# data[].attributes.body
After challenging and losing to incumbent president Gerald Ford in the 1976 Republican presidential primaries, Reagan won the Republican nomination and then a landslide victory over incumbent Democratic president Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election.

Causes:

Dissatisfaction with Jimmy Carter and liberalism

Dramatic conservative shift in American Politics

Effects:

Supply Side economics

Reaganomics

Increased Military Spending

End of Detente

# data[].attributes.body
In response to social change and liberalism, fundamentalist Christians began to mobilize as a political and social force in order to uphold traditional values.

Causes:

The Moral Majority

Economic downturns

Progress of Civil Rights movements

Effects:

Fusion of right and evangelical Christians

Debate over Roe v. Wade

Cultural polarization

Effects:

# data[].attributes.body
On November 4, 1979, Iranian students seized the embassy and detained more than 50 Americans, ranging from the Chargé d'Affaires to the most junior members of the staff, as hostages. The Iranians held the American diplomats hostage for 444 days.

Causes:

Jimmy Carter allowed the prime minister to come to America for medical care

Iranian hostility towards America

Effects:

Failed rescue attempt

Embarrassment of Jimmy Carter

# data[].attributes.body
The 1973 energy crisis was an oil shock that caused energy prices to skyrocket, resulting in fuel shortages in the United States. The crisis was caused by the refusal of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) to sell crude to the U.S.

Causes:

Retaliation for US aid to Israel

Effects:

Skyrocketing oil prices

Loss of faith in Jimmy Carter

# data[].attributes.body
Carter, a Democrat from Georgia, took office following his narrow victory over Republican incumbent president Gerald Ford in the 1976 presidential election. His presidency ended following his landslide defeat in the 1980 presidential election to Republican Ronald Reagan, after one term in office.

Causes:

Gerald Ford pardoned Nixon, making him unpopular

Watergate Scandal

Carter's Humanitarian concerns

Effects:

Carter focused more on humanitarian violations of the Soviet Union than easing relations, which grew tension

OPEC Crisis and Stagflation

Mediated Treaty between Egypt and Israel

Election of Reagan

# data[].attributes.body
Robbers connected to President Richard Nixon’s reelection campaign had been caught wiretapping phones and stealing documents.

Causes:

Desire to dig up dirt on democrats

Unscrupulous tactics

Effects:

Tarnished Nixon's name

Gerald Ford's pardon of Nixon made him unpopular

Resulted in Nixon's resignation and 69 government officials being charged and 48 being found guilty

# data[].attributes.body
The start of many anti-poverty programs that provided access to health care, nutritional assistance and educational support that continue today.

Causes:

Great Society programs

LBJ's experience with poverty

Effects:

Expansive social welfare legislation

Founding of the OEO

# data[].attributes.body
The main goal was the total elimination of poverty and racial injustice. New major federal programs that addressed civil rights, education, medical care, urban problems, rural poverty, and transportation were launched during this period.

Causes:

LBJ's experience with poverty

Urban poverty in America

Environmental concerns

Civil Rights movement

Strength of liberalism

Effects:

Medicare, Medicaid, Older Americans Act

Increased urbanization of Native Americans

Stunted due to the Vietnam War

# data[].attributes.body
The fall of Saigon was the capture of Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, by North Vietnam on 30 April 1975.

Causes:

Breakdown in South Vietnamese military and political leadership

American withdrawal and lack of further aid

Effects:

Domino Theory did not occur

Many South Vietnamese fled to America

Revealed the extent of American failure

# data[].attributes.body
An act intending to limit the President's authority to wage war and reasserted its authority over foreign wars. President Nixon vetoed the bill. However, Congress overrode his veto, and the resolution became law following the U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam in early 1973.

Causes:

Vietnam War

Effects:

Ongoing balance of executive power

Goal of avoiding another lengthy conflict

# data[].attributes.body
On March 29, 1973, the last U.S. military unit left Vietnam. By that time the communists and South Vietnamese were already engaged in what journalists labeled the “postwar war.” Both sides alleged, more or less accurately, that the other side was continuously violating the terms of the peace agreements.

Causes:

Economic Toll

Anti-War sentiment

American Casualties

Effects:

US "loses"

Harmed international reputation

Communist takeover of Vietnam

# data[].attributes.body
The Pentagon Papers, officially titled The History of U.S. Decision-Making in Vietnam, 1945–1968, is a United States Department of Defense history of the United States' political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1968.

