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Nazi Germany was the leader and principal perpetrator of the persecution and mass murder of European Jews. Each of the other European Axis powers participated in the Holocaust to some degree. These countries were Italy, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Croatia.

While a member of the Axis Alliance, Japan carried out grave mass atrocities in its occupied territories in Asia and the Pacific. However, the country did not participate in the Holocaust. Some European Jews even found refuge in Japanese-controlled territory, like Shanghai.

All of Nazi Germany's European Axis allies adopted antisemitic laws similar to Germany's Nuremberg Laws and legalized the persecution of their Jewish subjects as an enemy race.

By 1942, Nazi Germany and its European Axis allies controlled almost all of the European continent and its population of nine million Jews. Nazi Germany instituted the "Final Solution" with the goal of murdering all the Jews in Europe. And it looked to its European Axis partners to help achieve this goal. The governments of each of those countries participated to some degree in carrying out Nazi Germany's "Final Solution" policy. Romania and Croatia murdered Jews within their borders or in territories they occupied. Bulgaria, Slovakia, and German-occupied Hungary and northern Italy transferred Jews from areas they controlled to the Germans to be murdered. The number of Jews murdered or transferred to German custody by the governments and forces of these six countries exceeded 800,000.

Nazi Germany's European Axis allies thus contributed to the deaths of six million people targeted as Jews and to the destruction of Jewish communities throughout Europe. Nevertheless, the "Final Solution" was a Nazi initiative. Nazi Germany was the driving force and principal perpetrator of the Holocaust.

Germany's European Allies and the Holocaust

Italy

In 1938, Italy's Fascist government adopted antisemitic race laws modeled on Nazi Germany's 1935 Nuremberg Race Laws. During the first four years of World War II, Italian forces did not participate in or commit mass shootings of Jews. The Italian government and military also refused to transfer any Jews in Italy or in Italian-occupied territories to German custody. Thousands of Jews fled to Italian-occupied areas, where they found relative safety. Italian authorities even evacuated some Jews to the Italian mainland.

In September 1943, however, German forces occupied central and northern Italy after Mussolini was overthrown and the new Italian government surrendered to the Allies. The Germans installed Mussolini as the head of a puppet government based in the northern Italian town of Salò. With the formal approval of the Salò government and the help of Fascist authorities and militia, the Germans rounded up and incarcerated thousands of Jews.

In all, the Germans deported 8,564 Italian Jews and foreign Jews residing in Italy. Only 1,009 returned.

Hungary

The Hungarian government adopted antisemitic race laws in 1938 and 1941. Following the attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Hungarian forces in territory annexed from Czechoslovakia herded at least 16,000 Jews into German-occupied territory in Ukraine, where they were shot. In January 1942, Hungarian forces shot several thousand Jews in territory that Hungary had annexed from Yugoslavia. Beginning in 1942, however, the Hungarian government refused repeated German requests to deport Jews residing in Hungary and the territories it had annexed.

After German forces occupied Hungary in March 1944, the Hungarian government agreed to deport the Jews under its control. The Hungarian police rounded up and deported nearly 440,000 Jews to Auschwitz between mid-May and mid-July 1944. More than 300,000 were immediately murdered. In October 1944, the Germans installed a rabidly antisemitic government in Hungary that brutally persecuted and murdered the remaining Hungarian Jews, leading to about 100,000 deaths.
Hungary after the German Occupation - Photographs
Romania

Antisemitic laws and violence existed in Romania even before it sought to ally with Nazi Germany. After Romanian forces invaded the Soviet Union alongside German forces in June 1941, the Romanians began slaughtering tens of thousands of Romanian and Ukrainian Jews. Romanian authorities also deported many more Romanian Jews to ghettos and camps in Romanian-occupied Ukraine, where they died of starvation and disease. Between 150,000 and 200,000 Jews died in areas under Romanian control.

In 1942, Romania's leader, Marshal Ion Antonescu, began to fear that the Axis powers would lose the war and that Romania would be punished for its persecution and murder of Jews. Romania therefore did not fulfill its promise to deport its remaining Jews to German-occupied Poland. As a result, some 300,000 Jews within Romania did not fall victim to the Germans' "Final Solution" program.

Slovakia

Between 1939 and 1941, Slovakia adopted a series of antisemitic race laws that became known as the Jewish Code. In March 1942, Slovakia became the first of Germany's Axis allies to agree to deport its Jewish population. Between March and October 1942, Slovak police and paramilitary organizations concentrated some 57,000 Jews in Slovakian labor and concentration camps and deported them to German-occupied Poland. Only about 300 survived the war.

In the fall of 1942, Slovakia halted the deportation of its remaining 24,000 Jews. During the Slovak uprising in 1944, German forces killed several thousand Slovakian Jews and deported over 12,000. More than 70,000 Slovakian Jews were deported to German custody in the course of World War II. The Germans murdered more than 60,000 of them.

Bulgaria

Bulgaria adopted its version of the Nuremberg Race Laws in January 1941, which were denounced by many Bulgarians and by the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. In March 1943, Bulgarian military and police forces occupying territories in Greece and Yugoslavia deported 11,343 non-Bulgarian Jews from these areas to German-occupied Poland. Practically all of them were immediately murdered at Treblinka. The Bulgarian government's plan to deport Bulgarian Jews evoked protests and widespread opposition. In May 1943, the Bulgarian government expelled 20,000 Jews from Sofia to the countryside, confiscated their assets, and placed the men in forced labor camps. The Bulgarian government did not deport any Jews within Bulgaria to German custody. Consequently, nearly all Bulgarian Jews survived World War II.

Croatia

The Independent State of Croatia came into existence on April 10, 1941. Within three weeks, it began persecuting and incarcerating the Croatian and Bosnian Jews under its control. Croatian Ustaša forces began killing Jews in the summer of 1941. Croatian authorities killed about 20,000 to 25,000 Jews and deported some 7,000 Jews to German custody.

Last Edited: Apr 11, 2022

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Each of Germany's six European Axis allies participated in the "Final Solution" by murdering Jews or by transferring them to German custody. Learn more.

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World War II Allied & Axis Powers: Lesson for Kids - Video | Study.com

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Investigate the Allied and Axis Powers of World War II. Explore which nations belonged to each group and which countries chose to remain neutral…

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: war conducted with great speed and force

specifically : a violent surprise offensive by massed air forces and mechanized ground forces in close coordination

blitzkrieg transitive verb

Synonyms

Examples of blitzkrieg in a Sentence

the stunned survivors of the crash were then confronted with a the war began with a blitzkrieg of insensitive questions from the media blitzkrieg that was designed to shock the enemy into submission

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'blitzkrieg.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

German, from Blitz lightning + Krieg war

1937, in the meaning defined at sense 1

The first known use of blitzkrieg was in 1937

Dictionary Entries Near blitzkrieg

Cite this Entry

"Blitzkrieg." Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/blitzkrieg. Accessed 18 Mar. 2024.

