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1. What do you understand by the term 'feminism?'
2. How wide is the gender gap in your country?
3. What have feminist movements achieved in your country?

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Interpretivism and the school of Frankfurt, warmer

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Interpretivism and the school of Frankfurt, warmer

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Go through the powerpoint for this class.

Slides 9 onwards introduce some of the key thinkers of the school of Frankfurt.

Read through the brief biographies on the powerpoint, and select on thinker, whichever one you are most drawn to or interested in! Find one aspect of that thinker that you find interesting from the powerpoint.

Conduct some research to find out a bit more - maybe there is a key term in the powerpoint that you'd like further information on/a better definition,  or maybe you want to find out more about one aspect of the thinkers' work/life.

Tell your partner why you selected the thinker, and what aspect you have done further research on.

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(Go over TI / marking scheme for formative assessment, and Intro to Interpretivism lecture which is helpful for essay topics 1 & 3)

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(Go over TI / marking scheme for formative assessment, and Intro to Interpretivism lecture which is helpful for essay topics 1 & 3)

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Short questionnaire about presentation assignment 

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Short questionnaire about presentation assignment 

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Worksheet -guided reading of 'on being sane in insane places' edited from VLE worksheet

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Worksheet -guided reading of 'on being sane in insane places' edited from VLE worksheet

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Questions to review content on VLE and to enhance knowledge of the literature review

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Questions to review content on VLE and to enhance knowledge of the literature review

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Student A: read text one and make notes on the questions. Student B: read text two and make notes on the quesions. Then get together with a partner (A/B pairs). Explain the text you read to your partner, using the notes you made to help you. Then read the opposite text and check to consolidate what your partner told you. 

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Student A: read text one and make notes on the questions. Student B: read text two and make notes on the quesions. Then get together with a partner (A/B pairs). Explain the text you read to your partner, using the notes you made to help you. Then read the opposite text and check to consolidate what your partner told you. 

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3 minutes:

How does Rationalism contrast with Empiricism?

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Introduction to Hume: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding

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Podcast link : Empiricism (intro to the topic)

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Podcast link : Empiricism (intro to the topic)

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/p004y28g

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Melvyn Bragg examines the 17th century idea that all knowledge arises from experience.

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1. What sections do you normally see in an academic research paper? (e.g. Literature review, Research questions.........)
2. What things make research trustworthy/untrustworthy?

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Review last week.

Discuss the questions:

- Explain a positivist approach to the social sciences

- Which big thinkers of this movement can you name?

- Can you remember any of the '5 principles ' of positivism?

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Formative assessment session - good cop bad cop 

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Formative assessment session - good cop bad cop 

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Peer feedback for formative paired presentations to acquaint students with the mark scheme and encourage active listening

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https://egap.org/resource/10-things-to-know-about-external-validity/#:~:text=External%20validity%20is%20another%20name,experiments%20carried%20out%20on%20college

https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/reliability-vs-validity/#:~:text=Reliability%20and%20validity%20are%20concepts,the%20accuracy%20of%20a%20measure.

Use the links above, along with the slides for this week, to help you with the following questions. Discuss the questions with a partner

- What is External Validity? How is this different from Internal Validity?
- What is reliability in research?
- In research, what is the Independent Variable? What is the Dependent Variable?
- What are some things that can threaten Validity / Reliability?

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Look through the slides for this week.

Discuss the following:
-What are the key things that first wave feminists were fighting for?

-What are the key things that second wave feminists were fighting for?

-What about third wave feminists?

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Ideal type - Max Weber simple definition

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Ideal type - Max Weber simple definition

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=it32fpD0QEQ

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0:00 / 4:07•Watch full video

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Ethical theory review - matching activity

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Ethical theory review - matching activity

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https://www.thoughtco.com/positivism-sociology-3026456

Questions:

1. Briefly outline what positivism is, according to the article
2. What are the five principles of Positivism? Try to explain in your own words
3. What are the three stages of cultural society, and what happened during each stage?
4. What does the article say about Positivism today?

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Positivism describes an approach to the study of society that specifically utilizes scientific evidence, such as experiments, statistics, and qualitative results, to reveal a truth about the way society functions. It is based on the assumption that it's possible to observe social life and establish reliable knowledge about its inner workings.

Positivism also argues that sociology should concern itself only with what can be observed with the senses and that theories of social life should be built in a rigid, linear, and methodical way on a base of verifiable fact. Nineteenth-century French philosopher Auguste Comte developed and defined the term in his books "The Course in Positive Philosophy" and "A General View of Positivism." He theorized that the knowledge gleaned from positivism can be used to affect the course of social change and improve the human condition.

Initially, Comte was primarily interested in establishing theories that he could test, with the main goal of improving our world once these theories were delineated. He wanted to uncover natural laws that could be applied to society, and he believed that the natural sciences, like biology and physics, were a stepping stone in the development of social science. He believed that just as gravity is a truth in the physical world, similar universal laws could be discovered in relation to society.

Comte, along with Emile Durkheim, wanted to create a distinct new field with its own group of scientific facts. He hoped that sociology would become the "queen science," one that was more important than the natural sciences that preceded it.

Five principles make up the theory of positivism. It asserts that the logic of inquiry is identical across all branches of science; the goal of inquiry is to explain, predict, and discover; and research should be observed empirically with human senses. Positivism also maintains that science is not the same as common sense, and it should be judged by logic and remain free of values.

Comte believed that society was passing through distinct stages and was then entering its third. The stages included the theological-military stage, the metaphysical-judicial stage, and the scientific-industrial society.

During the theological-military stage, society held strong beliefs about supernatural beings, slavery, and the military. The metaphysical-judicial stage saw a tremendous focus on political and legal structures that emerged as society evolved, and in the scientific-industrial stage, a positive philosophy of science was emerging due to advances in logical thinking and scientific inquiry.

Positivism has had relatively little influence on contemporary sociology because it is said to encourage a misleading emphasis on superficial facts without any attention to underlying mechanisms that cannot be observed. Instead, sociologists understand that the study of culture is complex and requires many complex methods necessary for research. For example, by using fieldwork, researchers immerse themselves in another culture to learn about it. Modern sociologists don't embrace the version of one "true" vision of society as a goal for sociology like Comte did.

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Positivism's Role in the Study of Sociology

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Positivism describes an approach to the study of society that specifically utilizes scientific evidence, such as experiments, statistics, and qualitative results, to reveal a truth about the way society functions. It is based on the assumption that it's possible to observe social life and establish reliable knowledge about its inner workings.

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Hume - Review, research, jigsaw reading task, comprehension questions - the copy principle, the problem of induction, the missing shade of blue (edited from VLE)

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Hume - Review, research, jigsaw reading task, comprehension questions - the copy principle, the problem of induction, the missing shade of blue (edited from VLE)

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Questions on the first 5 mins of the podcast

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Questions on the first 5 mins of the podcast

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You have 5 minutes to find the following information on the first 8 slides from the VLE ppt for this week.

1. Research QUESTIONS should be relevant and.... (4 criteria)
2. Find 6 Questions we should ask to find out if research is genuine
3. What are the 5 steps of the research process?

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Spinoza listening/mind map activity (with instructions)

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Spinoza listening/mind map activity (with instructions)

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Kahoot to revise week one terminology - Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology, Methods , plus differences in disciplines

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Kahoot to revise week one terminology - Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology, Methods , plus differences in disciplines

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https://create.kahoot.it/details/922ac57a-f2e4-4705-a3a2-952ec4cef340

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Worksheet on Asch Conformity Experiment (Use with Docs 1 and 2 below) 

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Worksheet on Asch Conformity Experiment (Use with Docs 1 and 2 below) 

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https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/suffrage-tales/

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To mark the 100-year commemorations of the Representation of the People Act, the Education Service worked with professional film-maker, Nigel Kellaway, to engage young people (aged 16-19) with suffrage records held at The National Archives. 'Suffrage Tales' is the outcome...