Causes:

Robert McNamara became disillusioned with war

Anti-war sentiment

Effects:

Exposed the government's deception regarding the Vietnam War

Growth of anti-war sentiment

# data[].attributes.body
Four students were killed and nine more were injured at Kent State University when National Guardsmen opened fire on students protesting the Vietnam War.

Causes:

Anti war sentiments in the youth

National tension over the war

Effects:

Growing anti-war opposition

Nationwide student strike

Debates over war

# data[].attributes.body
Operation Menu was a covert United States Strategic Air Command (SAC) tactical bombing campaign conducted in eastern Cambodia from 18 March 1969 to 26 May 1970 as part of both the Vietnam War and the Cambodian Civil War.

Causes:

Ho Chi Minh Trail

Intimidation of North Vietnam

Effects:

Bombing ineffective

Pilots kept as POWs

Deaths of many Cambodians

# data[].attributes.body
The simultaneous withdrawal of American troops and escalation of military involvement. Gradually withdraw American soldiers, replacing them with Vietnamese troops and supporting them with American air support and artillery.

Causes:

Desire to avoid American casualties

Beginning of withdrawal

Effects:

Eventual fall of Vietnam

South Vietnamese forces were outmatched by NVA and VC

# data[].attributes.body
Richard Milhous Nixon was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served as a representative and senator from California and as the 36th vice president from 1953 to 1961 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Causes:

Anti-communist stance

Nixon's youth

Effects:

Ended involvement in Vietnam

Watergate

Diplomatic relations with China and Ballistic missile treat with Soviets

Controlled Substances Act

War on Drugs

# data[].attributes.body
North Vietnamese and communist Viet Cong forces launched a coordinated attack against a number of targets in South Vietnam. The U.S. and South Vietnamese militaries sustained heavy losses before finally repelling the communist assault.

Causes:

Le Duan

Hopes of achieving a victory that would end the grinding conflict

Effects:

Military defeat but PR victory for the communist

Loss of confidence in war effort domestically

# data[].attributes.body
The mass killing of as many as 500 unarmed villagers by U.S. soldiers in the hamlet of My Lai on March 16, 1968, during the Vietnam War.

Causes:

Dehumanization of Vietnamese

Psychological toll of the war on soldiers

Effects:

Intensified anti war sentiments in the US

Contributed to the early withdrawl

William Laws Calley convicted

# data[].attributes.body
This joint resolution of Congress (H.J. RES 1145), dated August 7, 1964, gave President Lyndon Johnson authority to increase U.S. involvement in the war between North and South Vietnam.

Causes:

Gulf on Tonkin incident

Effects:

Launched America's full scale involvement in the Vietnam war

Questions over executive power

War powers resolution

# data[].attributes.body
Democrat who served as the 36th president of the United States from 1963 to 1969. He became president after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, under whom he had served as the 37th vice president from 1961 to 1963.

Causes:

Assassination of John F Kennedy

LBJ's father's debt

Effects:

The Great Society Program

Progression of Civil Rights

Escalation of Vietnam

# data[].attributes.body
On November 22, 1963, John F. Kennedy, the 35th president of the United States, was assassinated while riding in a presidential motorcade through Dealey Plaza in Dallas, Texas.

Causes:

Unknown because of the death of Lee Harvey Oswald

Effects:

Shock and Sorrow in the nation

LBJ sworn in

# data[].attributes.body
The Port Huron Statement is a 1962 political manifesto of the American student activist movement Students for a Democratic Society. It was written by SDS members, and completed on June 15, 1962, at a United Auto Workers retreat outside of Port Huron, Michigan, for the group's first national convention.

Causes:

The New Left/SDS

Issues with the American Government's handling of the Cold War

Criticized racial discrimination and economic inequality

Effects:

Called for an end to apathy and urged citizens to stop accepting life under big govt. and corporations

Condemned racism, conformity, and anticommunism

# data[].attributes.body
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was a national student activist organization in the United States during the 1960s and was one of the principal representations of the New Left.

Causes:

Civil disobedience

Urban poverty

Promoting participatory democracy

Student movement

Effects:

Advocacy for democracy, civil rights, and various types of university reforms

Opposition to the Vietnam war

# data[].attributes.body
For more than three decades Cesar led the first successful farm workers union in American history.

