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Russian Industry and Modernity in the 1850s

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Russian Industry and Modernity in the 1850s

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Russian industry in the 1850s was very limited as it had a primarily agrarian-based economy. It was technologically behind Western Europe as their industry was small. The majority of the rural population remained as serfs with limited mobility, weakening a labour supply for industry.

The key industrial sectors in Russia included small-scale textiles and mining. The urban working classes were limited as most of the population resided in the countryside under serfdom. Literacy and technical training among the peasantry was extremely low.

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Prussian Industry and Modernity in the 1850s

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Prussian Industry and Modernity in the 1850s

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By the time of the 1850s, Prussia saw massive industrial takeoff in the Ruhr, Rhineland, Silesia and parts of Saxony with growing manufacturing and mining.

Rapid railway construction was a central catalyst for national market integration and industrial investment. Their key sectors included coal, iron and steel, machinery, tools and early chemical and engineering firms that had expanded rapidly.

In terms of modernisation, Prussia already saw agrarian reforms with the emancipation of the serfs in the 1807, they were urbanising at a fast pace with a growing industrial proletariat, their literacy was rising as was their technical training.

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A Comparison of 1850s Russia and Prussia

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A Comparison of 1850s Russia and Prussia

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Prussia was at a clear lead in regards to industry at this time, as it largely benefitted from freed peasants and mobile labour. Prussia's expansion of railways was much more vast and rapid than Russia's as their rail projects were strategic state projects rather than ones driven by market demands.

The industrial regions in Prussia were strong, while Russian industry remained small and concentrated. By the end of the decade, Prussia was visibly modernising and laying foundations for large-scale industrialisation; Russia remained only beginning its transition with structural constraints that delayed a broad industrial breakthrough.

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Alexander II Ascends to the Throne in 1855 until 1881 - His Reforms and Challenges 

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Alexander II Ascends to the Throne in 1855 until 1881 - His Reforms and Challenges 

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Alexander II became Tsar of Russia in 1855 and initiated a new modernisation of Russia, though he had become more conservative as his reign progressed.

In 1861, he had emancipated serfdom and the feudal system within Russia, freeing millions from borderline slavery and creating a new labour force for industrialisation.

By 1864, he had modernised the legal system by creating an independent judiciary which established principles of equality before the law, introducing jury trials and allowing defendants legal counsel.

Throughout the 1860s and 1870s, he had rapidly expanded railway networks, such as the Moscow to St. Petersburg line, and growths in industry and banking.

In 1874, he had introduced universal military conscription for all social classes, as it was previously just for the peasantry. He had reduced the service time from 25 years to 6 years of active duty as well as modernising training, equipment and military organisation.

Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 in St. Petersburg by a a member of the Narodnaya Volya, a radical opposition group.

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German Unification and the Impacts on its Industry - 1871

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German Unification and the Impacts on its Industry - 1871

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The unification of Germany in 1871 under Otto von Bismarck was a tremendous change not only geographically but also industrially.

It accelerated national market integration and state support for rail and armaments, there was rapid heavy industry growth in coal, steel and iron as firms began to expand and the growing proletariat population fed into the demands of labour.

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Alexander III Becomes Tsar in 1881 until 1894 - His Drawbacks to Modernisation

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Alexander III Becomes Tsar in 1881 until 1894 - His Drawbacks to Modernisation

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Alexander III rejected constitutional reform and reinforced absolute monarchy.

One of his first acts in 1881 was the creation of the Okhrana, a secret police to suppress revolutionary activity. In 1882 he also had expanded censorship under the "Temporary Regulations", allowing arbitrary arrests and restricted public gatherings.

During 1885 until 1889, he had intensified Russification in Poland, Finland and the Baltics, making Russian the mandatory language in schools and administration. Non-Orthodox religions and minority cultures faced a lot more oppression.

Alexander III had died in 1894 from kidney failure and was succeeded by his son, Tsar Nicholas II.

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A Comparison of German and Russian Industry and Modernisation by the End of the Century

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A Comparison of German and Russian Industry and Modernisation by the End of the Century

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By the 1890s, Germany was an industrial powerhouse as it was highly advanced in steel, chemicals and electrical industries, Russia's industry was still emerging but still rapidly developing. Germany's industrial regions were still strong in the Ruhr, Rhineland, Saxony and Berlin, while Russian regions were more concentrated to St. Petersburg and Moscow.

Russia saw a rapidly growing urban and unorganised working class and while Germany also had a large urban proletariat, they also had organised unions and a rising skill force, unlike Russia.