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https://revisesociology.com/2015/05/19/positivism-sociology-social-research/

1. What was the historical context that bought Positivism?
2. What does the article say about how Compte thinks we should study social phenomena ?
3. What did Durkheim believe and what did he study? Why was this important?
4. What are some of the criticisms of positivism mentioned in the article?

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This post provides a brief overview of Positivist Research Methods, which consist of a scientific approach to social research using quantitative data to ensure objectivity and reliability. (In contrast to the Interpretivist approach to research which favours qualitative data.)

The historical context of Positivism is that it emerged out of The Enlightenment and The Industrial Revolution....

The Enlightenment refers to a period of European history spanning from 1650 to 1800. During this time, the authority of the church was challenged as people started to believe that knowledge should be derived from science rather than from God. The Enlightenment witnessed the birth of modern science which lead to massive social changes. The following three core beliefs (there were others too!) emerged out of The Enlightenment:

Underlying laws explained how the universe and society work (wasn't just God's will)
Scientific study could reveal these laws.

All men could understand these laws (unlike religious belief - God's will is unknowable)

Laws could be applied to society to improve it (the belief in progress and the pursuit of happiness).

The Enlightenment, Industrialisation, 'Progress' and the Birth of Sociology

The 18th and 19th centuries saw a number of new scientific discoveries in the fields of physics, chemistry and biology. Most notably for students of Sociology, scientific discoveries lead to new technologies which in turn lead to industrialisation, or the growth of factory based production and the building of such things as railways.

This in turn lead to much social transformation - such as Urbanisation and the growth of what Marxists called the Proletariat. Many commentators from the early 19th century onwards were disturbed by the contradiction between the huge advances, or progress being made in science and industry and the apparent worsening of the lives of the majority. As hundreds of thousands of people flooded into expanding industrial city centres such as Manchester and elsewhere in Britain and Europe, these new urban centres were plagued with new social problems - most notably poverty, unemployment, and social unrest.

It was in this context that August Comte founded Sociology - Comte basically believed that if we can use scientific findings to bring about improvements in production through industrialisation then we can study the social world and figure out how to construct a better society that can combat social problems such as poverty, lack of education and crime.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857): The Founder of Scientific Sociology (aka Positivism)

Comte introduced the word "Sociology" in 1839. The term "Sociology" is derived from the Latin word Socius, meaning companion or associate, and the Greek word logos, meaning study or science. Thus, meaning of sociology is the science of society.

Comte concentrated his efforts to determine the nature of human society and the laws and principles underlying its growth and development. He also laboured to establish the methods to be employed in studying social phenomena.

Comte argued that social phenomena can be like physical phenomena copying the methods of natural sciences. He thought that it was time for inquiries into social problems and social phenomena to enter into this last stage. So, he recommended that the study of society be called the science of society, i. e. 'sociology'.

The General Ideas of Positivism - or The Scientific Method Applied to the Study of Sociology

1. Positivists believe that sociology can and should use the same methods and approaches to study the social world that "natural" sciences such as biology and physics use to investigate the physical world.

2. By adopting "scientific" techniques sociologists should be able, eventually, to uncover the laws that govern societies and social behaviour just as scientists have discovered the laws that govern the physical world.

3. Positivists believe that good, scientific research should reveal objective truths about the causes of social action - science tells us that water boils at 100 degrees and this is true irrespective of what the researcher thinks - good social research should tell us similar things about social action

4. Because positivists want to uncover the general laws that shape human behaviour, they are interested in looking at society as a whole. They are interested in explaining patterns of human behaviour or general social trends. In other words, they are interested in getting to the 'bigger picture'.

5. To do this, positivists use quantitative methods such as official statistics, structured questionnaires and social surveys. Statistical, numerical data is crucial to Positivist research. Positivists need to collect statistical information in order to make comparisons. And in order to uncover general social trends. It is much more difficult to make comparisons and uncover social trends with qualitative data.

6. These methods also allow the researcher to remain relatively detached from the research process - this way, the values of the researcher should not interfere with the results of the research and knowledge should be objective

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) - Positivism and Quantitative Sociology

The modern academic discipline of sociology began with the work of Émile Durkheim (1858-1917). While Durkheim rejected much of the details of Comte's philosophy "positivism", he retained and refined its method. Durkheim believed that sociology should be able to predict accurately the effect of particular changes in social organisation such as an increase in unemployment or a change in the education system.

Durkheim believed the primary means of researching society should be the Comparative Method which involves comparing groups and looking for correlations or relationships between 2 or more variables. This method essentially seeks to establish the cause and effect relationships in society by comparing variables.

Durkheim's Study of Suicide (1897)

Durkheim chose to study suicide because he thought that if he could prove that suicide, a very personal act, could be explained through social factors, then surely any action could be examined in such a way. Durkheim's method consisted of comparing the incidence of various social factors with number of cases of suicide. Durkheim did this work so well, that seventy years later his study was still being cited in textbooks as an excellent example of research methodology

The starting-point for Durkheim was a close analysis of the available official statistics, which showed that rates of suicide varied:
* From one country to another - countries experiencing rapid social change had higher suicide rates.
* Between different social groups - The divorced had higher suicide rates than the married.
* Between different religious groups - Protestants had higher suicide rates than Catholics

Durkheim noted that these rates were relatively stable over time for each group. The rates may have gone up or down, but the rates remained stable relative to each other. Durkheim theorised that if suicide was an entirely individual matter, untouched by the influence of social factors, it would be an astonishing coincidence if these statistical patterns remained so constant over a long period of time. Entirely individual decisions should lead to a random pattern.

Durkheim used his data to derive his now famous theory - that suicide rates increase when there is too little or too much social regulation or integration. Social Regulation is the extent to which there are clear norms and values in a society, while social integration is the extent to which people belong to society.

Even though this study is now almost 120 years old it remains the case that suicide rates still vary according to the levels of social integration and regulation.
Positivism and Social Facts
Durkheim argued that social trends are 'social facts' - they are real phenomena which exist independently of the individuals who make them up. He claimed that by if sociology limited itself to the study of social facts it could be more objective. He argued that these facts constrain individuals and help us to make predictions about the way societies change and evolve.
Some Criticisms of the Positivist Approach to Social Research

Treats individuals as if they passive and unthinking - Human beings are less predictable than Positivists suggest

Interpretivists argue that people's subjective realities are complex and this demands in-depth qualitative methods.

The statistics Positivists use to find their 'laws of society' might themselves be invalid, because of bias in the way they are collected.

By remaining detached we actually get a very shallow understanding of human behaviour.

Contents include:
Theory and Methods A Level Sociology Revision Bundle

If you like this sort of thing, then you might like my Theory and Methods Revision Bundle - specifically designed to get students through the theory and methods sections of A level sociology papers 1 and 3.

74 pages of revision notes

15 mind maps on various topics within theory and methods

Five theory and methods essays

'How to write methods in context essays'.

Signposting and Related Posts

This post was primarily written for students studying the second year compulsory Theory and Methods module.

Positivism is often contrasted to Interpretivism - and a summary of the differences can be found here: Positivism and Interpretivism - A Very Brief Overview.

They generally regard sociology as a science and the material above can be used on essay on that subject, and in a similar vein they also believe that sociology can be value free.

Functionalists are generally regarded as positivists, especially Emile Durkheim who was a student of Comte.

Positivists generally prefer quantitative data and so another related post is Official Statistics in Sociology

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Positivism, Sociology and Social Research

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This post provides a brief overview of Positivist Research Methods, which consist of a scientific approach to social research using quantitative data to ensure objectivity and reliability. (In contrast to the Interpretivist approach to research which favours qualitative data.) The historical context of Positivism is that it emerged out of The Enlightenment and The Industrial Revolution....

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A Priori or A Posteriori Flashcards | Quizlet

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PM606 Rationalism Empiricism Learn with flashcards, games and more — for free.

