullied Seas Strategies for Combating Cyanide Fishing in Southeast Asia and...

Bellwood, D. (1988) Seasonal changes in the size and composition of the fish yield from reefs around Apo Island,...

Berg, H., Ohman, M. C., Troeng, S. and Linden, O. (1998) Environmental economics of coral reef destruction in Sri...

Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS) 1993. Fish price wholesale price per kilogram of selected species, Philippines,...

Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) (1997) 1996 Philippine profile. Department of Agriculture - Bureau of...

Carpenter, K. E. and Alcala, A. C. (1977) Philippine coral reef fisheries resources. Part II. Muro-ami and kayakas reef...

Cesar, H. 1996. Economic analysis of Indonesian coral reefs. The World Bank, p....

Christie, P. and White, A. T. (1994) Reef fish yield and reef condition for San Salvador Island, Luzon, Philippines....

Christie, P. and White. A. T. (1997) Trends in development of coastal area management in tropical countries: From...

Costanza, R., d' Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O'Neill, R.,...

Courtney, C. and White, A. T. (2000) Integrated coastal management in the Philippines. Testing new paradigms. Coastal...

Galvez, R., Hingco, T. G. Bautista, C. and Tungapalan, M. T. (1989) Sociocultural dynamics of blast fishing and sodium...

Gomez, E. D., Aliño, P. M., Yap, H. T. and Licuanan, W. Y. (1994) A review of the status of Philippine reefs. Marine...

View full text

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Philippine Coral Reefs Under Threat: The Economic Losses Caused by Reef Destruction

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In the Philippines, coral reef fisheries provide livelihood for more than a million small-scale fishers who contribute almost US$ 1 billion annually t...

# data[].attributes.body
While the Coral Reef has the most diverse ecosystem over any other area in the world and thousands of species require it for survival, reef sharks and rays are the main ones in danger of extinction.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-35091-x#:~:text=Alongside%20marine%20mammals%2C%20sharks%20and,groups%20found%20on%20coral%20reefs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Coral Restoration Foundation | United States

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Dive into the largest coral reef restoration effort in the world and join us in creating a climate of change!

# data[].attributes.headline
Implications Of The Loss Of Biodiversity

# data[].attributes.subject
Implications Of The Loss Of Biodiversity

# data[].attributes.body
Coral Reefs provide jobs for local communities, and offer opportunities for recreation. They are also a source of food and new medicines. Over half a billion people depend on reefs for food, income, and protection.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Healthy communities rely on well-functioning ecosystems. They provide clean air, fresh water, medicines and food security. They also limit disease and stabilize the climate. But biodiversity loss is happening at unprecedented rates, impacting human health worldwide, according to a state of knowledge report jointly published by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the World Health Organization (WHO).

What is biodiversity?

Biodiversity underpins all life on Earth, and refers to biological variety in all its forms, from the genetic make up of plants and animals to cultural diversity.

What does biodiversity mean for human health?

People depend on biodiversity in their daily lives, in ways that are not always apparent or appreciated. Human health ultimately depends upon ecosystem products and services (such as availability of fresh water, food and fuel sources) which are requisite for good human health and productive livelihoods. Biodiversity loss can have significant direct human health impacts if ecosystem services are no longer adequate to meet social needs. Indirectly, changes in ecosystem services affect livelihoods, income, local migration and, on occasion, may even cause or exacerbate political conflict.

Additionally, biological diversity of microorganisms, flora and fauna provides extensive benefits for biological, health, and pharmacological sciences. Significant medical and pharmacological discoveries are made through greater understanding of the earth's biodiversity. Loss in biodiversity may limit discovery of potential treatments for many diseases and health problems.

Threats to biodiversity and health

There is growing concern about the health consequences of biodiversity loss. Biodiversity changes affect ecosystem functioning and significant disruptions of ecosystems can result in life sustaining ecosystem goods and services. Biodiversity loss also means that we are losing, before discovery, many of nature's chemicals and genes, of the kind that have already provided humankind with enormous health benefits.