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Tsar Nicholas II's Struggles and Attempts at Reformation from 1894 until 1904

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Tsar Nicholas II's Struggles and Attempts at Reformation from 1894 until 1904

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While Nicholas II was personally conservative and resistant to political reform, the pressures driven by his ministers and social unrest saw many attempts at modernisation and significant industrial growth.

From 1894 until 1904, Nicholas's finance minister, Sergei Witte, led a major industrial push by expanding the railway networks, adopting the gold standard in order to stabilise the ruble, encouraging foreign investments and protective tariffs to support domestic industry and saw a growth in coal, steel and oil production.

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Following Bloody Sunday, the 1905 Revolution had begun, marking a major distain for Russia's current absolute monarchy. The revolution had started as numerous strikes which had spread across major cities as well as the formation of workers' councils (soviets) in some areas.

To combat this, in August 1905, the Tsar made attempts to appease the revolutionaries such as proposing a consultative assembly with limited powers, but this was rejected as inadequate.

In October 1905, Tsar Nicholas II issued a manifesto promising civil liberties such as speech, assembly and press as well as the creation of a legislative Duma. This had temporarily calmed liberal opposition but had failed to satisfy radicals.

By the time of December 1905, workers and revolutionaries in Moscow had staged an armed insurrection however it had been brutally suppressed by government forces. This marked the end of the 1905 revolution.

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Tsar Nicholas's Reign during World War I - 1914 until 1917

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Tsar Nicholas's Reign during World War I - 1914 until 1917

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Russia entered World War I in August 1914 with the largest army in Europe but still holding outdated infrastructure and limited industrial capacity. Their poor rail networks, inadequate arms production and supply shortages made them heavily dependent on foreign imports which severely strained their economy.

In 1915, the government had created the War Industries Committees to coordinate production and mobilise private industry, the growth in armaments production had severely strained the railways and transport systems as they began to collapse under military demand, further affecting civilian supply chains. In September 1915, Tsar Nicholas II assumed personal command of the Russian armed forces, the decision came after a series of military defeats. He had hoped to inspire loyalty and boost morale, however, he lacked military experience and strategic skill which caused numerous military blunders and subsequently put all of the blame on himself.

By 1916, Russia was facing severe shortages in food, fuel and consumer goods, causing inflation to soar and living conditions to plummet. Unrest among the peasantry was growing at a monumental rate, paving the way for a new revolution.

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The February Revolution was a major event as it spearheaded the start of a shift of Russia's methods in its industrialisation and modernisation efforts.

On the 23rd of February (8th of March) female textile workers in Petrograd started to strike over bread shortages and high prices due to the inflation caused by World War I, it was joined by thousands of workers as mass demonstrations began. By the 25th of February (10th of March), over 200,000 workers were striking in Petrograd as clashes with police intensified. The economic focus of the revolution shifted to political with demands of the Tsar's abdication spread.

The Tsar attempted to suppress the protest through the military, with some soldiers opening fire on crowds, however many refused orders or mutinied, instead joining the demonstrators. By the 27th of February (12th of March), police stations and government buildings are attacked, the Duma forms the Provisional Committee and the Petrograd Soviet is established by workers and soldiers, both holding dual power.

Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on the 2nd of March (15th of March), marking the end of the Romanov dynasty and over 300 years of autocratic rule. He was later placed under house arrest and transferred to Siberia, then to a prison, before being executed with his wife and five children in a basement by the Bolsheviks in 1918.

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Although only lasting a few days, the October Revolution marked another major shift in government, from the more liberal Provisional Government to the more extremist Bolsheviks following Lenin and Trotsky's rise to power. It is important to note that the October Revolution is less of a revolution and more of a coup d'etat coordinated by the Bolsheviks.

The Bolsheviks began with occupying key infrastructure in Petrograd such as bridges, telegraph stations and railways on the 24th of October. This moved to the Bolshevik Red Guards seizing government buildings and eventually the Winter Palace, the seat of the Provisional Government, being stormed the next day, with ministers being arrested and the prime minister fleeing.

On the 26th of October, Lenin announced the overthrow of the Provisional Government as the Bolsheviks declare the formation of the Council of People's Commissars, with Lenin as chairman. Decrees on peace and land distribution were issued immediately.

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Germany's Industry During the First World War - 1914 until 1918

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Germany's Industry During the First World War - 1914 until 1918

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Germany rapidly shifted from a civilian industrial economy to a tightly coordinated war economy after 1914, they had converted factories and created new links between the military, industry and scientific institutions in an attempt to sustain prolonged mass warfare.