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To sum up, Hume’s copy principle refers to that a simple idea needs copy from our impressions when a compelx idea doesn’t need copy, it can be extracted from imagination, it can even be formed from a combination of simple ideas.

The “Missing Shade of Blue” basically opposed a problem to Hume’s copy principle that a simple idea can be formed without deriving it from impression, people could use their imagination as well as their learning skills to find the changing pattern of something and get conclusions from it.

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1. Compte's three stages of society (science and social development)
2. Theory of social science (what is the positivist belief founded on)
3. Methods in social science (how to find societal laws/truths)

(VLE slides 8-11)

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In Our Time - Descartes' 'Cogito' with listening instructions

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In Our Time - Descartes' 'Cogito' with listening instructions

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/b010mvcp

Instructions for students for how to use this podcast:

1. Listen to the podcast from 15 mins - 25 mins (when they talk about 'The Meditations'). As you listen, take notes, then think of three comprehension questions for your partner to answer.
2. Exchange questions and answer each other's. Listen to the segment again if necessary.
3. Check with your partner if your answers to their questinos are correct.
4. Repeat this again for mins 25-33 (body/mind/Cartesian circle) and mins 33-43

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In Our Time - Cogito Ergo Sum - BBC Sounds

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Catch up on your favourite BBC radio show from your favourite DJ right here, whenever you like. Listen without limits with BBC Sounds.

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https://feminisminindia.com/2018/04/24/summary-first-wave-of-feminism/

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Feminism is often categorized as 'waves' - time periods aimed at elevating women's status in society and giving them equal rights. This describes the surge of activity at the beginning of a phase, which then reaches its peak, usually in the form of a concrete accomplishment and consequence of struggle.

The 'wave' then falls and lapses till another 'wave' forms. This classification helps us differentiate between movements with varied purposes and characteristics and create a broad timeline of the progression of feminism.

This narrative places the beginning and nucleus of the movement in the West. For the purpose of this article, I will trace the first wave in reference to the USA while acknowledging the contributions by early feminists all around the globe.

The first wave of feminism generally refers to the nineteenth and early twentieth century in the western world. This phase revolved largely around gaining basic legal rights for women that today we cannot imagine reality without. Politics and business were completely dominated by powerful men who didn't consider women capable enough to be a threat.

Women were confined to their households and didn't retain any control there as well. Unmarried women were seen as the property of their fathers, and married women the property of their husbands. They didn't have the ability to file for divorce or be granted custody of their children.

Marital rape as a concept was unheard of because it would require treating women as individuals with the power to make their own choices. Women who did work held low positions such as secretaries and worked largely in factories managed and controlled by men. As they had no right to vote in elections, calling them second-class citizens was an understatement.

The first wave was connected with the abolitionist movement in the USA at the time. Both the movements aimed at social reformation and liberation from oppression. The former from the patriarchy and the latter from racial bias. An example that reveals the extent of this link lies within the origins of the first wave itself.

The wave is often demarcated as officially beginning with the signing of the 'Declaration of Sentiments' at the , the first ever women's rights convention. The convention was created when Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott were denied seating at the 1840 Seneca Falls Convention World Anti-Slavery Convention in London. Many abolitionists were also feminists and thus the anti-slavery movement fueled the first wave and vice versa.

Suffrage, the right of women to vote in elections, became the goal of the movement with the formation of the American Equal Rights Association in 1866. When this organization collapsed, the National Women Suffrage Association (NWSA) was formed in early 1869. The American Women Suffrage Association (AWSA) formed later that year.

The solely female-led NWSA had a broad program and wanted to work towards the overall upliftment of women in society on the national stage whereas the AWSA focused on gaining the essential right to vote through state amendments. This divide led to a split in the movement, with little advancements made towards the Suffragist goal while significant improvements in higher education for women took place.

As the methods of the two bodies grew more alike over the years, they eventually merged into the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). In 1869, Wyoming became the first state to grant suffrage to women.

An unexpected source of support for the movement came from the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) in 1876, which advocated against the sale and consumption of alcohol. Members believed that allowing women greater entry into the public sphere would allow them to exercise a positive influence on the world. They thought women were morally superior and could become "citizen-mothers," reinforcing the stereotype that a woman's purpose was to be a mother and caretaker.

In 1916, the National Woman's Party (NWP) was formed by young feminist Alice Paul by breaking from NAWSA and aiming to achieve suffrage by working towards a constitutional amendment instead of state amendments. Inspired by British militant suffragists, the party staged demonstrations outside the White House and continued their campaign through the World War.

Also Read: The History Of 'Hysteria' And How Science Can Be Sexist

Members were arrested, went on hunger strikes, carried out picketing and used publicity to generate pressure on the Wilson administration in favour of suffrage. While they tried to refocus attention on the movement during the World War, the President of NAWSA supported the US's war effort, thus positioning NAWSA as a patriotic organization.

This became useful when lobbying in favour of the and its ratification by all states. The Amendment declared, Nineteenth Amendment" The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." Despite resistance from Southern Democrats, it passed in the Senate on 4 th June 1919 and was ratified last by Tennessee on 18 th August 1920.

In the common narrative of the Suffragist Movement, the first wave of feminism ends with this Amendment. This in itself shows the selective and exclusive nature of the movement. Women of colour were still practically disenfranchised, and the victory was only for white women. Black women were stopped from exercising their right to vote through tedious disenfranchisement tactics, facing bodily harm and even arrest.

The first wave had marginalized black women, who faced discrimination based on race as well as gender. While the NWSA initially worked towards suffrage for white and black women, with the entry of younger feminists into the organization, the goal became white-centric.

Members saw the support of black women as a liability, which was a hindrance to their cause. Due to widespread racism, especially in the southern states, white women were afraid of letting black women gain political power. With this increase in exclusion, black women formed separate organizations to work towards black suffrage.

The National Association of Colored Women (NACW) was founded in 1896 and the Alpha Suffrage Club founded in 1913 were some of the first bodies which fought for black suffrage and raised awareness amongst black communities. An argument used in support of white female suffrage was that of the "educated voter".

White women campaigning in favour of suffrage claimed that their education and political awareness would make them good voters and allow them to make informed decisions. Black women, who didn't have access to similar higher education could not stand behind this and became even more marginalized in the movement. When the case in favour of suffrage did not make space for the circumstances faced by black women, they could not share in the triumph of the Nineteenth Amendment.

Another group whose contributions are ignored is the Asian community in the US at the time.

Foreign-born Asians were not allowed to become US citizens, irrespective of how long they had resided in the US, and thus couldn't vote. This didn't mean that there were no contributions by Asians in the first wave.

In Portland, Oregon, 7 Chinese women attended a banquet of more than a hundred suffragists. There was also an organization for local equal suffrage for Chinese women run by S. K. Chan, a local physician. Another Asian member of the Suffrage Movement was , the first Chinese woman to graduate with a PhD from Columbia University.

She was a staunch advocate for women's right to vote and led a Chinese American contingent in a 1917 pro-suffrage parade in New York City. However, when the Nineteenth Amendment passed, she couldn't vote due to the disenfranchisement of Asian women being carried out.

While the first wave lacked inclusivity, it gave the world some of the fiercest and most dedicated feminists who inspired the women around and after them. Susan B. Anthony, an abolitionist and renowned suffragist was an invaluable leader of the movement. She campaigned for black suffrage, published the periodical, The Revolutionary, was President of NAWSA till the age of 80, resisted abuse and judgement and upheld her beliefs.

She cast a vote in the 1872 Presidential Election in protest for suffrage and was promptly arrested and charged a fine, which she refused to pay. Undeterred by the backlash, she lobbied in Congress in favour of suffrage and when the Nineteenth Amendment passed 14 years after her death, it was commonly called the Susan B Anthony Amendment.

A champion of black women's right to vote and the abolitionist movement was Sojourner Truth, a former slave who had become a preacher in the 1930s. She was charismatic and articulate and is remembered for her speech Ain't I A Woman which she gave at a women's rights conference when the discussion revolved only around white women.