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Merriam-Webster unabridged

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The meaning of BLITZKRIEG is war conducted with great speed and force; specifically : a violent surprise offensive by massed air forces and mechanized ground forces in close coordination. How to use blitzkrieg in a sentence.

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The Nazi-Soviet Pact: Path to World War II | GCSE History

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Two of the four Group Commanders, 11 Group's Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park and 10 Group's Air Vice-Marshal Sir Quintin Brand, came from New Zealand and South Africa respectively. The War Cabinet created two Polish fighter squadrons, Nos. 302 and 303, in the summer of 1940. These were followed by other national units, including two Czech fighter squadrons.

Many of the RAF's aces were men from the Commonwealth and the highest scoring pilot of the Battle was Josef Frantisek, a Czech pilot flying with No. 303 (Polish) Fighter Squadron. No. 303 entered battle on 31 August, at the peak of the Battle of Britain, but quickly became Fighter Command's highest claiming squadron with 126 kills.

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8 Things You Need To Know About The Battle Of Britain

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The Battle of Britain was a major air campaign fought over southern England in the summer and autumn of 1940. Here are 8 things you need to know about one of Britain's most important victories of the Second World War.

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Winston Churchill - Quotes, Paintings & Death

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Winston Churchill was a British military leader and statesman. Twice named prime minister of Great Britain, he helped to defeat Nazi Germany in World War II.

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Cash and Carry was a policy by US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt announced at a joint session of the United States Congress on September 21, 1939, subsequent to the outbreak of war in Europe.

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Transcript

A BILL
Further to promote the defense of the United States, and for other purposes.

Be it enacted by the Senate add House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That this Act may be cited as "An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States".

SEC. 2. As used in this Act -

(a) The term "defense article" means -

(1) Any weapon, munition. aircraft, vessel, or boat;

(2) Any machinery, facility, tool, material, or supply necessary for the manufacture, production, processing, repair, servicing, or operation of any article described in this subsection;

(3) Any component material or part of or equipment for any article described in this subsection;

(4) Any agricultural, industrial or other commodity or article for defense.

Such term "defense article" includes any article described in this subsection: Manufactured or procured pursuant to section 3, or to which the United States or any foreign government has or hereafter acquires title, possession, or control.

(b) The term "defense information" means any plan, specification, design, prototype, or information pertaining to any defense article.

SEC. 3. (a) Notwithstanding the provisions of any other law, the President may, from time to time. when he deems it in the interest of national defense, authorize the Secretary Of War, the Secretary of the Navy, or the head of any other department or agency of the Government -

(1) To manufacture in arsenals, factories, and shipyards under their jurisdiction, or otherwise procure, to the extent to which funds are made available therefor, or contracts are authorized from time to time by the Congress, or both, any defense article for the government of any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States.

(2) To sell, transfer title to, exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to any such government any defense article, but no defense article not manufactured or procured under paragraph (1) shall in any way be disposed of under this paragraph, except after consultation with the Chief of Staff of the Army or the Chief of Naval Operations of the Navy, or both. The value of defense articles disposed of in any way under authority of this paragraph, and procured from funds heretofore appropriated, shall not exceed $1,300,000,000. The value of such defense articles shall be determined by the head of the department or agency concerned or such other department, agency, or officer as shall be designated in the manner provided in the rules and regulations issued hereunder. Defense articles procured from funds hereafter appropriated to any department or agency of the Government, other than from funds authorized to be appropriated under this Act. shall not be disposed of in any way under authority of this paragraph except to the extent hereafter authorized by the Congress in the Acts appropriating such funds or otherwise.

(3) To test, inspect, prove, repair, outfit, recondition, or otherwise to place in good working order, to the extent to which funds are made available therefor, or contracts are authorized from time to time by the Congress, or both, any defense article for any such government, or to procure any or all such services by private contract.

(4) To communicate to any such government any defense information pertaining to any defense article furnished to such government under paragraph (2) of this subsection.

(5) To release for export any defense article disposed of in any way under this subsection to any such government.

(b) The terms and conditions upon which any such foreign government receives any aid authorized under subsection (a) shall be those which the President deems satisfactory, and the benefit to the United States may he payment or repayment in kind or property, or any other direct or indirect benefit which the President deems satisfactory.

(c) After June 30, 1943, or after the passage of a concurrent resolution by the two Houses before June 30, 1943, which declares that the powers conferred by or pursuant to subsection (a) are no longer necessary to promote the defense of the United States, neither the President nor the head of any department or agency shall exercise any of the powers conferred by or pursuant to subsection (a) except that until July 1, 1946, any of such powers may be exercised to the extent necessary to carry out a contract or agreement with such a foreign government made before July 1, 1943, or before the passage of such concurrent resolution, whichever is the earlier.

(d) Nothing in this Act shall be construed to authorize or to permit the authorization of convoying vessels by naval vessels of the United States.

(e) Nothing in this Act shall be construed to authorize or to permit the authorization of the entry of any American vessel into a combat area in violation of section 3 of the neutrality Act of 1939.

SEC. 4 All contracts or agreements made for the disposition of any defense article or defense information pursuant to section 3 shall contain a clause by which the foreign government undertakes that it will not, without the consent of the President, transfer title to or possession of such defense article or defense information by gift, sale, or otherwise, or permit its use by anyone, not an officer, employee, or agent of such foreign government.

SEC. 5. (a) The Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, or the head of any other department or agency of the Government involved shall when any such defense article or defense information is exported, immediately inform the department or agency designated by the President to administer section 6 of the Act of July 2, 1940 (54 Stat. 714). of the quantities, character, value, terms of disposition, and destination of the article and information so exported.

(b) The President from time to time, but not less frequently than once every ninety days, shall transmit to the Congress a report of operations under this Act except such information as he deems incompatible with the public interest to disclose. Reports provided for under this subsection shall be transmitted to the Secretary of the Senate or the Clerk of the House of Representatives, as the case may be, if the Senate or the House of Representatives, as the case may be, is not in session.

SEC. 6. (a) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated from time to time, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, such amounts as may be necessary to carry out the provisions and accomplish the purposes of this Act.