Causes:

Advocating for better wages, safer working conditions, and less exposure to pesticides

Determination to earn protection for food and farmworkers

Civil disobedience and activism

Effects:

California agricultural labor relations act, which is the only law in the nation that protects farmers right to unionize

Successful strikes and boycotts

Labor contracts with higher wages and improved labor conditions

# data[].attributes.body
In Roe v. Wade, the Supreme Court decided that the right to privacy implied in the 14th Amendment protected abortion as a fundamental right. However, the government retained the power to regulate or restrict abortion access depending on the stage of pregnancy.

Causes:

Norma McCorvey was denied an abortion because her pregnancy didn't pose a medical risk to her life.

A women's right to abortion

Effects:

Gave women legal access to abortions without interference from the government

Victory for women's reproductive rights

# data[].attributes.body
The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) was initially proposed in Congress in 1923 in an effort to secure full equality for women. It seeks to end the legal distinctions between men and women in terms of divorce, property, employment, and other matters

Causes:

Desire for Equality under the law

Feminist movement

Effects:

Failed to pass

Attention to legal discrimination against women

# data[].attributes.body
The National Organization for Women was established by a small group of feminists, including Betty Friedan and Pauli Murray, who were dedicated to actively challenging sex discrimination in all areas of American society. Friedan served as NOW's first president.

Causes:

Take action through intersectional grassroots activism to promote feminist ideals, lead societal change, eliminate discrimination, and achieve and protect the equal rights of all women and girls in all aspects of social, political, and economic life.

The Feminine Mystique

Growing women's movement

Effects:

Helped put women in political positions

Enacted tougher laws against violence, harassment, and discrimination

Increased education, business, and employment opportunities for women.

# data[].attributes.headline
Betty Freidan, The Feminine Mystique (1963)

# data[].attributes.subject
Betty Freidan, The Feminine Mystique (1963)

# data[].attributes.body
The phrase "feminine mystique" was coined by Friedan to describe the assumptions that women would be fulfilled from their housework, marriage, sexual lives, and children. The prevailing belief was that women who were truly feminine should not want to work, get an education, or have political opinions.

Causes:

When she surveyed her classmates, she found a lack of fulfillment in housewives

The spread of suburbia and suburban housewives

Effects:

Helped spark widespread public activism for gender equality

Sparked second-wave feminism

# data[].attributes.body
Silent Spring explained how indiscriminate application of agricultural chemicals, pesticides, and other modern chemicals polluted our streams, damaged bird and animal populations, and caused severe medical problems for humans.

Causes:

Industrialization and rapid economic growth came at the cost of the environment

Effects:

Growth of the environmental movement

Set the stage for the establishment of the EPA

The banning of DDT

# data[].attributes.body
The Gay rights movement focused their attention on the radical counter-culture to help fight discrimination against gays in “industry, the mass media, government, schools, and churches” (Gay Liberation Movement).

Causes:

Stonewall riots

Resist oppression and demand just treatment

Effects:

Made same-sex marriage legal under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Reduced prejudice against homosexuality

# data[].attributes.body
A series of riots over police action against The Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York City's Greenwich Village.

Causes:

Police raid of stonewall inn and conflict between police and organizers

LGBT frustration over police brutality

Effects:

Sparked the modern day LGBTQ movement

Formation of LGBTQ civil rights organizations

Pride movement

Effects:

# data[].attributes.body
Second-wave feminism focused on the legal, economic, and social rights of women. Its top priorities included gender roles, reproductive rights, financial independence, workplace equality, and domestic violence.

Causes:

Movement of women into the workplace

Involvement of women in Civil Rights movement

The feminine mystique

Effects:

Children's books were rewritten to prevent stereotyping

Employers were required to compensate with pay when found to discriminate against women

Women's studies departments were formed at colleges

# data[].attributes.body
An American Indian advocacy group organized to address issues related to sovereignty, leadership, and treaties. Particularly in its early years, AIM also protested racism and civil rights violations against Native Americans.

Causes:

Poor conditions for American Indians in cities

Frustration over decades of poor federal policy

Effects:

Occupation of Alcatraz

Cultural advocacy

# data[].attributes.body
The Hispanic community embarked on a social movement aimed at combating institutional racism, increasing cultural hegemony, and guaranteeing equal labor and political rights.