She said, "That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain't I a woman?" She successfully points out the double standard existing within the movement at that time and was a voice for the black women who felt unrepresented.

The first wave of feminism set the stage for the second, which had a more expansive purview and extended the struggle for equality to other sections of society. It's white-centric nature led to the extreme marginalization of black women in the feminist movement, a problem that arose again years later in the second wave.

As feminism became more fleshed out and developed as a concept, feminists often took the achievements of the first wave for granted. First wave feminists were viewed as stuffy and part of a narrow-minded older generation. Despite its faults, the first wave lay the groundwork for future feminists and played a vital role in giving women basic legal rights.

Also Read: Suffragette And Princess Sophia Duleep Singh: Stranger To Fear | #IndianWomenInHistory
Featured Image Credit: Wikipedia

Tara loves poetry, discussing opinions and napping. She is happiest when she has a warm cup of chai in one hand and a book in the other.

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A Brief Summary Of The First Wave Of Feminism

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Feminism is often categorized as 'waves' - time periods aimed at elevating women's status in society and giving them equal rights. This describes the surge of activity at the beginning of a phase, which then reaches its peak, usually in the form of a concrete accomplishment and consequence of struggle.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-a739VjqdSI

Listen and make notes on:

-Utilitarianism (what is it? who are the founding fathers)
-The principle of Utility
-Act Utilitarianism
-Rule Utilitarianism

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Utilitarianism: Crash Course Philosophy #36

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Bentham and Mill quiz answers - check yours against mine 

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Bentham and Mill quiz answers - check yours against mine 

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Social experiments examples and questions - secret lives of four year olds

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Social experiments examples and questions - secret lives of four year olds

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1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJCRzgAPwE4&t=3s

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KD9-jnLD4lY

Watch the experiements.
In each one, what are the variables (e.g. The study measures how X impacts Y. What are X and Y?)

In each study, how are the conditions controlled? (environment/participants)

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Preparation for paired presentations - videos and guided questions on each of the three topics 

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Preparation for paired presentations - videos and guided questions on each of the three topics 

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According to Hume perceptions can be divided into impressions and ideas. Impressions mean our immediate feeling, it comes from our senses. Ideas are the faint copies of impressions. We can have a simple idea about single colour or single shape, we just copy it from our memory as we have seen it before. The theory about missing shade of blue can be a problem for the copy principle because we can form/imagine something new without a certain experience. It can be based on the sequence of resemblence.

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Study skills: How to read academic research / how to note take

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Study skills: How to read academic research / how to note take

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The above is an example of a detailed paper summary. You can make these for papers which are REALLY RELEVANT to your essay/project. You will NOT have time to make one of these for every paper you read. These are helpful to come back to when you come to writing your essay, so that you do. not need to read the whole paper again.

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Watch the video (up to 8.20)

Make notes on each of the three stages of humankind that Compte categorises.

How does the role of science change with each new stage?

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Auguste Comte: Positivism and the Three Stages (European Philosophers)

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Document 2 (Read from 'critical evaluation' onwards)

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Document 2 (Read from 'critical evaluation' onwards)

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https://www.simplypsychology.org/asch-conformity.html

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Solomon Asch - Conformity Experiment

By Dr. Saul McLeod, updated Dec 28, 2018

Solomon Asch conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform.

He believed that the main problem with Sherif's (1935) conformity experiment was that there was no correct answer to the ambiguous autokinetic experiment. How could we be sure that a person conformed when there was no correct answer?

Asch (1951) devised what is now regarded as a classic experiment in social psychology, whereby there was an obvious answer to a line judgment task.

If the participant gave an incorrect answer it would be clear that this was due to group pressure.

Experimental Procedure

Asch used a lab experiment to study conformity, whereby 50 male students from Swarthmore College in the USA participated in a 'vision test.'

Using a line judgment task, Asch put a naive participant in a room with seven confederates/stooges. The confederates had agreed in advance what their responses would be when presented with the line task.

The real participant did not know this and was led to believe that the other seven confederates/stooges were also real participants like themselves.

Each person in the room had to state aloud which comparison line (A, B or C) was most like the target line. The answer was always obvious. The real participant sat at the end of the row and gave his or her answer last.

There were 18 trials in total, and the confederates gave the wrong answer on 12 trials (called the critical trials). Asch was interested to see if the real participant would conform to the majority view.

Asch's experiment also had a control condition where there were no confederates, only a "real participant."

Findings

Asch measured the number of times each participant conformed to the majority view. On average, about one third (32%) of the participants who were placed in this situation went along and conformed with the clearly incorrect majority on the critical trials.

Over the 12 critical trials, about 75% of participants conformed at least once, and 25% of participants never conformed.

In the control group, with no pressure to conform to confederates, less than 1% of participants gave the wrong answer.

Conclusion

Why did the participants conform so readily? When they were interviewed after the experiment, most of them said that they did not really believe their conforming answers, but had gone along with the group for fear of being ridiculed or thought "peculiar.

A few of them said that they really did believe the group's answers were correct.

Apparently, people conform for two main reasons: because they want to fit in with the group (normative influence) and because they believe the group is better informed than they are (informational influence).

Critical Evaluation

One limitation of the study is that is used a biased sample. All the participants were male students who all belonged to the same age group. This means that the study lacks population validity and that the results cannot be generalized to females or older groups of people.

Another problem is that the experiment used an artificial task to measure conformity - judging line lengths. How often are we faced with making a judgment like the one Asch used, where the answer is plain to see?

This means that the study has low ecological validity and the results cannot be generalized to other real-life situations of conformity. Asch replied that he wanted to investigate a situation where the participants could be in no doubt what the correct answer was. In so doing he could explore the true limits of social influence.

Some critics thought the high levels of conformity found by Asch were a reflection of American, 1950's culture and told us more about the historical and cultural climate of the USA in the 1950s than then they do about the phenomena of conformity.

In the 1950s America was very conservative, involved in an anti-communist witch-hunt (which became known as McCarthyism) against anyone who was thought to hold sympathetic left-wing views. Conformity to American values was expected. Support for this comes from studies in the 1970s and 1980s that show lower conformity rates (e.g., Perrin & Spencer, 1980).

Perrin and Spencer (1980) suggested that the Asch effect was a "child of its time." They carried out an exact replication of the original Asch experiment using engineering, mathematics and chemistry students as subjects. They found that on only one out of 396 trials did an observer join the erroneous majority.

Perrin and Spencer argue that a cultural change has taken place in the value placed on conformity and obedience and in the position of students. In America in the 1950s students were unobtrusive members of society whereas now they occupy a free questioning role.

However, one problem in comparing this study with Asch is that very different types of participants are used. Perrin and Spencer used science and engineering students who might be expected to be more independent by training when it came to making perceptual judgments.

Finally, there are ethical issues: participants were not protected from psychological stress which may occur if they disagreed with the majority.

Evidence that participants in Asch-type situations are highly emotional was obtained by Back et al. (1963) who found that participants in the Asch situation had greatly increased levels of autonomic arousal.

This finding also suggests that they were in a conflict situation, finding it hard to decide whether to report what they saw or to conform to the opinion of others.

Asch also deceived the student volunteers claiming they were taking part in a 'vision' test; the real purpose was to see how the 'naive' participant would react to the behavior of the confederates. However, deception was necessary to produce valid results.

Asch Conformity Video Clip

The clip below is not from the original experiment in 1951, but an acted version for television from the 1970s.

Factors Affecting Conformity

In further trials, Asch (1952, 1956) changed the procedure (i.e., independent variables) to investigate which situational factors influenced the level of conformity (dependent variable).

His results and conclusions are given below:

Asch (1956) found that group size influenced whether subjects conformed. The bigger the majority group (no of confederates), the more people conformed, but only up to a certain point.

With one other person (i.e., confederate) in the group conformity was 3%, with two others it increased to 13%, and with three or more it was 32% (or 1/3).