(b) All money and all property which is converted into money received under section 3 from any government shall, with the approval of the Director of the Budget. revert to the respective appropriation or appropriations out of which funds were expended with respect to the defense article or defense information for which such consideration is received, and shall be available for expenditure for the purpose for which such expended funds were appropriated by law, during the fiscal year in which such funds are received and the ensuing fiscal year; but in no event shall any funds so received be available for expenditure after June 30, 1946.

SEC. 7. The Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, and the head of the department or agency shall in all contracts or agreements for the disposition of any defense article or defense information fully protect the rights of all citizens of the United States who have patent rights in and to any such article or information which is hereby authorized to be disposed of and the payments collected for royalties on such patents shall be paid to the owners and holders of such patents.

SEC. 8. The Secretaries of War and of the Navy are hereby authorized to purchase or otherwise acquire arms, ammunition, and implements of war produced within the jurisdiction of any country to which section 3 is applicable, whenever the President deems such purchase or acquisition to be necessary in the interests of the defense of the United States.

SEC. 9. The President may, from time to time, promulgate such rules and regulations as may be necessary and proper to carry out any of the provisions of this Act; and he may exercise any power or authority conferred on him by this Act through such department, agency, or officer as be shall direct.

SEC. 10. Nothing in this Act shall be construed to change existing law relating to the use of the land and naval forces of the United States, except insofar as such use relates to the manufacture, procurement, and repair of defense articles, the communication of information, and other noncombatant purposes enumerated in this Act.

SEC 11. If any provision of this Act or the application of such provision to any circumstance shall be held invalid, the validity of the remainder of the Act and the applicability of such provision to other circumstances shall not be affected thereby.

Approved, March 11, 1941.

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A BILL Further to promote the defense of the United States, and for other purposes. Be it enacted by the Senate add House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That this Act may be cited as "An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States".

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Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum

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Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964) was an American general who commanded the Southwest Pacific in World War II (1939-1945), oversaw the successful Allied occupation of postwar Japan and led United Nations forces in the Korean War (1950-1953). A larger-than-life, controversial figure, MacArthur was talented, outspoken and, in the eyes of many, egotistical. He graduated from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point in 1903 and helped lead the 42nd Division in France during World War I (1914-1918). He went on to serve as superintendent of West Point, chief of staff of the Army and field marshal of the Philippines, where he helped organize a military. During World War II, he famously returned to liberate the Philippines in 1944 after it had fallen to the Japanese. MacArthur led United Nations forces during the start of the Korean War, but later clashed with President Harry Truman over war policy and was removed from command.

Douglas MacArthur's Early Years

Douglas MacArthur was born on January 26, 1880, at the Little Rock Barracks in Arkansas. MacArthur's early childhood was spent on western frontier outposts where his Army officer father, Arthur MacArthur (1845-1912), was stationed. The younger MacArthur later said of the experience, "It was here I learned to ride and shoot even before I could read or write-indeed, almost before I could walk or talk."

Did you know? One of General Douglas MacArthur's trademarks was his corncob pipe. The Missouri Meerschaum Company, in business in Washington, Missouri, since 1869, made MacArthur's pipes to his specifications. The company continues to produce a corncob pipe in his honor.

In 1903, MacArthur graduated at the top of his class from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. As a junior officer in the years leading up to World War I, he was stationed in the Philippines and around the United States, served as an aide to his father in the Far East and participated in the American occupation of Veracruz, Mexico, in 1914. After the United States entered World War I in 1917, MacArthur helped lead the 42nd "Rainbow" Division in France and was promoted to brigadier general.

Between Battles

From 1919 to 1922 Douglas MacArthur served as the superintendent of West Point and instituted a variety of reforms intended to modernize the school. In 1922 he wed socialite Louise Cromwell Brooks (c. 1890-1965). The two divorced in 1929, and in 1937 MacArthur married Jean Faircloth (1898-2000), with whom he had one child, Arthur MacArthur IV, the following year.

In 1930 President Herbert Hoover (1874-1964) named MacArthur chief of staff of the Army, with the rank of general. In this role, MacArthur sent Army troops to remove the so-called Bonus Army of unemployed World War I veterans from Washington, D.C., in 1932. The incident was a public relations disaster for MacArthur and the military.

In 1935, after finishing his term as chief of staff, MacArthur was tasked with creating an armed force for the Philippines, which became a commonwealth of the United States that year (and gained independence in 1946). In 1937, upon learning he was scheduled to return for duty in the United States, MacArthur resigned from the military, stating that his mission wasn't finished. He remained in the Philippines, where he served as a civilian advisor to President Manuel Quezon (1878-1944), who had appointed him field marshal of the Philippines.

World War II

In 1941, with expansionist Japan posing an increasing threat, Douglas MacArthur was recalled to active duty and named commander of U.S. Army forces in the Far East. On December 8, 1941, his air force was destroyed in a surprise attack by the Japanese, who soon invaded the Philippines. MacArthur's forces retreated to the Bataan peninsula, where they struggled to survive. In March 1942, on orders from President Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945), MacArthur, his family and members of his staff fled Corregidor Island in PT boats and escaped to Australia. Shortly afterward, MacArthur promised, "I shall return." U.S.-Philippine forces fell to Japan in May 1942.

In April 1942, MacArthur was appointed supreme commander of Allied forces in the Southwest Pacific and awarded the Medal of Honor for his defense of the Philippines. He spent the next two and a half years commanding an island-hopping campaign in the Pacific before famously returning to liberate the Philippines in October 1944. Wading ashore at Leyte, he announced, "I have returned. By the grace of Almighty God, our forces stand again on Philippine soil." In December 1944, he was promoted to the rank of general of the Army and soon given command of all Army forces in the Pacific.

On September 2, 1945, MacArthur officially accepted Japan's surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. From 1945 to 1951, as Allied commander of the Japanese occupation, MacArthur oversaw the successful demobilization of Japan's military forces as well as the restoration of the economy, the drafting of a new constitution and numerous other reforms.

Korean War

In June 1950, Communist forces from North Korea invaded the western-aligned Republic of South Korea, launching the Korean War. Douglas MacArthur was put in charge of the American-led coalition of United Nations troops. That fall, his troops repelled the North Koreans and eventually drove them back toward the Chinese border. MacArthur met with President Truman, who worried that the communist government of the People's Republic of China might view the invasion as a hostile act and intervene in the conflict. The general assured him the chances of a Chinese intervention were slim. Then, in November and December 1950, a massive force of Chinese troops crossed into North Korea and flung themselves against the American lines, driving the U.S. troops back into South Korea. MacArthur asked for permission to bomb communist China and use Nationalist Chinese forces from Taiwan against the People's Republic of China. Truman flatly refused these requests, and a public dispute broke out between the two men.