Causes:

Discrimination, educational segregation, voting rights, and ethnic stereotyping against hispanics

Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta Boycott

Effects:

Sparked national conversations on the political and social autonomy of Hispanic groups everywhere in the United States

The creation of bilingual and bicultural programs in the southwest, improved conditions for migrant workers, the hiring of Chicano teachers, and more Mexican-Americans serving as elected officials

# data[].attributes.body
The Court identified a constitutionally protected right to privacy, which the court reasoned prohibited states from denying birth control to married couples.

Causes:

Estelle T. Griswold and Dr. C. Lee Buxton hoped to challenge the constitutionality of a Connecticut law that prohibited not just the sale but the use of contraceptives

Bill of rights

Effects:

Paved the way for legalization of birth control and Roe v. Wade

Couples were allowed to keep their decisions private

# data[].attributes.body
In a 5-4 Supreme Court decision Miranda v. Arizona (1966) ruled that an arrested individual is entitled to rights against self-incrimination and to an attorney under the 5th and 6th Amendments of the United States Constitution.

Causes:

Miranda was not advised about his constitutional rights to an attorney nor against self-incrimination

Effects:

Invalidated Miranda's conviction

Now Miranda rights must be read

Retried and sentenced to 20-30 years in prison

# data[].attributes.body
Prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, sex, (and as amended) handicap and family status.

Causes:

MLK's assassination

Desire to protect renter or seller from discrimination

Effects:

For the first time in American history legislation banned racial discrimination in the sale or rental of housing.

Reduced residential segregation

# data[].attributes.body
The Immigration & Nationality Act of 1965 abolished quotas, opening the doors to "those who can contribute most to this country – to its growth, to its strength, to its spirit."

Causes:

Desire to purge immigration law

Aim to end race discrimination

Effects:

Abolished the national origins quota

Decreased the number of non-hispanic whites

America grew more Ethnically diverse

# data[].attributes.body
A federal law enacted in 1965 to remove race-based restrictions on voting. It is perhaps the country's most important voting rights law, with a history that dates to the Civil War.

Causes:

Selma

Murder of voting rights activists in Mississippi

obstacles to voting for African Americans in the South

Effects:

Banned literacy tests

Effective legislation for the civil rights movement

# data[].attributes.body
Passed by congress, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin.

Causes:

Lyndon Johnson's presidency

The March on Washington

Movement against segregation

Effects:

Major victory for the civil rights movement

End of segregation

# data[].attributes.body
The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense was a revolutionary organization with an ideology of Black nationalism, socialism, and armed self-defense, particularly against police brutality.

Causes:

Police brutality

Fight for African American equality

Frustration with slow pace of Civil Rights movement

Effects:

Patrolled African American neighborhoods

Spread idea of black power

SNCC influenced

# data[].attributes.body
The leader and prominent figure in the Nation of Islam who articulated concepts of race pride and Black nationalism in the early 1960s.

Causes:

Malcolm's readings in prison

Proficiency for public speaking

Parents were followers of Marcus Garvey

Effects:

Inspiration in the fight for equality

His martyrdom, ideas, and speeches contributed to the development of Black nationalist ideology and the Black Power

Popularized the idea of autonomy

# data[].attributes.body
Black Power emphasized self reliance and self determination over integration. Use violence when necessary.

Causes:

Frustration with slow progress in Civil Rights movement

Economic difficulties in the inner city

Effects:

Black Panthers

Making of music, media, and art to reinforce black culture

# data[].attributes.body
The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party was created in protest to the official Democratic Party of Mississippi, which excluded African Americans.

Causes:

The eventual goal was to become the official Democratic Party of Mississippi or integrate with the official Democratic Party.

Fannie Lou Hamer

Effects:

Initial failure at the National democratic convention

The eventual integration of the official Democratic Party of Mississippi

# data[].attributes.body
Hundreds of people gathered in Selma, Alabama to march to the capital city of Montgomery. They marched to ensure that African Americans could exercise their constitutional right to vote — even in the face of a segregationist system that wanted to make it impossible.

Causes:

Segregation and difficulty of voting in the South

Ensure constitutional right to vote

Effects:

President Lyndon Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law.

# data[].attributes.body
Led by Martin Luther King, the March on Washington was the largest gathering for civil rights of its time. An estimated 250,000 people attended the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963, arriving in Washington, D.C. by planes, trains, cars, and buses from all over the country.

Causes:

Protest of segregation, lack of voting rights, and unemployment.