Optimum conformity effects (32%) were found with a majority of 3. Increasing the size of the majority beyond three did not increase the levels of conformity found. Brown and Byrne (1997) suggest that people might suspect collusion if the majority rises beyond three or four.

According to Hogg & Vaughan (1995), the most robust finding is that conformity reaches its full extent with 3-5 person majority, with additional members having little effect.

Lack of Group Unanimity / Presence of an Ally

As conformity drops off with five members or more, it may be that it's the unanimity of the group (the confederates all agree with each other) which is more important than the size of the group.

In another variation of the original experiment, Asch broke up the unanimity (total agreement) of the group by introduced a dissenting confederate.

Asch (1956) found that even the presence of just one confederate that goes against the majority choice can reduce conformity as much as 80%.

For example, in the original experiment, 32% of participants conformed on the critical trials, whereas when one confederate gave the correct answer on all the critical trials conformity dropped to 5%.

This was supported in a study by Allen and Levine (1968). In their version of the experiment, they introduced a dissenting (disagreeing) confederate wearing thick-rimmed glasses - thus suggesting he was slightly visually impaired.

Even with this seemingly incompetent dissenter conformity dropped from 97% to 64%. Clearly, the presence of an ally decreases conformity.

The absence of group unanimity lowers overall conformity as participants feel less need for social approval of the group (re: normative conformity).

Difficulty of Task

When the (comparison) lines (e.g., A, B, C) were made more similar in length it was harder to judge the correct answer and conformity increased.

When we are uncertain, it seems we look to others for confirmation. The more difficult the task, the greater the conformity.

Answer in Private

When participants were allowed to answer in private (so the rest of the group does not know their response) conformity decreases.

This is because there are fewer group pressures and normative influence is not as powerful, as there is no fear of rejection from the group.

How to reference this article:
McLeod, S. A. (2018, Dec 28). Solomon Asch - Conformity Experiment. Retrieved Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/asch-conformity.html
APA Style References

Allen, V. L., & Levine, J. M. (1968). Social support, dissent and conformity. Sociometry, 138-149.

Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgment. In H. Guetzkow (ed.) Groups, leadership and men. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press.

Asch, S. E. (1952). Group forces in the modification and distortion of judgments.

Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological monographs: General and applied, 70(9), 1-70.

Back, K. W., Bogdonoff, M. D., Shaw, D. M., & Klein, R. F. (1963). An interpretation of experimental conformity through physiological measures. Behavioral Science, 8(1), 34.

Longman, W., Vaughan, G., & Hogg, M. (1995). Introduction to social psychology.

Perrin, S., & Spencer, C. (1980). The Asch effect: a child of its time? Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 32, 405-406.

Sherif, M., & Sherif, C. W. (1953). Groups in harmony and tension. New York: Harper & Row.

How to reference this article:
McLeod, S. A. (2018, Dec 28). Solomon Asch - Conformity Experiment. Retrieved Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/asch-conformity.html

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Asch Conformity Experiment - Simply Psychology

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By Dr. Saul McLeod, updated Dec 28, 2018 Solomon Asch conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform. He believed that the main problem with Sherif's (1935) conformity experiment was that there was no correct answer to the ambiguous autokinetic experiment.

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Also!

-People answer the first part of the question but not the second part. (e.g. 'compare and contrast Bentham and Mill's theories of Utilitarianism. Which of these would make a better ethical framework for research design?) The second part (in bold) is the key to the question - you need to critically engage, not just describe

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https://feminisminindia.com/2018/04/25/summary-second-wave-of-feminism/

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A Brief Summary Of The Second Wave Of Feminism

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The Second Wave of feminism is usually demarcated from the 1960s to the late 1980s. It was a reaction to women returning to their roles as housewives and mothers after the Second World War.

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Essay prep questions - discuss in your breakout rooms

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Essay prep questions - discuss in your breakout rooms

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-Find another example of a social sciences study which measures the effect of one variable on the other (the impact of X on human behaviour)
-Share it with your partner.
-Discuss - what are the variables? How is the environment controlled in the study? What is the causal link being described? Do you think the results of this study could be applied to a wider group/society at large?

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People's idea comes from the impressions which have been the memories of experiences.
As for single idea is just the copy of impression while complex idea dont need copy of impression and it can be something like combinations of impressions.

Missing Shad of Blue means the color we have not see before but we know it.
But according to the Copy Priciple, if we have not see this color before we cannot know it. So here are two amendments for it . The first solution is to weaker the principle “have been” to “can ” and the other solution is to explain it as an exception.

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Study Skills: How to read research/How to note take 

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Study Skills: How to read research/How to note take 

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-This type of table helps when you come to write your eventual project
-It allows you to look across multiple papers to find trends, themes, gaps in research, similar methodologies, etc.
-It is useful to have all of your research 'at a glance'

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Read the whole text first, ignoring the gaps. Then fill in the gaps with the words under the text

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https://feminisminindia.com/2018/04/27/brief-summary-third-wave-of-feminism/

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Read the first part here: A Brief Summary Of The First Wave Of Feminism and the second part here: A Brief Summary Of The Second Wave Of Feminism.

As feminism has evolved, it has branched out into different areas of discourse. It has become more difficult to define a wave and demarcate a time period within which activity is occurring.

Feminist thought and culture have become increasingly present around the world, with it adapting to a variety of circumstances. It is easier to narrate the suffrage struggle for the vote, and the second wave's push for the ERA than it is to define the Third Wave, a more recent and broad surge of feminist activity.

To understand the Third Wave, we must first understand the USA post the second wave 'sex wars.' The 'sex wars' was the name given to the open debate between groups within feminism over pornography and sexual activity. Anti-pornography feminists wanted to limit the porn industry because they believed it catered only to men and encouraged violence towards women. They wanted to end prostitution and saw it as a worst-case scenario for any woman.

Sex-positive feminists, on the other hand, argued that sexual liberation was a vital component of equality for women and that banning pornography was repressive and undemocratic. They believed that there were women who chose sex work that had to be accounted for.

The Third Wave of feminism began in a generation that had grown up with feminism and as such took the hard-earned accomplishments of the First and Second wave for granted. Third Wave feminists were quick to criticize earlier feminists, and to point out the flaws in their movements.

An argument often made was of the exclusive nature of the movements, and the marginalization of minorities in the mainstream. The Third Wave thus primarily tried to bring in communities that were previously left out of feminist goals and recognize the intersectionality of oppression. It focused on race and gender and grew out of the sex-positive debates of the second wave.

It is often demarcated as beginning in 1991 with Anita Hill accusing Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment. Both parties were African American, and Thomas was seen as a popular candidate for the nomination due to the need for African American presence in the Supreme Court. Hill came forward in front of the all-white male Senate, and Thomas retaliated by denying everything and claiming to be a victim of a " high-tech lynching ".

Hill was faced with tremendous backlash and her character was attacked instead of her testimony being believed. Her trial had been televised, and the sight of a black woman reporting the harassment to the clearly far from inclusive Senate impacted women all over America.

Despite Hill's accusations, Thomas was confirmed. In response to this, Rebecca Walker published a piece in Ms Magazine, founded by Gloria Steinem, supporting Hill and heralding the beginning of the Third Wave. She famously wrote, " I am not a post-feminism feminist. I am the third wave."

In the 1990s, there was a great deal of improvement in political representation and equality for women. By 1993, 5 women had joined the US Senate, and 1991 was often called the 'Year of the Woman'.

The first female Attorney General and first female Secretary of State took office. Hilary Clinton gave her famous ' Women's Rights are Human Rights' speech at the UN in 1995, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg became the second woman in the Supreme Court in 1993.

The Family Medical Leave Act which allowed employees to take unpaid leave for family and medical emergencies became law in 1993. The V iolence Against Women Act which improved justice for women who faced abuse was passed in 1995. These were significant achievements for the Third Wave and landmark decisions in US history.