On April 11, 1951, Truman removed MacArthur from his command for insubordination. In an address to Americans that day, the president stated, "I believe that we must try to limit the war to Korea for these vital reasons: To make sure that the precious lives of our fighting men are not wasted; to see that the security of our country and the free world is not needlessly jeopardized; and to prevent a third world war." MacArthur had been fired, he said, "so that there would be no doubt or confusion as to the real purpose and aim of our policy."

MacArthur's dismissal set off a brief uproar among the American public, but Truman remained committed to keeping the conflict in Korea a "limited war." Eventually, the American people began to understand that MacArthur's policies and recommendations might have led to a massively expanded war in Asia.

Douglas MacArthur's Later Years

In April 1951, Douglas MacArthur returned to the United States, where he was welcomed as a hero and honored with parades in various cities. On April 19, he gave a dramatic televised address before a joint session of Congress in which he criticized Truman's Korean policy. The general ended with a quote from an old army song: "Old soldiers never die; they just fade away."

MacArthur and his wife took up residence in a suite at New York City's Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. In 1952, there were calls for MacArthur to run for president as a Republican; however, the party ultimately chose Dwight Eisenhower (1890-1969), who went on to win the general election. That same year, MacArthur became chairman of Remington Rand, a maker of electrical equipment and business machines.

MacArthur died at age 84 on April 5, 1964, at Walter Reed Army Hospital in Washington, D.C. He was buried at the MacArthur Memorial in Norfolk, Virginia.

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Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964) was an American general who commanded the Southwest Pacific in World War II (1939-1945), oversaw the successful Allied occupation of postwar Japan and led United Nations forces in the Korean War (1950-1953). A larger-than-life, controversial figure, MacArthur was talented, outspoken and, in the eyes of many, egotistical.

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by Robert Lewis

Summary

The Battle of the Coral Sea was a series of naval engagements off the north-east coast of Australia between 4 and 8 May 1942. It was fought by Allied (United States and Australian) and Japanese aircraft against four different major groups of warships.

Some of the aircraft involved were land-based, but most were from the opposing aircraft carriers.

It was the first aircraft carrier battle ever fought, and the first naval battle in which the opposing forces of surface ships at no stage sighted or fired at each other. All attacks were carried out by aeroplanes.It is also the largest naval battle that has ever been fought off Australia's shores.

The battle was significant for two main reasons:

it was the first time in World War 2 that the Japanese experienced failure in a major operation; and

the battle stopped the Japanese sea-borne invasion of Port Moresby.

For many people this was the 'battle that saved Australia'. This is an exaggerated claim, but there is some validity to it. The battle certainly seemed more significant at the time than modern history books rate it.

Sixty years on it is easy to see the apparent inevitability of what actually happened. But we need to try and understand what it was like at the time, and to appreciate the great variety of factors that contributed to the outcome-including poor communications and intelligence creating uncertainty, variable weather conditions, the vulnerability and slowness of massive ships, the human weaknesses and strengths of crew and pilots, the limitations of technology and equipment, and the bravery or lack of it of the men involved.

Where was the Battle fought?

The battle took place in the Coral Sea, in an area separating the Solomon Islands, the eastern tip of New Guinea, and the north-eastern coast of Australia from Townsville to Horn Island. A map of this area appears as part of the battle description later.

This covers an area of many thousands of square kilometres, and for much of the time the opposing forces did not know where the enemy was. Each carrier group sent out planes to find the other, but the limited range of the planes, the limited skills of many of the air crews in ship identification, the often poor weather and the huge areas involved all made it very difficult for the planes to find their targets.

Who was involved?

There were basically four major groups of ships engaged in different parts of the fighting over the four-day period.

There was a Japanese Port Moresby Invasion Group, with a Support Force (Marushige) and a Covering Group (Goto), that included the small aircraft carrier, Shoho and several cruisers.

The Allied Task Force 44 consisted of a group of Allied warships, including the two Australian ships, the heavy cruiser HMAS Australia and the light cruiser HMAS Hobart. They were sent to find and attack the Port Moresby Invasion Group. This force was commanded by the Australian Rear-Admiral Crace.

There was also a second Allied force of two aircraft carriers, the USS Lexington (commanded by Rear-Admiral Fitch) and the USS Yorktown (commanded by Rear-Admiral Fletcher), together with protective cruisers and destroyers. Their task was to stop the invasion, and to do this they would have to tackle the Japanese carriers accompanying and protecting it.

The main target of the Allied carriers was the Japanese Carrier Striking Force, with the aircraft carriers Zuikaku and Shokaku, and protecting cruisers and destroyers, commanded by Admiral Takagi.

Generally, the larger the ship, the more guns it had, the heavier the armour for protection, the heavier it was, and the slower it became. The one exception was the carriers, which were large, but displaced relatively little water, because they were lightly armed - their role being to provide the launching pad for aircraft rather than to shoot at other ships. Hence, in battle, all other ships had to protect the vulnerable but essential aircraft carriers. They did this by forming a protective screen around the carrier.

A battle fleet

Warships at this time were:

aircraft carriers

battleships

cruisers (heavy or light)

destroyers.

The main variables between them were:

their length

their weight (measured by the amount of water they displaced)

their armaments (the number and size of their guns)

their speed.

In order of size they were:

Why was a Battle fought in this place at this time?

The battle involved Allied forces trying to stop Japan's continued expansion into and control of the Pacific Ocean area, which had been established between December 1941 and May 1942.

The Japanese Conquest of the Pacific December 1941- May 1942

The Japanese plan to extend their Pacific control was to set up a base at Tulagi in the Solomons for long-range amphibious aircraft. At the same time they would take Port Moresby.

Control of the port and airfield at Port Moresby would mean that Japanese-held islands would be safe from land-based air attacks, and the Japanese Air Force would be free to attack Queensland ports and airfields at Horn Island, Cooktown, Coen and Townsville.

This would also cut sea links between Australia and the United States, stopping the movement of supplies and troops, effectively leaving the Japanese unable to be challenged in the Pacific area.

The Japanese would then launch a devastating attack on the main American fleet at Midway, between Pearl Harbour and Japan, destroying it and forcing America out of the Pacific War.

To achieve this the Japanese would first seize Tulagi in the Solomons. Transports carrying soldiers and escorted by the aircraft carrier Shoho and other warships, would then leave Rabaul, and head around the tip of New Guinea to Port Moresby. They would be protected by two other aircraft carriers, the Zuikaku and Shokaku, supported by cruisers and destroyers. The plan was for these Japanese carriers to intercept the American naval force from two sides as it entered the Coral Sea in response to the Japanese invasion.