Armament production intensified by 1915, as women are employed in factories to replace conscripted workers. More industry is brought in, such as rubber, in order to replace imports blocked by Allied naval blockades.

Industry reached a peak output by 1916 as the Hindenburg Program launched to double armaments production, coal and steel output also peaks but transport bottlenecks and labour shortages emerge. It is important to note that food shortages worsened during this time, leading to rationing.

By 1917, strikes and unrest increased due to inflation, food scarcity and long working hours. War fatigue also affected productivity and morale causing the industrial output to plateau.

1918 marks the end of the war, industrial production faltered under resource exhaustion. By November 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, marking the end of an empire. The Weimar republic was formed and left with mass inflation, debt and war guilt.

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A Comparison of German and Russian Industry during the First World War 

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A Comparison of German and Russian Industry during the First World War 

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During the First World War, German and Russian industry differed drastically as the industry in Germany was already advanced with strong heavy, chemical and engineering sectors. Russia, on the other hand, was still developing their industrial base and remained largely agrarian.

Germany had a large labour force as their large industrial regions employed women, prisoners of war and forced labour from occupied territories. Russia, much like Germany, did suffer labour shortages but to more of a degree due to their lack of industry in general. They also employed women as well as peasants to fill the gaps of conscription.

In a similarity, the strikes and unrest of the Russian revolutions practically halted their industrial capacity and Germany suffered great losses to their industrial infrastructure due to their loss of World War One.

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Lenin's Efforts into Modernising and Industrialising Russia under Communism - 1918 until 1924 

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Lenin's Efforts into Modernising and Industrialising Russia under Communism - 1918 until 1924 

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From 1918 until 1921, Lenin began the nationalisation of industry during the ongoing Russian civil war causing the industrial output to collapse as famine and unrest spread.

In 1921, he introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), which allowed small-scale private enterprise and market trade, though the state still retained control of heavy industry, banking and foreign trade causing an industrial recovery but modernisation still remaining limited.

Lenin passed away on the 21st of January, 1924 due to numerous strokes.

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German Industry Post-War and under the Weimar Republic - 1919 until 1933

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German Industry Post-War and under the Weimar Republic - 1919 until 1933

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As the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 imposed reparations and major territorial losses, the industrial capacity weakened significantly, factories struggled to reconvert to civilian production.

From 1920 until 1923, hyperinflation caused by reparation payments caused the mark to be nearly worthless. The industrial output in Germany stagnated as there was a raw material scarcity and a collapsing domestic demand. The occupation of the Ruhr in 1923 after missed reparations payments triggered passive resistance and furthered economic disruption.

1924 until 1929 saw a new boom in the Weimar Republic as the Dawes Plan in 1924 by US-backed loans and a reparations restructuration restored some level of financial stability. The introduction of the new currency, the rentenmark, stabilised prices and restored investor confidence causing a new industrial boom. Sectors like chemicals, steel and electrical engineering boomed once again. A new wave of modernisation also hit the Weimar Republic as an adoption of American-style mass production, rationalisation and technical innovation formed.

The Wall Street Crash in 1929 had hit Germany significantly due to their reliance on foreign loans, their industrial output fell sharply as unemployment surged to over 6 million by 1932. Political radicalisation becomes normalised in their economic despair, and so rises a new Nazi party.

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The Early Era of Stalin and Rapid Industrialisation - 1924 until 1938

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The Early Era of Stalin and Rapid Industrialisation - 1924 until 1938

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Stalin came to power after Lenin's death and took steps for rapid industrialisation from 1928. It is also important to note that despite being a communist state, the working conditions under Stalin were often harsh, exploitative and dangerous, primarily in the early stages of the rapid modernisation.

The 1st of October, 1928 saw Stalin's first Five Year Plan which launched rapid industrialisation and focused on heavy industry such as coal, steel and machinery. A forced collectivisation of agriculture began, aiming to modernise farming and fund industrial growth.

In 1932 until 1933, the consequences of collectivisation appeared as it led to widespread famine across all of the USSR, especially in Ukraine. Millions died as agricultural output collapsed.

From 1933 until 1937, Stalin launched the second Five Year Plan which continued industrial expansion with transport, mining and infrastructure.

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The Rise of Hitler and his Affects on German Industry - 1933 until 1938

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The Rise of Hitler and his Affects on German Industry - 1933 until 1938

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With the economic collapse of the Weimar Republic and the death of Hindenburg, Hitler becomes chancellor in 1933 amid mass unemployment and industrial stagnation.