The Third Wave of feminism was greatly focused on reproductive rights for women. Feminists advocated for a woman's right to make her own choices about her body and stated that it was a basic right to have access to birth control and abortion.

When the Supreme Court upheld the Partial Birth Abortion Ban Act and restrictions on abortion, there was a huge protest march called the 'March for Women's Lives' in Washington DC in 2004. Attended by activists, Second and Third Wave feminists and celebrities, the march showed how important the issue of reproductive rights was to the Third Wave. The Act was not repealed, and methods of limiting access to abortion such as parental or spousal consent continued.

The Third Wave is different from the and Second Waves as it spread further into pop culture and media, and laid emphasis on the voices of the young. Girl bands such as Riot Grrrl spread messages of female empowerment through punk rock and started discussions of patriarchy and body image amongst teenagers listening to their music.

The Vagina Monologues by Eve Ensler became a national hit and controversy, and expanded dialogue on violence against women. The BUST magazine began publishing in 1993 and added a feminist presence in the press.

Movies and television shows impacted the narrative of the Third Wave, such as Thelma and Louise, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, 30 Rock and Parks and Recreation. Strong female feminist characters became more common when adolescent girls became a powerful demographic in media and a generation of girls grew up in a completely different feminist environment than their mothers.

The Third Wave was concerned with reclaiming terms used to oppress or label women by the patriarchy and use them as tools of liberation. Terms like "bitch", "slut", "cunt", were embraced and claimed by feminists. The book Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women by Elizabeth Wurtzel published in 1999 is just one example of this.

Another is the reclaiming of 'slut' with the inception of SlutWalks. The idea was to send a message about the justification of rape by referring to a woman's clothing and appearance, and rape culture as a whole.

These walks received widespread support but also criticism for being counter-productive and detrimental to the feminist cause. While it seems appealing to strip these words of power over women, the long history of their violent and derogatory connotations should not be trivialised in the process.

Trans feminism was brought more into the mainstream in the Third Wave. The rights of trans persons were not included in feminism till recently and the need to acknowledge the legitimacy of their concerns was pressing. The discussions of gender, body image and sexuality that defined the Third Wave of feminism made it more inclusive to trans feminists. Even today there is ignorance among large sections of society about the identity of trans persons, but the Third Wave was important in taking the first steps towards educating others.

In India, the enfranchisement of women and equality by law were given at Independence. However, deep-rooted cultural and religious beliefs prevented the materialisation of dreams of gender equality post British-rule. Implementation of the law was weak, and social evils and injustices were still largely unregulated.

The 1980s and 90s were characterised by national protests against rapes which polarised society and confronted hypocrisies entrenched in the mindsets of many Indians. Debates over a woman's culpability in her own rape and the prevention of rape by curtailing the movement of women were frequent. Cases such as those of Hetal Parekh, Bhanwari Devi, and Pratibha Murthy triggered demonstrations across the country which resulted in legal victories for Indian women's groups.

Women's representation in politics did improve, with Mayawati becoming the first Scheduled Caste Chief Minister in 1995 and Sonia Gandhi the first female Leader of the Opposition in 1999. Pratibha Patil became the first female President of India in 2007 and Meira Kumar the first female Speaker of the Lok Sabha in 2009.

Despite these improvements, women in India still faced many issues such as unavailability of education, little right to property, domestic violence and sexual harassment to name only a few. There have been crucial changes to Indian law and politics but the issues of women from a variety of backgrounds still have to be resolved.

While the notion of "feminism" was derived from the West, India has had a long history of women's movements throughout its history. Today's Indian feminism can only be effective if it is informed by the unique historical and geographical experiences of Indian women and does not replicate the activity of the West.

From being too radical to disrespecting the work of its predecessors, the Third Wave of feminism has faced criticism on many fronts. It was less united than the First and Second Waves. It's goals less clear and causes more disputed. The very need for feminism in the 21 st century itself was called into question.

However, it's effect on societal perceptions and expectations from women was crucial in bringing them closer to equality in more spheres than ever before. The wave is said to have ended in 2012 when the social media-centered 'Fourth Wave' began.

Today, it's even more difficult to trace the narrative of feminism as it develops to tackle various conditions. Today's feminists have an obligation to learn about those who shaped the world they live in as well as acknowledge those who have been marginalised in the past, for their work is still essential and feminism has a long way to go.

References:
Author's note: This piece focuses on the Third Wave of feminism in the USA. The author acknowledges the exceptional contributions and achievements of feminists around the globe and has consciously limited the scope of the article.
Choose Your Plan!

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A Brief Summary Of The Third Wave Of Feminism

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Read the first part here: A Brief Summary Of The First Wave Of Feminism and the second part here: A Brief Summary Of The Second Wave Of Feminism . As feminism has evolved, it has branched out into different areas of discourse.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MLKrmw906TM&t=23s

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Cartesian Skepticism - Neo, Meet Rene: Crash Course Philosophy #5

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1 Idea must come from an impression, but we have no impression of efficacy in an event itself. However, the impression of efficacy is one produced in the mind.  2 The missing shade of blue is a case to show that we can imagine something that we have never seen before such as colour.complex idea comes from sense of ideas, complex ideas do not copy from impressions. we can imagine alien but never seen it. for Hume simple idea does need copy from simple impressions like feels. complex idea don't need to be copy like but simple idea does. all ideas from Hume just combination  from simple ideas. In Hume's idea a blend man cannot imagine colours but missing blue against his original idea.

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1. Look at the three social sciences papers in the tiles below (paper one, paper two and paper three)
2. Scan through the papers, thinking about the most important elements - what is the research trying to uncover? What are the research questions? What methodology have they chosen? How have they chosen their participants?
3. Try to complete the research synthesis table with notes in your own words

*** some tips ****
When you are reading alot of research papers to find good ones for your essay, you will not have time to read each one in lots of detail. Focus on the abstract, read that carefully. Try to locate the research questions. Look at the methodology and focus on the main findings and read the conclusion carefully. Other parts of the paper might, at this stage, be less relevant - e.g. the literature review, the limitations, the suggestions for further research.

Remember that some writers don't explicitly state their research questions. You might need to find these yourself or even formulate them yourself, based on your reading of the paper. If they don't tell you exactly what their questions are, then ask: What questions do you think they are trying to answer?

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Discuss the following questions, then read the text on the tile below to check your answers:

1. What is 'inductive reasoning'?
2. Why do positivists beleive that we should follow the methods of the natural sciences when studying society? what benefit does this approach have?
3. What kind of data is preferred by a positivist approach, qualitative or quantitative? Why ?

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https://www.masterclass.com/articles/first-wave-feminism#a-timeline-of-firstwave-feminism

https://literariness.org/2017/10/27/first-wave-feminism/

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L50ztAKQOrs&t=7s

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Spinoza's Theory of Knowledge (See links below for more video lectures on Modern Philosophy)

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The idea of the copy principle is that simple ideas come from simple impressions. Hume defines impressions as sensations and must come through experience. While ideas are the faint image of impressions.

The missing shade of blue is an example introduced by Hume to illustrate that the mind can form an idea without being exposed to sensory experience, it is seen as a problem by Hume as it contradicts what he has written.
Therefore it is possible to form an idea with out previous experience as seen in the missing shade of blue example due to the sequence of resemblance.

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Paper One - Effect of Student Participation in International Study

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Paper One - Effect of Student Participation in International Study

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Read the text to check your answers to the above discussion qus.

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https://literariness.org/2017/10/28/second-wave-feminism/

https://www.britannica.com/topic/feminism/The-second-wave-of-feminism

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Second wave feminism is a term used to describe a new period of feminist collective political activism and militancy which emerged in the late 1960s. The concept of 'waves' of feminism was itself only applied in the late 1960s and early 1970s and therefore its application to a previous era of female activism tells us a great deal about the dawning second wave. As Mary Evans reflects, 'if every generation has to re-invent the wheel - or tends to believe that it has just invented the wheel - so feminism in the West in the 1960s and 1970s took some time before it recognized its history and the longevity of the struggle that it represented' (1997: 7). Not only is the wave analogy a way of charting historical movement since feminism's first 'wave ', which dated roughly from the mid-nineteenth century to the 1920s, it signals a shift in the key political issues for feminist thought.