The three Japanese aircraft carriers, with their protective 'screens' of warships, entered the Coral Sea early in May to support this invasion fleet. American intelligence knew that the Coral Sea action was about to happen - they had broken the Japanese secret naval codes, and were able to move ships into the area to oppose the enemy. But knowing what was happening, and then being strong enough to stop it, were two different things.

What was it like to be in the Battle?

A common image of naval battles is ships firing at each other. That did not happen in the Battle of the Coral Sea. The single most important element needed to understand that battle is the fact that warships were vulnerable to attacks by aeroplanes.

The basic plan of attack by both sides was that the enemy's ships were to be destroyed by planes launching torpedoes or dropping bombs. These planes came from aircraft carriers.

So to defeat the enemy, you first had to destroy the runways that allowed the attacking aircraft to operate from the aircraft carriers. If planes could not be launched or could not land, they immediately became useless. Carriers could be sunk by aircraft zooming in low and dropping torpedoes, which would hole the ship at or under the waterline; or by dropping bombs, which would damage the ship, and hopefully ignite ammunition or fuel and seriously damage and eventually destroy the ship. These planes would also fire their machine guns at the target, hoping to cause further death and damage. Fighter planes would also be there to defend the attacking aircraft against other fighter planes launched from the carrier to defend it.

If the carriers could be destroyed, the other ships could be hunted down almost at leisure.

Each aircraft carrier had a 'screen' of other warships around it to protect it from air attack. The job of these surrounding ships was to shoot down attacking aircraft before they reached the carrier.
An aircraft carrier screen. The diagram shows the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown surrounded by a screen of cruisers and destroyers. The diameter of the "circle" is approximately 3.6 kms.
At the same time, the carrier would zig-zag at high speed to make itself a more difficult target. It would also launch fast and highly manoeuvrable fighter planes to attack the slower and more cumbersome attacking bombers.

So when you see newsreel footage or photographs of an attack, you are basically seeing:

attacking fighter aircraft protecting the accompanying attacking bomber aircraft

attacking bomber aircraft trying to get close to a carrier to launch torpedoes or drop bombs on it

these aircraft continuing on to machine gun the target

the protective screen of defending ships firing their guns to shoot down the attacking planes

defending fighters also helping to attack the enemy aircraft and protect the carriers.

How the Battle unfolded
The Battle area. The numbered circles refer to locations mentioned in the text below.
4 May

The sequence of events started on 4 May. A coastwatcher had reported seeing a fleet heading for Tulagi. The Yorktown launched its planes to attack. They did some damage, but the main part of the invasion fleet was actually sailing from Rabaul towards Port Moresby. (See Battle map - action number 1) The American Commander assumed the Japanese carriers would be protecting the flank of these transports, and started to steam towards New Guinea. The main Japanese carrier fleet, however, had in fact hoped to catch the Americans from the rear, and were about to enter the Coral Sea near the Solomon Islands. The opposing forces now tried to find each other in the vast area.

5-6 May

The opposing forces continued to search for each other by sending out reconnaissance flights. They occasionally re-fuelled to keep their tanks topped up, so that they had sufficient fuel to last through a long engagement involving high speed and long distances if required.

7 May

There were no sightings of the Japanese invasion fleet until 7 May. Planes from the Japanese carriers Zuikaku and Shokaku found the American fuel ship, USS Neosho, and its escort, USS Sims, and attacked and disabled them, believing at first that the tanker was a carrier. (See Battle map - action number 2) Meanwhile, planes fromLexington and Yorktown found the Shoho, and destroyed it. This was the first time the Japanese had been beaten in an engagement. (See Battle map - action number 3)

Part of the Allied fleet, including the two Australian ships, was now sent towards Papua to wait for and attack the expected Port Moresby invasion fleet. Unknown to the Allies the main Japanese invasion fleet had turned back - they were too vulnerable to land-based bombers without the air support of the Shoho.

This left the Australian ships waiting to engage an invasion fleet that would never come. But this did not mean they were safe. At one stage HMAS Australia was attacked by Japanese torpedo planes and bombers from Rabaul. Skilful manoeuvring of the ships meant that little damage was done. A number of US bombers saw this, but thought that they were American planes attacking a Japanese carrier, and joined in! Fortunately, they did no damage, and soon realised what was happening.

Searching and fighting could only be carried out safely and effectively during daylight. The Japanese gambled on finding the US force first, and sent out their planes late in the afternoon. This was risky. If they found the enemy and attacked it, they might cause great damage, and be able to come back the next day and finish off an 'easy' target; but if they did not find the ships, they would have to land back on their own carriers at night, a difficult and dangerous manoeuvre.

(Masatake Okuyima and Jiro Horikoshi, in Richard Hough, The Longest Battle, Cassell & Co, London, 1986, page 166):

Only eighteen out of the twenty-seven planes that had flown out that afternoon made it back. All the dead were veteran pilots, and could not be easily replaced by the Japanese.

8 May

On 8 May reconnaissance flights from both sets of carriers finally found each other simultaneously. Though 320 kilometres apart, they launched their planes to attack. The flights of warplanes passed each other, and some of the opposing pilots actually saw each other on their way to attack.

The main Battle

Each side now used all its weapons against the other. The attackers sent in their dive-bombers and torpedo-bombers, and were met by fighter planes and fire from the carriers and their screening ships. (See Battle map - action number 4)

There was great confusion during the battle, and there was great bravery - on both sides.

The Japanese spotter who located the American fleet on 8 May flew back and radioed in the details. Japanese fighters and bombers took off, but the spotter pilot was so anxious to make sure that they found their targets that he guided them back, despite knowing that he would not have enough fuel to return to his carrier and land. We can only presume that he crashed and died at sea.

During the attack on Shokaku an American aviator dived his plane to within only a few metres of the ship to ensure the bomb hit the target - even though he knew that his plane could not pull out of the dive. He crashed into the sea beside the ship, but his bomb landed right on target, and the Shokaku was doomed. These extracts from Australian, American and Japanese eye-witnesses involved in the conflict give some indication of the nature of the fighting that day.