Collaboration of many Civil Rights organizations

Effects:

Pressured JFK to initiate a civil rights bill

Symbol of the civil rights movement and showcase of solidarity

Inspirational impact on civili rights movement

# data[].attributes.body
The Freedom Rides were organized bus rides on interstate buses into the segregated south to challenge the non-enforcement of cases that had desegregated buses.

Causes:

Desire to challenge segregation

disappointment over non-enforcement

Effects:

Buses attacked

National attention towards civil rights movement

Showed the impact of nonviolent direct action

# data[].attributes.body
The SNCC, or the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, was made up mostly of Black college students, who practiced peaceful, direct action protests. Its founder, Ella Baker, wanted the group to keep its autonomy and recommended it not affiliate itself with the SCLC or other civil rights groups.

Causes:

The success of a southern sit-in

Desire for a youth civil rights movement

Wanted to use a direct action approach

Effects:

Freedom Rides

Freedom Summer

Shift from nonviolence to black power

# data[].attributes.body
The "Little Rock Nine," as the nine teens came to be known, were to be the first African American students to enter Little Rock's Central High School. Three years earlier, following the Supreme Court ruling, the Little Rock school board pledged to voluntarily desegregate its schools.

Causes:

Desire to put Supreme Court ruling into effect

Desire for de facto rights

Effects:

Elevated African American education

Attracted attention to the civil rights movement

# data[].attributes.body
Civil rights protests where African Americans would sit at segregated lunch counters and refuse to leave after being denied service.

Causes:

Segregated lunch counters and the desire to challenge that

Tactics of nonviolence and civil disobedience

Effects:

Forced partial integration

Brought attention to segregation

Provided a template for nonviolent resistance

# data[].attributes.body
A civil rights organization founded in 1957, as an offshoot of the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), which successfully staged a 381-day boycott of the Montgomery Alabama's segregated bus system.

Causes:

Montgomery Bus Boycott

ideal of nonviolent resistance

Effects:

Made efforts to desegregate cities

Played a key role in the March on Washington and the Selma voting rights campaign

# data[].attributes.body
A Baptist minister and social activist who led the civil rights movement in the United States from the mid-1950s until his death by assassination in 1968.

Causes:

Inspiration from Mahatma Gandhi

Goal to achieve legal equality for African Americans

Effects:

March on Washington

Civil Rights Act and Voting Act

Became a symbol of the movement

# data[].attributes.body
A 13-month mass protest that ended with the U.S. Supreme Court ruling that segregation on public buses is unconstitutional.

Causes:

The arrest of Rosa Parks

Civil rights movement

Wider goal of desegregation

Effects:

Civil Rights victory and Supreme Court ruling

Skyrocketed MLK to prominence

# data[].attributes.body
14 year old Emmett Till was kidnapped and brutally murdered by Royal Bryant and J.W. Milam for possibly whistling at a white woman.

Causes:

Emmett was unfamiliar with southern customs

White Supremacy and the idea of protecting white women

Effects:

Galvanized young African Americans out of a fear that this could happen to them or their relatives

Emmett Till's picture sparked national outrage

# data[].attributes.body
The Supreme Court ruled that separating children in public schools on the basis of race was unconstitutional. It signaled the end of legalized racial segregation in the schools of the United States, overruling the "separate but equal" principle set forth in the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case.

Causes:

Coordinated lawsuits against school districts in Kansas

Civil Rights movement

Effects:

Overturned legal segregation and Plessy v. Ferguson

Symbol of progress

Success for the Civil Rights movement

# data[].attributes.body
Truman passed an order. that mandated the desegregation of the U.S. military.

Causes:

African American soldiers just back from overseas were being dumped out of army trucks and beaten

Truman's desire to win the black vote and meet the demands of African American organizations

Effects:

Challenge to racial segregation

Paved the way for other civil rights reforms

# data[].attributes.headline
National Interstates Highway Defense Act (1956)

# data[].attributes.subject
National Interstates Highway Defense Act (1956)

# data[].attributes.body
Authorized the building of highways throughout the nation. It established an interstate highway system.

Causes:

Need for a transportation network for international defense

Spur economic development

Effects:

Formation of the Interstate highway system

Popularity of cars grew

Allowed for more suburbs because people could more easily communite.

# data[].attributes.body
A significant increase in the birth rate in the United States following the end of World War II.

