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Although Okinawa is a prefecture of Japan, the relationship between the Ryukyu Kingdom and Imperial Japan has led to a different status of Okinawa Prefecture, compared to other prefectures. For instance, Okinawa, following annexation, was stuck as neither a colony nor a prefecture. Most Okinawans shared the sentiment of wanting to be officially Japanese. However, stereotypes, lack of natural resources, and initial distrust in Okinawa, due to their previous alignment with China, had led to a slower incorporation of Okinawa into Japan. This difference is what has inspired me to study Ryukyu-Okinawa. Furthermore, there are many ideas to dive into in regards to Ryukyu-Okinawan history. For example:

How did attempts of Imperial Japan to eradicate Ryukyu-Okinawan culture impact Okinawans? Were these attempts successful? What are the resulting outcomes, presently? What role does music play in maintaining an Okinawan identity?

Why was Okinawa returned to Japan after WWII, considering its status as a colony of Japan?

Why does the Japanese government continue treating Okinawan Prefecture as a second-class prefecture? or to be more specific: Why does the Japanese government continue the establishment of U.S military bases on Okinawa despite high crime rates from military personnel?

Why is there an economic crisis in Okinawa? What has Japan done to aid Okinawa?

Why do Amejos prefer American GIs? Is the prejudice against Amejos common and is it increasing or decreasing?

Why is the 'militourism' industry of Okinawa so widespread?

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The Ryukyun Kingdom to Okinawan Prefecture: A Brief History

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The Ryukyun Kingdom to Okinawan Prefecture: A Brief History

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Attached is a timeline I made of some of the major events in the history of Ryukyu-Okinawa. This timeline includes the establishment of the Ryukyu kingdom and helps explain the subsequent colonial relationship between Ryukyu-Okinawa and Japan.

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Prominent military bases and America-inspired recreation areas for military personnel and/or Okinawans promote the idea that the U.S is the defender of Okinawa. Futhermore, Okinawans are restricted from U.S military zones whereas U.S military personnel are free to go essentially anywhere. This creates a sense of mystery that allows misrepresentation of U.S military bases that can be advantageous for the military's public image. For instance, Okinawans sick of the imposition of Japanese culture may seek out a more free American culture. The closest American influence comes from the military bases. Intersectional groups further oppressed, e.g. Okinawan women, may seek American companions. Okinawan women who seek American GIs are known as amejos in the community, which has a negative connotation. They can also be labelled as traitors (hikoumin) because they favour American men over Japanese or Okinawan men. Additionally, a vast majority of Okinawans oppose the U.S military bases; as a result, their preference may supposedly align them with the enemy (U.S). Some also argue that the participation in militourism may further perpetuate harmful stereotypes about Okinawan women (for example, being hyper-feminized).

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Foreign narratives often lack a division between the 'military' aspect and tourism aspect of Okinawa. This lack of division results in the collaboration of U.S military presence and the booming tourism industry in Okinawa, in which both are inseparable. For example, Rest and Recreation places, some of which may be available to both civilians and military personnel, are often centred around American themes which are nostalgic for Americans and novel for Okinawans. However, militourism further binds Okinawa to the military presence which amplifies previous narratives of Okinawa's status as a colony.

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Okinawa as a Colonial Prefecture (Meyer)

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Okinawa as a Colonial Prefecture (Meyer)

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Following Ryukyu's official annexation into Okinawa, the new prefecture retained its colonial identity. Below, I will discuss why the integration of Okinawa into Japan was stunted and delayed.

There was initial distrust between Okinawa and Japan. In fact, renaming Ryukyu to Okinawa proves as such. Ryukyu was transliterated from the Chinese name of the islands. Renaming Ryukyu to Okinawa showed Japanese ownership of Okinawa. It is important to note that a notable group of Okinawans believed it would be best to align themselves as Okinawans not Ryukyuns. Their reasoning became visible when Ryukyujin was intentionally mispronounced by Japanese as Rikijin, a derogatory word.

Contrary to popular belief, Okinawans did not particularly oppose the assimilation policies and ideologies of the Meiji and Taisho Era. Some policies were heavily opposed by the Okinawan people whereas other policies went relatively unopposed. What was the crux of the conflict was mostly the indecisiveness of Japanese policies. It was unclear as to whether Japan wished to completely eradicate Okinawan culture or to integrate it into the broader Japanese culture. For instance, certain Ryukyun traditions, education of Ryukyun history, and the Ryukyuan language were all targeted by the assimilation policies. However, aspects of the Ryukyuan religion were embraced and integrated into Shinto.