(Ed Znosko, crewman on the USS Chicago, in Chris Coulthard-Clark, Action Stations Coral Sea, Allen &Unwin, Sydney, 1991 page 94):

(Jack Langrell, crewman aboard HMAS Australia, in Chris Coulthard-Clark, Action Stations Coral Sea, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1991 page 96):

(Stanley Johnston, crewman aboard USS Lexington, in Chris Coulthard-Clark,Action Stations Coral Sea, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1991 page 118):

(Shigekazu Shimazaki, commander of Zuikaku, in Chris Coulthard-Clark, Action Stations Coral Sea, Allen &Unwin, Sydney, 1991 page 119):

(Mervyn Johnston, crewman aboard HMAS Australia, in Chris Coulthard-Clark,Action Stations Coral Sea, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1991, page 125):

Hundreds of men died that day.

What was the outcome?

The US fleet suffered greater losses in the battle. US losses:

One carrier destroyed, one damaged, one oiler and one destroyer sunk, 66 aircraft lost, and 543 men killed or wounded.

Japanese losses:

One small carrier destroyed, one carrier severely damaged, one destroyer and three small naval ships sunk, 77 carrier aircraft lost, and 1074 men killed or wounded.

Why did the Battle turn out the way it did?

A large part of the outcome was due to Japanese complacency and failure of naval intelligence - they underestimated the strength of the forces available to the US, believing that it could only provide one carrier instead of two. Thus, they did not assign to the invasion the full strength that was available to them.

The Japanese also made tactical mistakes - they wasted valuable searching hours while attacking a relatively unimportant target, the tanker. They also lost the gamble involved in searching for their targets during the late afternoon, resulting in the loss of irreplaceable combat-experienced air crew.

The Americans had the advantages of knowing what the enemy were planning, due to being able to intercept and decode their secret signals. The Americans had radar that could identify incoming enemy aircraft in time for them to scramble their own fighters into the air to attack them.

The Americans also had luck during their attack - the two Japanese carriers were about twelve kilometres apart and one was covered in cloud, so the US pilots could concentrate on one, free from the protective guns of the other. They destroyed theShokaku. This meant also that the Shokaku's planes, when they returned from attacking the US carriers, had to land on the Zuikaku; but that ship was unable to handle the number of planes arriving, and crew had to push landed planes overboard to allow more incoming ones to land. The Japanese lost 45 of the 72 aircraft operational at the outset of battle on 7 May.

The Allies sometimes needed that luck - as some of their weapons were decidedly inferior. The Devastator Torpedo Bomber, for example, had to fly low and slowly for a long period when coming in to release its torpedoes against the enemy, and in doing so became 'sitting ducks' for the gunners aboard the target ship. Then, even if the Devastators were able to release their torpedoes, they were likely not to stay on course, or if they did hit, not to explode!

The slowness of the Devastator also meant that the aircraft dropping bombs arrived at the target before them, and had to wait to carry out their attack formation of simultaneous high-level bombing and low-level torpedo strikes. The Japanese thus had time to disrupt the pattern and reduce its effectiveness.

In the longer term, however, the Allies gained far more from the engagement than did the Japanese.

The battle ended the proposed Japanese sea-borne invasion of Port Moresby. When they attacked the American fleet at Midway the next month, the weakened Japanese were met by a stronger Allied fleet than they had expected, and were defeated. This was the end of Japanese naval power in the Pacific.

Did the Battle of the Coral Sea save Australia from invasion?

In 1942 many people believed that Australia had been saved from invasion by the Battle of the Coral Sea. A speech at the time by Prime Minister John Curtin makes this clear.

(John Curtin in Chris Coulthard-Clark, Action Stations Coral Sea, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1991, page 129):

In Australia, those who knew what was happening were ready for the worst.

(WAAAF radar operator, quoted in Chris Coulthard-Clark, Action Stations Coral Sea, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1991, page 130):

Many modern historians now claim that there was no Japanese plan to invade Australia, therefore the Battle of the Coral Sea could not have stopped this invasion. There is truth in this, though in a complex way.

By early 1942 the Japanese had achieved their initial aim of having a defensible perimeter around their territorial gains.

A war plan of November 1941 identified areas to be rapidly occupied or destroyed as soon as the war situation permitted, and 'important points in the Australian area' were part of that.

But there was now disagreement between the Japanese Army and Navy leaders about what should be done next. The Army favoured continuing the offensive beyond New Britain, to include capturing Port Moresby, the Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Fiji and Samoa. This would cut off communication and supplies between Australia and the United States, thereby isolating Australia and negating its potential as a supplier of fighting personnel and commodities, and a base from which resurgent American military might could be applied against Japan's new possessions.

The Navy, however, advocated either a direct invasion of Australia, or a western advance against India and Ceylon.

Admiral Yamamoto had a third plan - to bring on a decisive naval confrontation against the United States as soon as possible, at Midway.

Yamamoto's plan of an invasion of Australia would take far more ships and men that Japan had available, so this plan was abandoned in favour of the Army plan to isolate Australia, and effectively force it out of the war.

The Navy's plan to force a confrontation at Midway went ahead in June 1942.Yorktown, which the Japanese had believed sunk at the Coral Sea, was able to take part at Midway, but the two Japanese carriers had not been repaired. The Coral Sea thus made some contribution to the outcome at Midway, where the Japanese Pacific fleet was virtually destroyed. This opened the way for the Allies to regain all the areas that had fallen to the Japanese in the Pacific, though only after several more years, and enormous losses.

How is the Battle of the Coral Sea remembered and commemorated in Australia?

Each year since 1946 Coral Sea Week has been celebrated in Australia with marches by service personnel from both Australia and the USA, and official functions for visiting American dignitaries. These celebrations express gratitude to the United States for its part in the battle, and the support given to Australia by America in World War 2.

More recently the commemorative emphasis has moved from the 'Battle that saved Australia' to the broader concept of the 'Battle for Australia', held on the first Wednesday in September. This now marks not only the Battle of the Coral Sea, but also the contribution and significance of all those who helped defend Australia at its most vulnerable time - the men on the Kokoda Track, the airmen in northern Australia and Papua, the sailors and merchant seamen keeping supply lines open, and the men and women in Australia in the services, as civilian workers, or volunteers on the home front.
Sources:
Richard Hough, The Longest Battle, The War at Sea 1939 - 1945, Cassell & Co, London, 1986.

S. L. Mayer (ed), The Japanese War Machine, Bison Books, Connecticut, 1976.

Chris Coulthard-Clark, Action Stations Coral Sea, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1991.
http://history.acusd.edu/gen/WW2Timeline/coral.htm http://www.microworks.net/pacific/Battles/coral-sea.htm
http://www.navy.gov.au and click on Historical facts and Figures, Battle of the Coral Sea.