Causes:

Post-war optimism

Economic growth and stability

Desire to fit in and form a family

Improvements in prenatal care

Effects:

Population Growth

Economic Growth

Civil Rights movements were driven by the young

# data[].attributes.body
A town designed by Abraham Levitt, which aimed to provide a large amount of affordable housing.

Causes:

Post-War Housing demand as returning veterans started families

GI Bill which made housing accessible to whites

Technological innovations that made the mass production of homes possible.

Effects:

Suburbanization

Expansion of middle class

Created an idealized image of suburban life

# data[].attributes.body
The GI Bill provided World War II veterans with funds for college education, unemployment insurance, and housing.

Causes:

Need to transition soldiers back into civilian life smoothly

Recognition of Service during WWII

Economic Stimulus

Effects:

Formation of educated middle class and therefore suburbia

Democratized access to education and homeownership

However, it was hard for African Americans to use these benefits.

# data[].attributes.body
When U.S. Sen. Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin produced a series of investigations and hearings during the 1950s in an effort to expose supposed communist infiltration of various areas of the U.S. government.

Causes:

Cold War Paranoia

McCarthy's speech that claimed 57 communists had infiltrated the State Department

Effects:

Unable to make plausible charges against any person or institution

Caused people to lose jobs or be condemned

Led to the creation of the term McCarthyism, the persecution of innocent persons on the charge of being communist.

# data[].attributes.body
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed for conspiracy to commit espionage under the U.S. Espionage Act of 1917. Members of the communist party, the Rosenbergs were convicted of passing secret information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union in 1945. Their guilt was later confirmed by Soviet documents.

Causes:

Cold War Paranoia

Russian Spy Ring in US

Nuclear Arms Race

Effects:

Ethel first Woman to be executed for crime other than murder

Dispute over guilt

# data[].attributes.body
10 motion-picture producers, directors, and screenwriters who appeared before the House of Un-American Activities Committee refused to answer questions regarding their possible communist affiliations, and, after spending time in prison for contempt of Congress, were mostly blacklisted by the Hollywood studios.

Causes:

Red Scare

Fear that communists had infiltrated government and hollywood

Leftist appeal for studio workers

Effects:

Blacklisted from Hollywood

Imprisoned for 6-12 months and fined $1,000

# data[].attributes.body
SALT II limited the total of both nations' nuclear forces to 2,250 delivery vehicles and placed a variety of other restrictions on deployed strategic nuclear forces, including MIRVs.

Causes:

Cuban Missile Crisis

Richard Nixon's foreign policy

New Soviet leadership

Effects:

Bettering of cold war relations

End of nuclear arms race

# data[].attributes.body
A wall built dividing East and West Germany. Stood for 28 years.

Causes:

To stop East Germans from fleeing and causing an economic crisis.

Soviets claimed it was to prevent fascists from entering

Prevent the west from influencing the east

Effects:

Physically and ideologically divided Berlin

Became an iconic image of the cold war

# data[].attributes.body
A 13-day confrontation between the governments of the Untied States and the Soviet Union, when American deployments of nuclear missiles in Italy and Turkey were matched by Soviet deployments of nuclear missiles in Cuba.

Causes:

Hostile relations between Soviets/Cuba and U.S.

Soviet desire to deter US aggression

Nuclear Arms Race

MAD

Effects:

Desire to ease tensions between sides

Strengthened Kennedy's image

Dismantling of nukes from Turkey and Cuba

# data[].attributes.body
A failed attack launched by the CIA during the Kennedy administration that used Cuban exiles to push Cuban leader Fidel Castro from power.

Causes:

Desire to overthrow communist Cuban regime

Anticipation that the people would support the invasion

Effects:

Cuban missile crisis

Loss of good international repute

Most attackers captured or killed

# data[].attributes.body
Britain along with France and Israel invaded Egypt to recover control of the Suez Canal. Eisenhower decided to intervene in order to broker a settlement.

Causes:

The Egyptian President Nasser nationalized the Canal.

Desire to stop western influence in the middle east

Effects:

Complications of situation in Middle East

Loss of influence for Britain and France in the Middle East

# data[].attributes.body
The U.S.- and British-instigated, Iranian army-led overthrow of the elected Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh in favor of strengthening the monarchical rule of the shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, on 19 August 1953.

Causes:

Desire to secure favorable oil connections with Iran

Fear of communist influence

Effects:

Iranian revolution

Anti-American Iranian sentiment

Abuse of American Power

# data[].attributes.body
A CIA-backed coup that overthrew the democratically elected government of President Jacobo Arbenz and installed a military dictatorship.