Nutritional impact of biodiversity

Biodiversity plays a crucial role in human nutrition through its influence on world food production, as it ensures the sustainable productivity of soils and provides the genetic resources for all crops, livestock, and marine species harvested for food. Access to a sufficiency of a nutritious variety of food is a fundamental determinant of health.

Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem, with food production as an ecosystem service; the species in the ecosystem and the genetic diversity within species. Nutritional composition between foods and among varieties/cultivars/breeds of the same food can differ dramatically, affecting micronutrient availability in the diet. Healthy local diets, with adequate average levels of nutrients intake, necessitates maintenance of high biodiversity levels.

Intensified and enhanced food production through irrigation, use of fertilizer, plant protection (pesticides) or the introduction of crop varieties and cropping patterns affect biodiversity, and thus impact global nutritional status and human health. Habitat simplification, species loss and species succession often enhance communities vulnerabilities as a function of environmental receptivity to ill health.

Importance of biodiversity for health research and traditional medicine

Traditional medicine continue to play an essential role in health care, especially in primary health care. Traditional medicines are estimated to be used by 60% of the world's population and in some countries are extensively incorporated into the public health system. Medicinal plant use is the most common medication tool in traditional medicine and complementary medicine worldwide. Medicinal plants are supplied through collection from wild populations and cultivation. Many communities rely on natural products collected from ecosystems for medicinal and cultural purposes, in addition to food.

Although synthetic medicines are available for many purposes, the global need and demand for natural products persists for use as medicinal products and biomedical research that relies on plants, animals and microbes to understand human physiology and to understand and treat human diseases.

Infectious diseases

Human activities are disturbing both the structure and functions of ecosystems and altering native biodiversity. Such disturbances reduce the abundance of some organisms, cause population growth in others, modify the interactions among organisms, and alter the interactions between organisms and their physical and chemical environments. Patterns of infectious diseases are sensitive to these disturbances. Major processes affecting infectious disease reservoirs and transmission include, deforestation; land-use change; water management e.g. through dam construction, irrigation, uncontrolled urbanization or urban sprawl; resistance to pesticide chemicals used to control certain disease vectors; climate variability and change; migration and international travel and trade; and the accidental or intentional human introduction of pathogens.

Climate change, biodiversity and health

Biodiversity provides numerous ecosystem services that are crucial to human well-being at present and in the future. Climate is an integral part of ecosystem functioning and human health is impacted directly and indirectly by results of climatic conditions upon terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Marine biodiversity is affected by ocean acidification related to levels of carbon in the atmosphere. Terrestrial biodiversity is influenced by climate variability, such as extreme weather events (ie drought, flooding) that directly influence ecosystem health and the productivity and availability of ecosystem goods and services for human use. Longer term changes in climate affect the viability and health of ecosystems, influencing shifts in the distribution of plants, pathogens, animals, and even human settlements.

Key Facts

Biodiversity provides many goods and services essential to life on earth. The management of natural resources can determine the baseline health status of a community. Environmental stewardship can contribute to secure livelihoods and improve the resilience of communities. The loss of these resources can create the conditions responsible for morbidity or mortality.

Biodiversity supports human and societal needs, including food and nutrition security, energy, development of medicines and pharmaceuticals and freshwater, which together underpin good health. It also supports economic opportunities, and leisure activities that contribute to overall wellbeing.

Land use change, pollution, poor water quality, chemical and waste contamination, climate change and other causes of ecosystem degradation all contribute to biodiversity loss and, can pose considerable threats to human health.

Human health and well-being are influenced by the health of local plant and animal communities, and the integrity of the local ecosystems that they form.

Infectious diseases cause over one billion human infections per year, with millions of deaths each year globally. Approximately two thirds of known human infectious diseases are shared with animals, and the majority of recently emerging diseases are associated with wildlife.

Related Links
Publication: Connecting Global Priorities - Biodiversity and Human Health WHO-IUCN Expert Working Group on Biodiversity, Climate, One Health and Nature-based Solutions

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Healthy communities rely on well-functioning ecosystems. They provide clean air, fresh water, medicines and food security. They also limit disease and stabilize the climate. But biodiversity loss is happening at unprecedented rates, impacting human health worldwide, according to a state of knowledge report jointly published by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the World Health Organization (WHO).