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The Battle of Midway: Anatomy of a Decisive World War II Victory | Battle 360 | History

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Bringing to the Presidency his prestige as commanding general of the victorious forces in Europe during World War II, Dwight D. Eisenhower obtained a truce in Korea and worked incessantly during his two terms (1953-1961) to ease the tensions of the Cold War.

Bringing to the Presidency his prestige as commanding general of the victorious forces in Europe during World War II, Dwight D. Eisenhower obtained a truce in Korea and worked incessantly during his two terms to ease the tensions of the Cold War. He pursued the moderate policies of "Modern Republicanism," pointing out as he left office, "America is today the strongest, most influential, and most productive nation in the world."

Born in Texas in 1890, brought up in Abilene, Kansas, Eisenhower was the third of seven sons. He excelled in sports in high school, and received an appointment to West Point. Stationed in Texas as a second lieutenant, he met Mamie Geneva Doud, whom he married in 1916.

In his early Army career, he excelled in staff assignments, serving under Generals John J. Pershing, Douglas MacArthur, and Walter Krueger. After Pearl Harbor, General George C. Marshall called him to Washington for a war plans assignment. He commanded the Allied Forces landing in North Africa in November 1942; on D-Day, 1944, he was Supreme Commander of the troops invading France.

After the war, he became President of Columbia University, then took leave to assume supreme command over the new NATO forces being assembled in 1951. Republican emissaries to his headquarters near Paris persuaded him to run for President in 1952.

"I like Ike" was an irresistible slogan; Eisenhower won a sweeping victory.

Negotiating from military strength, he tried to reduce the strains of the Cold War. In 1953, the signing of a truce brought an armed peace along the border of South Korea. The death of Stalin the same year caused shifts in relations with Russia.

New Russian leaders consented to a peace treaty neutralizing Austria. Meanwhile, both Russia and the United States had developed hydrogen bombs. With the threat of such destructive force hanging over the world, Eisenhower, with the leaders of the British, French, and Russian governments, met at Geneva in July 1955.

The President proposed that the United States and Russia exchange blueprints of each other's military establishments and "provide within our countries facilities for aerial photography to the other country." The Russians greeted the proposal with silence, but were so cordial throughout the meetings that tensions relaxed.

Suddenly, in September 1955, Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in Denver, Colorado. After seven weeks he left the hospital, and in February 1956 doctors reported his recovery. In November he was elected for his second term.

In domestic policy the President pursued a middle course, continuing most of the New Deal and Fair Deal programs, emphasizing a balanced budget. As desegregation of schools began, he sent troops into Little Rock, Arkansas, to assure compliance with the orders of a Federal court; he also ordered the complete desegregation of the Armed Forces. "There must be no second class citizens in this country," he wrote.

Eisenhower concentrated on maintaining world peace. He watched with pleasure the development of his "atoms for peace" program-the loan of American uranium to "have not" nations for peaceful purposes.

Before he left office in January 1961, for his farm in Gettysburg, he urged the necessity of maintaining an adequate military strength, but cautioned that vast, long-continued military expenditures could breed potential dangers to our way of life. He concluded with a prayer for peace "in the goodness of time." Both themes remained timely and urgent when he died, after a long illness, on March 28, 1969.

For more information about President Eisenhower, please visit Dwight D. Eisenhower Library and Museum

Learn more about Dwight D. Eisenhower's spouse, Mamie Geneva Doud Eisenhower.

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Bringing to the Presidency his prestige as commanding general of the victorious forces in Europe during World War II, Dwight D. Eisenhower obtained a truce in Korea and worked incessantly during his two terms (1953-1961) to ease the tensions of the Cold War.

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Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel
Biography

Erwin Rommel was born in Heidenheim on November 15, 1891.

In 1910, he enlisted as a cadet to the 6th Battalion, 124th Infantry Regiment, at Weingarten, and in 1912 he received his lieutenant's certificate.

This young officer knows the war very early because in 1914, at the beginning of the First World War, he was only 23 years old. He turns out to be an excellent soldier very quickly, who stands up to the opposing military forces and pushes his men to walk long distances in the Alps in order to surprise and beat French troops stationed.

Decorated with the Order of Merit, he became a professor at the Potsdam War School after the war, then was appointed director of the Wiener-Neustadt War School and took the opportunity to publish a manual for German soldiers: " Die Infantry Greift An " ("The Infantry Attacks").

Hitler appointed him in 1938 as chief of staff at his headquarters. A year later, the Führer, satisfied with Rommel's work, put him at the head of his personal guard.

Between May and June 1940, Rommel began his second world war, and as commander of the 7th Armored Division during the invasion of France. At the head of the German armed forces, this division progresses very rapidly towards Lille and then takes the Maginot Line backwards, which it partly captures.

After the Campaign of France, Erwin Rommel is appointed commander of the German military forces Afrika Korps in North Africa where he develops his military spirit and imagines a large number of strategies and defenses that will be reused by some German general officers throughout the Second World War. On the field of operation, in the Allied and German headquarters, its reputation is great and the military world now knows it as the "Desert Fox".

After defeating the Allies in Libya, he won two more battles in North Africa where he inflicted serious defeats on American soldiers who had just arrived on the front and reached El-Alamein in June 1942, a year that sees Erwin Rommel move to Marshal's rank.

And Marshal Rommel sees far away: he wants to attack the Soviet troops via the Caucasus, once North Africa under control and secure. But the sequence of events prevents it from carrying out these operations, the Italians needing help and the supplies of German troops, chased and destroyed by the Allied air force, not allowing to drive the forces out of force. 'Africa.

But the British general Montgomery attacks in North Africa and conquers the city of El-Alamein. The only chance for Rommel is to regroup the German forces on a front line called Mareth, but the operation is delicate because it lacks men and equipment. Yet, against all odds, he manages to regroup his soldiers who defend Mareth.

In 1944, after having withdrawn him Afrika Korps, he receives the command of the army group B located in Normandy, in front of England. His delicate task is to defend the beaches of an Allied invasion. It develops defense techniques identical to those used in North Africa, floods innumerable fields at the rear of the coasts to prevent any drop or landing of gliders, and makes frequent visits to men stationed nearby. beaches, to verify that work is progressing.

Rommel is aware that the first hours of the Allied assault will be very important, and he writes to his wife a few weeks before the Normandy landings on June 6, 1944: " The 24 hours before the invasion will be paramount. we, as for the Allies, will be the longest day. "

And June 6, 1944, day of the invasion, Rommel is not in Normandy, but he celebrates in Germany the birthday of his wife. During the day, he returns to his command post at La Roche-Guyon and tries to repel the forces landed at sea, but he knows it is already too late.