Causes:

Economic reforms and land distribution threatened the United Fruit Company, a U.S. corporation

Anti-communist sentiment, as the government had perceived leftist leaning

Effects:

Installation of dictatorship under Carlos Castillo Armas

Decades of instability and violence in Guatemala

Exposed the U.S.'s willingness to support authoritarian regimes

# data[].attributes.body
The world's first artificial satellite, which ignited the space race between the United States and Soviet Union.

Causes:

Cold War competition

Technological advancements

Desire for Propaganda

Effects:

Cold war space rivalry

Acceleration of space exploration

Technological achievement

# data[].attributes.body
Conflict between North Korea, supported by China and the Soviet union, and South Korea, supported by a coalition led by the United States.

Causes:

The cold war and US policies of containment

North Korean invasion

Division of Korea

Effects:

Separation on the 38th parallel.

Stalemate, but in some sense a successful defense of South Korea

High casualties

# data[].attributes.body
The victory of the CCP against the KMT in the Chinese Civil war.

Causes:

Socio-economic inequality and political instability

The CCP's mobilization of peasants and marginalized people

The support of the Soviet Union

Effects:

Establishment of communist rule in China.

Intensified the Red Scare

Continued containment efforts

# data[].attributes.body
The Civilian foreign intelligence service was established to gather intelligence and conduct covert operations to protect U.S. national security interests.

Causes:

Response to the emerging Cold War

Need for a centralized intelligence agency to combat the Soviet Union's KGB

Analyze domestic and international information for policy makers

Effects:

Shaped U.S. foreign policy and national security strategies during the cold war.

Involved in assassinations and coups

Debate over the balance between national security and civil liberties.

# data[].attributes.body
Top secret policy document issued by the U.S. National Security Council in 1950, which outlined a strategy for dealing with the Soviet Union: a return to isolationism.

Causes:

Concerns about the spread of communism

Desire to strengthen the United States military capabilities

Effects:

Expansion in U.S. military forces

Shaped U.S. foreign policy

Built up nuclear arms

Development of the H-Bomb

# data[].attributes.body
The Soviets successfully detonated a nuclear weapon in 1949, which marked the end of the United States' monopoly on nuclear weapons.

Causes:

The conflict between democracy and communism spurred a desire to develop militarily to become an equal

Espionage activities provided the Soviets valuable information

Effects:

Increased tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union

Development of more nuclear weapons

Nuclear crises such as the Cuban Missile Crisis

# data[].attributes.body
Established in April 1949 as a collective defense alliance between North American and European countries to counter the threat of Soviet aggression.

Causes:

Concerns about Soviet Expansionism and the spread of communism

The blockade of Berlin

Effects:

Strengthened bond between West Europe and US

Clearly defined spheres of influence

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An operation conducted by the United States and Britain that supplied West Berlin with food, fuel, and other necessities after the Soviet Union blockaded the city.

Causes:

Blockade of the city as an attempt to push the Western allies out.

Tensions between Soviet Union and US

Aimed to avoid direct conflict

Effects:

Demonstrated the commitment of the US to West berlin

Upheld the division between East and West Germany.

Resisted a war

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Plan proposed by George Marshall that provided economic aid to Western European countries devastated by World War II.

Causes:

Weak economies in Europe

Concerns about Soviet Expansionism and communist takeovers

Opportunity to promote US interests in Europe and stabilize Europe.

Effects:

Great success in American foreign policy that prevented many countries from falling to communism

Strengthened ties between the United States and Western European countries

Diminished the appeal of communism in Western European countries by improving living standards

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Aimed to preserve the integrity of democratic nations through aid so they do not fall to communism.

Causes:

End of British aid to Turkey and Greece

Fear over the spread of communism

Civil War in Greece

Effects:

Established the principle of containment

Increased involvement in the foreign community

Tensions with the Soviet Union.

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Churchill's "Iron Curtain" Speech (1946)

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Churchill's "Iron Curtain" Speech (1946)

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In his speech in Missouri, Churchill ushered in the Cold war and discussed the role of America and Britain in the fight against communism.

Causes:

Growing tensions between America and the Soviet Union

Soviet expansionist policies

Ideological divide between Communism and Democracy

Effects:

Increasing divide between US and Soviets

Growing cognizance of spheres of influence

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Period 8: The Cold War and Pax Americana.