Okinawa throughout the Meiji Era, following annexation, can be summed by the Okinawan desire to prove their 'Japanese-ness' and their fear of being associated with Japanese colonies. This resulted in various efforts and theories to prove that Okinawa had always been Japanese. Moreover, the initial distrust in Okinawa from Japan caused a delay in a variety of aspects (e.g. economics and education). This delay was furthered due to the American occupation of Okinawa as a military colony, causing a breakup from mainland Japan and another period of initial distrust or 'othering' of Okinawa when it was integrated into Japan in 1972.

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Music as an Identity: Jidai no Nagare (The Flow of Time) (Nelson)

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Music as an Identity: Jidai no Nagare (The Flow of Time) (Nelson)

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A common icebreaker question is "What music do you listen to?" Music, for a long time, is reflective of one's likes-of what lyrics, melodies, or beats drift your boat. Of course one's likes and dislikes can be reflective of one's childhood, culture, and community. Therefore, it is equally understandable that music is an integral part of identity. Take the lyrics below of the song Jidai no Nagare. What message do you think the writer is trying to convey? Why might this message resonate with Okinawans?

Tū nu Yū kara Yamatu nu Yū

Yamatu nu Yū kara, Amerika yū

Hirumasa kawataru, kunu Uchinā

From the Chinese world to the Japanese world,

From the Japanese world to the American world,

How strangely it has changed, this Okinawa

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The Ryukyu shobun refers to the elaborate military invasion of Ryukyu ordered by the Shogun of Japan in 1609, in which the Shimazu Clan kidnapped the Ryukyun king from Shuri Castle to demand his loyalty to the Shogun.

The Ryukyu kingdom's loyalty to China, at the time leading up to Ryukyu shobun, made it hard for Japan to annex Ryukyu as the Okinawan Prefecture.

It is important to note that the Ryukyu shobun did not got unopposed. In fact, such opposition was organized by Shuri court members, albeit not all.

Japan and China's willingness to discuss potential borders for Okinawa that benefitted both parties shows that neither ever considered Okinawan interests. In fact, this theme is constantly displayed leading up to the Battle of Okinawa, after the Battle of Okinawa, and even today.

Lastly, why did Japan resort to violence during the Ryukyu Shobun to claim Okinawa Prefecture? Because the Japanese claim on Okinawan Prefecture was illegitimate from the get go.

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Many Okinawans get stuck in an unescapable pattern of mainland life-a life whose rules are dictated by another power. They seek a refuge from this demanding lifestyle and to rekindle with their culture; they do so through eisā. Eisā is a dance for the dead which is accompanied by drums, the sanshin (a stringed instrument), and chants. Okinawan men and women participate in Eisā to escort the dead during the festival of the dead (obon). Essentially, the performers long to been seen as something beyond their current identity. For example, their occupation. As part of the Sonda Eisā, they can be more-they can be proud and powerful of their identity as an Okinawan. Attached is an Eisā performance.

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Okinawan Eisa Dance Performance At Ryukyu Village

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America and Japan's Dual Empire (Ginoza)

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America and Japan's Dual Empire (Ginoza)

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"Ain't no mountain high enough, ain't no valley low enough to keep me from you." These are the lyrics from a Diana Ross song used by former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe to describe the Japan-United States relationship.

During the U.S occupation of Okinawa (1945-1972), there was a significant opposition to U.S occupation and military presence. Thus, many Okinawans advocated for the reversal of Okinawa back to Japan, believing that it would result in the demilitarization of Okinawa. However, when Okinawa was returned to Japan, not only were they not treated like other prefectures, but the U.S military rule on Okinawa continued. Okinawa is the price Japan is willing to pay for its desirable relationship with the U.S.

According to an article published in 2016, Okinawa houses 73.8% of the U.S military bases stationed in Japan; however, it makes up only 0.6% Japan's landmass. This inhumane concentration of military bases in such relatively small land cements the idea that Japan treats Okinawa as a second-class prefecture to maintain beneficial relationships with the U.S, especially when considering how the U.S military continues endangering Okinawans repeatedly. The military may protect Japan as a nation, but it certainly does not protect Okinawans.

Additionally, Governor Onega's reversal, in 2015, of a land permit that allowed the U.S to create a military base was opposed by the Japanese Defense Ministry. This further shows that Japan's interests do not align with Okinawan interests-in fact, they oppose Okinawan interests and welfare.