On July 17, 1944, while returning from an inspection of the German front, fighter planes piloted by Allied airmen shot his vehicle at Vimoutiers. The driver of the car is fatally injured and Rommel narrowly escapes death.

On July 20, 1944 took place the attack against Hitler. Rommel, who had encouraged all attempts to suppress the Führer, was sacked from his post and his military career ended at that time. Hitler, convinced that Rommel participated in the attack of July 20, gives him the following two possibilities: either Rommel commits suicide and his death is passed for a death as a result of injuries.
or he appears before the People's Court before which he will be judged and executed as a traitor.

On October 14, 1944, he was taken to Ulm hospital in Germany, where he died after swallowing poison. Four days later, on October 18, Germany celebrated a grand funeral in honor of a military leader very much appreciated by the Germanic people.

Erwin Rommel is one of the only military leaders in Germany who has not been involved in war crimes cases. It is one of the legendary military figures of the Second World War.

Back to the German military personnel biographies menu

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Erwin Rommel - Biography - Battle of Normandy

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Erwin Rommel was born in Heidenheim on November 15, 1891.

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Watch D-Day Invasion of Normandy Clip | HISTORY Channel

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On June 6, 1944, Allied troops invade German-occupied France and face near certain death on the beaches of Normandy.

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World War II in HD: Battle of the Bulge | History

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75 years ago, a battle raged in the Pacific Theater of World War II.

Located roughly half way between Saipan and Tokyo, and directly under the flight path of B-29 Superfortress bombers headed to Japan, the island of Iwo Jima was a Japanese stronghold of crucial strategic importance and could not be bypassed. Not only would Iwo Jima make an excellent base for Allied fighters escorting B-29 raids, but it would also project the flank of the forthcoming invasion of Okinawa.

Three Marine divisions, more than 80,000 men, were assigned the task of taking the island, which was barely 10 square miles in area and dominated by 556 foot Mount Suribachi. The assault began on 19 Feb. 1945 following a terrific naval bombardment which Japanese LtGen Kuribayashi described as "far beyond description." The first wave of Marines had more trouble with the terrain than enemy fire, but the Japanese responded quickly from their dug in positions and swept the beaches with concentrated fire. Iwo Jima would be a very tough fight.

Battle of Iwo Jima Overview

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75 years ago, a battle raged in the Pacific Theater of World War II. Located roughly half way between Saipan and Tokyo, and directly under the flight path of B-29 Superfortress bombers headed to Japan, the island of Iwo Jima was a Japanese stronghold of crucial strategic importance and could not be bypassed.

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Overview

The island of Okinawa is the largest in the chain of islands known as the Ryukyus, which lie to the southwest of Japan. Taking Okinawa would provide Allied forces an airbase from which bombers could strike Japan and an advanced anchorage for Allied fleets. From Okinawa, US forces could increase air strikes against Japan and blockade important logistical routes, denying the home islands of vital commodities. Code named Operation Iceberg, the invasion of Okinawa and other islands in the Ryukyus began on April 1, 1945. Although the joint Army-Marine Corps landings on Okinawa were initially unopposed, the well dug-in Japanese defenders soon put-up fierce resistance.

The battle for Okinawa drug out over nearly three months and included some of the worst kamikaze attacks of the war. By the time Okinawa was secured by American forces on June 22, 1945, the United States had sustained over 49,000 casualties including more than 12,500 men killed or missing. Okinawans caught in the fighting suffered greatly, with an estimate as high as 150,000 civilians killed. Of the Japanese defending the island, an estimated 110,000 died. Some of the most well-known stories from the long fight include the heroics of conscientious objector Private Desmond Doss and the death of Ernie Pyle of Ie Shima. Twenty-four American military personnel we awarded the Medal of Honor for going above and beyond the call of duty. In American hands, the island provided a vital airfield in the final drive on Japan, as the Allies finally brought about Japanese surrender less than three months later.

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Battle of Okinawa | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans

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On April 1, 1945, more than 60,000 soldiers and US Marines of the US Tenth Army stormed ashore at Okinawa, in the final island battle before an anticipated invasion of mainland Japan.

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Harry S. Truman became President of the United States with the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on April 12, 1945. During his nearly eight years in office, Truman confronted enormous challenges in both foreign and domestic affairs. Truman's policies abroad, and especially toward the Soviet Union in the emerging Cold War, would become staples of American foreign policy for generations. At home, Truman protected and reinforced the New Deal reforms of his predecessor, guided the American economy from a war-time to a peace-time footing, and advanced the cause of African-American civil rights. Historians now rank Truman among the nation's best Presidents.

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Harry S. Truman became President of the United States with the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on April 12, 1945. During his nearly eight years in office, Truman confronted enormous challenges in both foreign and domestic affairs. Truman's policies abroad, and especially toward the Soviet Union in the emerging Cold War, would become staples of American foreign policy for generations.

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Hiroshima Day 2022: How The Atomic Bombs Ended The World War II

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Learn the details of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, and its consequences Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

[MUSIC PLAYING] On August 9, 1945, an American B29 bomber dropped an implosion fission bomb on the city of Nagasaki. Nagasaki was the secondary target that morning. And the bomber Bockscar spent 45 minutes over the city of Kokura before it left that city, because it could not find its aiming point through the clouds.

Nagasaki was hit with a much more powerful weapon than the Hiroshima bomb several days earlier. However, the unique terrain of Nagasaki-- the city is shaped roughly like an amphitheater-- limited the destruction of the bomb's initial blast. Although much of the city was destroyed, a significant portion of it did survive the bomb.

There were fewer casualties at Nagasaki than Hiroshima, largely owing to the terrain, although both cities suffered fewer immediate casualties than those suffered in the incendiary bombing of Tokyo, which took place several months earlier.

Allied planners, notably Robert McNamara, observed that if the war had gone the other way, the directors of the Allied Bombing Campaign would have been prosecuted as war criminals due to the deaths of civilians in the Allied Bombing Campaign of Japan. Nagasaki was thoroughly rebuilt after the war and remains one of Japan's key ports. Like Hiroshima, Nagasaki became a spiritual center of the peace and nuclear disarmament movement after the war.

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An infographic about the atomic bombing of Nagasaki explained

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MUSIC PLAYING] On August 9, 1945, an American B29 bomber dropped an implosion fission bomb on the city of Nagasaki. Nagasaki was the secondary target that morning. And the bomber Bockscar spent 45 minutes over the city of Kokura before it left that city, because it could not find its aiming point through the clouds.