From 1934 until 1936, Hitler started public works programs, such as the construction of the Autobahn, which boosted employment rates to nearly 100%, though these statistics only factored in German men. He also secretly started rearming, boosting steel, chemicals and machinery.

1936 until 1939 saw the Four Year Plan under Goring to prepare for war, this saw industry focus on synthetic fuel, rubber and armaments.

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Russian Industry during the Second World War - 1938 until 1945

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Russian Industry during the Second World War - 1938 until 1945

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Industry prior to World War II had been focused on recovering economy and defence against a capitalist invasion which had transformed the USSR a major industrial power in terms of weaponry and artillery.

The Third Five Year Plan from 1938 until 1941 only lasted three years due to an interruption due to Nazi invasion. It focused primarily on defence and armaments.

As World War II was in full-swing, more precisely from 1941 until 1945, the industry shifted to wartime production as factories were relocated eastward for protection. The USSR became a major military-industrial powerhouse.

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German Industry during the Second World War - 1939 until 1945

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German Industry during the Second World War - 1939 until 1945

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In 1939, civilian industries were rapidly converted into military production, though many factories had already been converted with Goring's Four Year Plan.

1940 and 1941 saw rapid expansion and mass exploitation with industry booming from resources and labour from occupied territories and concentration camps.

In 1942, centralised planning under Albert Speer boosted efficiency in aircraft and tank production. The use of forced and slave labour intensified.

Allied bombing campaigns started in 1943, targeting industrial centres such as the Ruhr and Hamburg, this cripples the infrastructure by 1944. Labour forces are mostly made up of prisoners of war and forced labourers.

By 1945, industrial output collapses amid invasion and occupation with many factories destroyed or abandoned. Hitler dies in a bunker.

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A Comparison of German and Russian Industry during the Second World War

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A Comparison of German and Russian Industry during the Second World War

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Some key differences between Germany's and Russia's industry during the Second World War include Germany's emphasis on quality and engineering precision, while Russia emphasised quantity, standardisation and rapid mass production. Germany's industrial locations remained extremely vulnerable to invasions such as the Ruhr while Russia's remained in elusive zones such as Siberia.

A similarity between the two is their labour force, both Germany and Russia relied heavily on the labour of women, and forced labourers from camps.

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Post-War Recovery and the Death of Stalin - 1946 until 1953

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Post-War Recovery and the Death of Stalin - 1946 until 1953

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The USSR faced mass destruction and a massive loss of soldiers by the end of the Second World War, with an estimated 20-25 million Soviet deaths. Stalin sought to rebuild the USSR's infrastructure and industry.

The Fourth Five Year Plan from 1946 to 1950 was a post-war reconstruction of the USSR that restored the industrial capacity with an emphasis on heavy industry and military technology.

The death of Stalin on the 5th of March, 1953 marked an end to an era in industrial Soviet history.

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German Post War Recovery - 1946 until 1955

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German Post War Recovery - 1946 until 1955

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After total industrial collapse following World War II, allied occupation zones shipped factories eastward. Industrial output fell around 35% of prewar levels. Food and fuel shortages crippled productivity as barter economy started to dominate.

The Marshall Plan in 1947 sought to aid and rebuild infrastructure and industry starting by 1948. A new currency is introduced, the Deutsch Mark, as it stabilised prices and revived trade.

From 1949 to 1951, East and West Germany are founded, with the East adopting Soviet-style planning. Industrial production begins to rise rapidly, especially in steel, chemicals and machinery.

From 1952 until 1955, the GDP grows by nearly 10% as exports from Western Germany surge, especially to Western Europe and the US. The labour force also expands, with returning prisoners of war and refugees the productivity rises.

By 1955, West German industry regained prewar output levels.

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A Comparison of Post-War German and Russian Industry 

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A Comparison of Post-War German and Russian Industry 

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Both parties were devasted by war in 1946, with Germany's economy fragmented and Western USSR in ruins with around 25 million dead and major cities and factories destroyed.

Western Germany received aid from the Marshall Plan, however the USSR rejected it as tensions between the USSR and the US started to rise, they relied primarily on internal mobilisation and reparations from Eastern Europe and Germany.

Industrial output had recovered for the USSR by 1950, while it recovered by 1955 for West Germany. Germany also saw rising wages, consumer goods availability and housing reconstruction while the USSR saw slow improvement with rationing ending in 1947 and shortages and repression persisting.