Essentially, there is a common theme of colonial powers to treat Okinawa as a colony, even in a post-colonial world. This theme has existed since centuries. For instance, when Japan officially annexed the Ryukyu Kingdom into Okinawa Prefecture, China opposed the annexation because they would lose their tribute money from Okinawa. Following the opposition, China and Japan considered dividing Okinawa to serve both Japanese and Chinese interests: ensuring protection of mainland Japan and receiving tribute from Okinawa. The ability to discuss Okinawa's future without Okinawa on the table is something that continues today. The continuation of such a narrative aims to eradicate Okinawan identity and rewrite Ryukyu-Okinawan history.

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This form of music is seen as 'authentic' because it is sung in a language that the mainland Japanese cannot understand and composed of melodies foreign to the mainland Japanese. However, many argue that minyō allows prominent Japanese figures to further emphasize a 'backward' portrayal of Okinawans, one that permisses the colonization of Okinawans. Nevertheless, minyō has become an integral part of Okinawan identity over centuries. In 1879, when Okinawa was formally annexed, Japan prohibited minyō. Furthermore, its existence has been endangered due to competition from mainstream Japanese and international music. However, small communities of minyō are still prominent in Okinawan, Japanese, and international spaces. Attached is a performance that depicts minyō.

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Musique japonaise traditionnelle — Ensemble Sakura, よさこい節, Yosakoi bushi (minyō)

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Attached is a song from the band, Minyo Crusaders. Their music can be thought of a hybrid of traditional Minyō music; they add some aspects inspired form other genres of music, while their music retains its Minyō status. Although they are based in Tokyo, their modern twist on traditional Minyō music shows another way how Japanese and Okinawan music is thriving.

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Gabe Masao on Ryukyu-Okinawa (Matsumura)

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Gabe Masao on Ryukyu-Okinawa (Matsumura)

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Gabe Masao, a renowned Okinawan historian, argues that to reduce the Ryukyun Kingdom to Okinawan Prefecture is to forget Okinawa's history as the Ryukyun Kingdom. It is to forget the cultural eradication imposed by Imperial Japan on the Ryukyun Kingdom preceding and following the Ryukyu shobun (when Ryukyu got formally annexed by Japan in 1879). Think about the influence a name can have on societal perception. For instance, how do colonized names of cities in Canada change the perception of Canadians regarding Indigenous Peoples?

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Epimetheus. The History of Okinawa (Rise and Fall of the Ryukyu Kingdom) Explained in 8 Minutes. (2019). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rKUI-j3iIo0&list=WL&index=13&pp=gAQBiAQB

Kingdom of Okinawa – The Venice of Asia DOCUMENTARY. (2023). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LYlnv6mjgAY&list=WL&index=12&pp=gAQBiAQB

Geo Perspective. (2020). Ryūkyū Kingdom: Japan’s forgotten war and Cultural Eradication of Okinawa. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HWYNYjdAxDU&list=WL&index=6&t=164s&pp=gAQBiAQB

Nelson, C. T. (2015). Against the Flow of Time: The Politics of Repetition in Postwar Japan. Journal of Popular Music Studies (Wiley-Blackwell), 27(4), 424–436. https://doi-org.ezproxy.kpu.ca:2443/10.1111/jpms.12149

Matsumura, W., & Loo, T. M. (2024). Gabe Masao in Translation: “From Ryūkyū to Okinawa” and “Actions toward Modern Japanese National Consciousness.” Pacific Historical Review, 93(4), 688–697. https://doi-org.ezproxy.kpu.ca:2443/10.1525/phr.2024.93.4.688

Real Time History. (2022). Okinawa 1945: Japan’s Last Stand. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ha5WvjOF7Rc&list=WL&index=8&pp=gAQBiAQB

The Armchair Historian. (2019). Battle of Okinawa | Animated History. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wl6riOsUJyw&list=WL&index=10&pp=gAQBiAQB

VICE Asia. (2021). Japan’s Stereotypes Against Amejo in Okinawa. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=70H0EA83dJA&list=WL&index=5&pp=gAQBiAQB

VICE Asia. (2021). The Dark Side of Japan’s Paradise Island | Trouble in Paradise. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yKccs-gaMZs&list=WL&index=14&pp=gAQBiAQB

Ginoza, A. (2016). R&R at the Intersection of US and Japanese Dual Empire: Okinawan Women and Decolonizing Militarized Heterosexuality. American Quarterly, 68(3), 583–591. https://doi-org.ezproxy.kpu.ca:2443/10.1353/aq.2016.0054

Meyer, S. (2020). Between a Forgotten Colony and an Abandoned Prefecture: Okinawa's Experience of Becoming Japanese in the Meiji and Taishō Eras. The Asia-Pacific Journal, 18(7), 1-16. https://apjjf.org/2020/20/meyer