Whereas the first wave lobbied for women's enfranchisement via the vote and access to the professions as well as the right to own property, the second wave feminists talked in terms of 'liberation' from the oppressiveness of a patriarchally defined society. Equality had not been achieved by enfranchisement and so it was time to reflect on life beyond the public sphere. While the struggle for the vote remained the symbolic centre of first wave feminism, arguably for second wave feminists the key site of struggle was the female body itself - its representation and the meanings attached to the bald fact of biological difference. In this light, Simone de Beauvoir's famous declaration that 'One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman' (1972: 295) guided new thinking on the way gender differences were perceived as constructed so that women's chief battle was against the ideological positioning of women as much as their material position was of crucial importance to the first wave feminists.

De Beauvoir's The Second Sex, first published in 1949 (five years after French women were first enfranchised) was an important document for modern feminists, as was Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963), and second wave feminists were committed to building a body of knowledge which specifically addressed the ways in which women have historically been marginalised, both culturally and socially. Moreover, second wave feminism problematised what equality might achieve, not least because of the differing social roles women and men were still ideologically required to take, and gradually there was a greater focus on differences between men and women and the meanings attached to them. Second wave feminism often raised the possibility of enormous social change which would make existing social structures untenable, imbued as they were with patriarchal realities. These visions for social change ultimately depended on the broader lens of political allegiances - whether it be liberal, Marxist, radical and so forth. The revolutionary potential of such thought itself underscored the obstacles to realising such change, which would involve questioning the very fabric of people's private lives and emotional investments.

As discussed in the entry on Feminism, many of the women who gave feminism its new radical impetus were refugees from New Left and civil rights political movements. These radical feminists' decision to organise in small groups and to engage in consciousness raising, direct action and demonstrations that were more like street theatre, meant that this new brand of feminism, or the 'women's liberation movement' quickly communicated itself to the public consciousness. Though many of the media dismissed these 'women's libbers' as bra-burners and manhaters, the movement did seem to gain a groundswell of support from women in the USA and slightly later in Europe, from the late 1960s, and it did profoundly influence the shape of modern feminist thought much further afield.

Second wave feminism is not just about the emergence of a new radical feminism but it also marks key shifts in the politics of liberal and Marxist feminists. They too came to focus on debates which only emerged during this period and were defined much more by what Kate Millett had termed ' sexual politics' - such as the family, abortion, sexuality, the sexual division of labour, rape and domestic violence. For Marxist feminists in particular this meant a more marked shift from classic Marxist principles to a consideration of how gendered relations could be entered into a class based analysis of power. The idea fostered by the explosion of second wave radicalism, that anyone could 'join' the women's movement, encouraged a kind of inclusiveness which prompted the emergence of all kinds of sub-groupings, many of which were established to allow critical space for lesbians, women of colour and working-class women. The strengths of the second wave are that it created the conditions within which such heterogeneity was possible; the weakness was that it still came to be marked out by an informal 'mainstream' of white middle-class, heterosexual women who seemed at times reluctant to give anything but token space to dissenting or critical voices.

This notion that 'membership' of feminism is very much a question of political choice rather than a formal matter, is crucial to the identity and shape of second wave feminism. Jo Freeman puts it thus:

Membership in the movement is purely subjective - the participants are those who consider themselves participants - and not always accompanied by membership in a small group. Some of these groups require dues or, more often, regular attendance at meetings and participation in the common tasks. These requirements are not determinant of movement participation, however, as it is easy to quit one group and join another or even start one's own . . . Given its decentralised, segmentary, reticulate nature, the younger branch of the movement can best be described as a social system rather than a political organization. (1975: 104)

At times when it felt as if certain dominant voices were threatening to 'hijack' feminism for their own ends it is reassuring if also a little frustrating to remember that feminism still has no core orthodoxy and is still reinventing itself.

The view of feminism represented by Freeman is not one agreed by all. Christine Hoff Sommers in her book Who Stole Feminism? acts as if it is a movement with one rightful owner, as she tries to demonise much of the work of second wave activism - 'credos and intellectual fashions come and go but feminism itself - the pure and wholesome article first displayed at Seneca Falls in 1848 - is as American as apple pie and it will stay' (Sommers 1994: 275). Sommers implies here that second wave feminism derailed the 'authentic' movement which for her lies somewhere in feminism's first wave with the Seneca Falls Convention and its call for suffrage. But, just as the mutability of feminism itself makes it difficult for Sommers to make the claim that feminism has been 'stolen', so it is difficult to accuse Sommers of anti-feminism for suggesting it.
Although one can date the beginnings of the second wave as emerging around 1968, it is much harder to say whether it has ended or been supplanted by another wave of feminism. As we shall see in the entry on the so-called third wave, there has not been a subsequent groundswell of popular consciousness or an emerging political wing of feminism that has changed the fundamental terms of the second wave. Indeed, most commentators would agree that modern feminism lost its dynamism in the late 1980s and, although there is much evidence of effective grassroots feminist activism and support, much feminist energy has since been concentrated in the academy on women's studies programmes. Nonetheless it is clear that third wave activism has once again moved the debate into a new territory: whereas for the second wave it was into the personal lives and relationships of women, for the third wave it is into the miasma of the mass media, celebrating its contradictions as well as its possibilities.
In the entry on first wave feminism the usefulness of the 'wave' analogy was questioned. When we look back at the history of the second wave it is also beguiling to see the most productive insights being produced at the 'crest' of the activist wave up until the early 1980s. It is important, however, to accept that our 'memories' of those events (whether personal or mediated through historical accounts and documents) are structured and given meaning by the whole raft of feminist theory which succeeded it. What is certain, as Linda Nicholson remarks, is that 'something happened in the 1960s in ways of thinking about gender that continues to shape public and private life' (1997: 1).

Source: Fifty Key Concepts in Gender Studies Jane Pilcher and Imelda Whelehan Sage Publications, 2004.

FURTHER READING There are a number of different accounts of feminism available including Tong (1989), Whelehan (1995) and Evans (1997). For a selection of key critical essays from feminism's second wave, the collection edited by Nicholson (1997) is essential reading.

Categories: Feminism, Gender Studies

Tags: Betty Friedan, Christina Hoff Sommers, Feminism, First Wave Feminism, Gender, Jo Freeman, Kate Millett, Marxist Feminism, Mary Evans, second wave feminism, Sexual Politics, Simone de Beauvoir, The Feminine Mystique, The Second Sex

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Second wave feminism is a term used to describe a new period of feminist collective political activism and militancy which emerged in the late 1960s. The concept of 'waves' of feminism was itself only applied in the late 1960s and early 1970s and therefore its application to a previous era of female activism tells us...

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ideas are vague and inanimate, copied from impressions. But the difference in vitality between idea and impression is incomplete, and certain diseases can make the idea as active as the impression. Complex ideas do not necessarily come from impressions, only simple ideas come from impressions.

Missing blue is an exception to point out the incompletion of Hume’s principle. People will use their imagination to fill in the missing blue without deriving it from impression.

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Paper Two: The social impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on urban slums in Thailand 

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Paper Two: The social impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on urban slums in Thailand 

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Steps of the scientific method: https://www.simplypsychology.org/steps-of-the-scientific-method.html

Sociology and the scientific method video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZIwyNIdgJBE

Slides/Positivism revision questions on the VLE

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https://literariness.org/2017/10/29/third-wave-feminism/

https://www.britannica.com/topic/feminism/The-third-wave-of-feminism

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Third wave feminism has numerous definitions, but perhaps is best described in the most general terms as the feminism of a younger generation of women who acknowledge the legacy of second wave feminism, but also identify what they see as its limitations. These perceived limitations would include their sense that it remained too exclusively white and middle class, that it became a prescriptive movement which alienated ordinary women by making them feel guilty about enjoying aspects of individual self-expression such as cosmetics and fashion, but also sexuality - especially heterosexuality and its trappings, such as pornography. Moreover, most third wavers would assert that the historical and political conditions in which second wave feminism emerged no longer exist and therefore it does not chime with the experiences of today's women. Third wave feminists seem to largely be women who have grown up massively influenced by feminism, possibly with feminist mothers and relations, and accustomed to the existence of women's studies courses as the norm as well as academic interrogations of 'race' and class. These young, mainly university-educated women may well also have encountered post-structuralist and postmodernist theories, so that their approach to staple feminist concepts such as identity and sisterhood will be sceptical and challenging.

According to the conservative critic Rene Denfeld, the third wave was conceived by Rebecca Walker (daughter of the writer Alice Walker) and Shannon Liss in the early 1990s ( Denfeld 1995: 263), but it seems likely that the term was applied across a number of sources synchronically and, like the second wave, its history is dispersed and caught up with the political tendencies of the age. It is interesting to point out, though, that much of its impetus derives from the writings of women of colour. Most third wave feminists seem to separate their perspectives from so-called ' post-feminism'; as Lesley Heywood and Jennifer Drake assert, 'Let us be clear: "post-feminist" characterizes a group of young, conservative feminists who explicitly define themselves against and criticize feminists of the second wave' (1997: 1). They, conversely, seem very conscious of the second wave's recent history and may well see their work as part of a continuum of feminist radical thought and theorising. This is in opposition to some contemporary commentators on feminism such as Katie Roiphe, whose The Morning After (1994) portrayed US campuses as overrun with misguided feminist radicals exaggerating the dangers of date rape and sexual harassment to the detriment of relationships between men and women - clearly part of the conservative tendency rejected by third wavers.

Naomi Wolf, however, gets a more mixed reception, but her (1993) in many ways fits the third wave mould, particularly in her dismissal of what she calls 'victim feminism' - where women are supposedly encouraged to see themselves rendered passive by oppression within a second wave formulation. Wolf articulates her perspective as part of a generational shift in common with practically all third wave feminism whose genesis is based on a resistance to the 'old guard'or framed in terms of the need for the 'daughter' to break away from her feminist 'mother' in order to define her own agenda.

Third wave feminism seems to have emerged from the academy in the loosest sense - that its key spokespeople developed these ideas as a response to their own feminist education - but is equally present in popular cultural forms, as these feminists see their lives as just as powerfully shaped by popular culture, particularly music, television, film and literature. Media figures such as the rock star Courtney Love represent third wave icons in their tendency to refuse to adhere to a feminist party line, but also in their resistance to comply with the types of 'feminine' behaviour deemed compatible with media and mainstream success. The Riot Grrrl movement which began around 1991, has close links with the emergence of third wave feminism and illustrates their claim that popular culture can be the site of activism, and that media such as music can be used to communicate political messages. The musical style of Riot Grrrls was heavily influenced by 1970s' punk and it embraced punk's inclusivity - the idea that anyone with a passion for music, but perhaps without formal training, could be involved in performance. Their influence soon went beyond the music scene to a broader-based movement - the 1992 Riot Grrrl convention in Washington, DC, for example, had workshops on sexuality, rape, racism and domestic violence (Klein in Heywood and Drake 1997: 214). Examples of Riot Grrl and subsequent third wave activism include making music (not an inconsiderable ambition in an industry famously dominated by men), running record labels, publishing fanzines and setting up cultural events. As all this suggests, being part of feminism's third wave means realising one's own politics through the mass media and popular culture - this is diametrically opposed to the ambitions of second wave feminism to keep its 'authenticity' by generally shunning the blandishments of the media for fear of being absorbed by patriarchal power structures. Despite the marginal and maverick status of Riot Grrrl performers, there is more generally an investment in women who have made success in a man's world, using all the usual 'patriarchal' indicators of success, such as money, fame, media savvy. The sources for third wave inspiration reflect this cultural multi-lingualism, so that a third wave feminist is as likely to read Mary Wollstonecraft as she is to pick up Elizabeth Wurtzel's Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women (1999) or settle down to watch the latest episode of

Beyond their cultural tastes, third wavers pride themselves on their global perspective and there is a commitment to look at the material conditions of people's lives while embracing some of the key tenets of second wave feminism. Men and heterosexuality have a less problematic place in third wave feminism - and their analysis tends to take into account the dispossession of young males as well as females. In the USA in particular, its focus on a certain generation acts as a counterpoise to the characterisation of American generation-Xers as whining and idle.

It is certain that third wave activism is still in its relative infancy and that more academic commentaries will gradually emerge, which will themselves broaden its scope at the same time that they attempt to account for its particular philosophy. Very much at the heart of feminism's third wave is the sense of generational conflict - one generation claiming its own space and fashioning the movement in its own image - in fact 'generation X feminism' is defined by age more than anything else. This marks a very different transition from the first to second waves of feminism, where the shape of political action and feminist purpose was transformed from a discourse of rights to that of liberation. There are hints of good old second wave collective activity in the websites, the zines and the concerts such as Ladyfest (which began in 2000 and are happening across the USA and Europe), but it has a more individualist edge, reflecting among other things a radical suspicion of the politics of identity, and a marked shift to 'lifestyle' politics (the idea that your politics said something about your individual taste in the same way that your clothes, furniture and car did - and was in fact part of the 'package') evident since the mid-1980s. Of course second wave feminism was itself largely a 'young' movement, comprised mainly of women who were in their twenties and thirties during its height, but they have grown old with it and presumably never imagined that its essential message couldn't be conveyed to a new generation. Catherine Redfern, editor of the web-based The F-Word declares that 'Second wavers often misunderstand young women's enthusiasm for the term "third wave". They think it's because we don't respect their achievements or want to disassociate ourselves from them. In actual fact I think it simply demonstrates a desire to feel part of a movement with relevance to our own lives and to claim it for ourselves, to stress that feminism is active today, right now . . . a lot has changed between Gen X and the baby boomers, partly because of the achievements of 70s feminism. Having said that, feminism still has unfinished business' (Redfern 2002).

Source: Fifty Key Concepts in Gender Studies Jane Pilcher and Imelda Whelehan Sage Publications, 2004.

FURTHER READINGLesley Haywood and Jennifer Drake (1997) offer a lively account of the meanings of third wave feminism to date; Naomi Wolf (1993) is one of the most influential books for this generation of feminists. Because this is a movement that generates intense debate on the web, it is worth looking at some of the sites available, such as 'The third wave - Feminism for the new millennium' ( http://www.io.com/~wwwave/) or the UK's 'The FWord' ( http://www.thefword.org.uk).

Categories: Feminism, Gender Studies

Tags: Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women, Buffy, Catherine Redfern, Courtney Love, Elizabeth Wurtzel, Feminism, Fire with Fire, generation X feminism, Jennifer Drake, Katie Roiphe, Kristin Aune, Ladyfest, Lesley Heywood, Leslie Heywood Jennifer Drake, Linguistics, Mary Wollstonecraft, Naomi Wolf, Rebecca Walker, Reclaiming the F Word, Rene Denfeld, Riot Grrrl, Shannon Liss, The F-Word, The Morning After, Third Wave Agenda, Third Wave Feminism

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Third wave feminism has numerous definitions, but perhaps is best described in the most general terms as the feminism of a younger generation of women who acknowledge the legacy of second wave feminism, but also identify what they see as its limitations. These perceived limitations would include their sense that it remained too exclusively white...

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Locke, Berkeley, & Empiricism: Crash Course Philosophy #6

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Paper Three: Residents' perceptions of the impacts of Tourism on Community

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Paper Three: Residents' perceptions of the impacts of Tourism on Community

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Active listening table for presentations

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Active listening table for presentations