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Period 8: The Cold War and Pax Americana.

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End of WWII to the Election of Reagan. The Cold War.

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A meeting of the Allied leaders held in Potsdam, Germany, from July 17 to August 2, 1945, to discuss the post-war reorganization of Europe and the administration of defeated Germany.

Causes:

Concerns over how to handle Germany

Avoid the mistakes of Versailles

Effects:

Germany divided into four Allied Occupation zones

German disarmament and demilitarization)

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The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and genocide of six million Jews, along with millions of other victims including Romani people, Soviet prisoners of war, disabled individuals, homosexuals, and others, by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II.

Causes:

Nazi ideology

Anti-Semitism

War and expansion

Effects:

Genocide and extermination of 6 million Jews

Historical legacy, impacting global ideas of genocide

America Criticized for not allowing more Jews in

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Two devastating nuclear attacks carried out by the United States against Japan during World War II, leading to significant loss of life and destruction.

Causes:

Desire to avoid American loss of life

Japanese unwillingness to surrender

Strategy to intimidate USSR

Effects:

Surrender of Japan

Great Human Suffering

The beginning of the Cold War and nuclear age

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The primary purpose of the Yalta Conference was to discuss the post-war reorganization of Europe and the establishment of a new international order following the defeat of Nazi Germany. The Allied leaders sought to address key issues such as the occupation of Germany, the future of Eastern Europe, and the formation of the United Nations.

Causes:

Need to settle differences in plans of US and USSR

How to divide Europe

Discuss war plans

Effects:

Division of Eastern and Western Europe into spheres of influence

Controversy regarding the Fate of Poland

Establishment of the UN

Effects

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D-Day, also known as Operation Overlord, was the largest amphibious invasion in history and a pivotal turning point in World War II. Beginning of Second Front.

Causes:

Stalin's desire for a second front

American Entry into the war

Effects:

Heavy casualties

Foothold established in France on the beaches of Normandy

Shifted the momentum in favor of the allies

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A landmark Supreme Court case that addressed the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066, which authorized the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II.

Causes:

Fred Korematsu refused to comply with Executive Order 9066

Fred Korematsu wanted to challenge the order

Effects:

Supreme Court upheld his conviction

Serves as a reminder of unchecked government power

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A presidential order issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II that authorized the internment of Japanese Americans and individuals of Japanese descent living on the West Coast of the United States.

Causes:

Racism and the idea that Japanese were not true Americans

National security concerns

Effects:

120000 Japanese Americans relocated or incarcerated

Violation of constitutional rights

Korematsu vs USA

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A surprise military strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

Causes:

The Japanese thought US would halt their progress in the pacific

Pearl Harbor was the primary base for the pacific

Effects:

US entry into WWII

2403 American deaths and many battleships were sunken or damaged

Unquestioned support for war

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Outlined in a speech delivered by FDR, during his State of the Union Address to Congress. These freedoms articulated the fundamental principles that Roosevelt believed were essential for the preservation of democracy and peace in the world.

Causes:

Fdr's belief in Democracy

WWII

Aimed to mobilize support

Effects:

Served as a rallying cry for democracy

Justification in fight against Axis powers

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A significant piece of legislation passed by the United States Congress in 1941, which enabled the United States to provide military aid to foreign nations during World War II.

Causes:

WWII

Support for Allies

Belief in democracy

Effects:

Strengthened the Allies

Growth of US influence

Turning point in foreign policy

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An isolationist organization that advocated against U.S. involvement in World War II before the attack on Pearl Harbor.

Causes:

Isolationist sentiment

Anti-Semitism

Charles Lindbergh

Effects:

Shaped public opinion to not be involved

Delayed response to authoritarian threats

Disbanded after Pearl Harbor

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A series of laws passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s aimed at maintaining neutrality and avoiding involvement in foreign conflicts.

Causes:

Isolationism and a desire to not repeat WWI

Some argued the sacrifices of WWI had been in vain due to the rise of fascism

Desire to stay out of foreign conflicts

Effects:

Arms embargo to belligerent nations

Cash and carry policy

Criticism for being overly restrictive

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World War II began in Europe on September 1, 1939, when Nazi Germany, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, invaded Poland.

Causes:

German people angered by harsh terms of the treaty of Versailles

Failure of the league of Nations

Failure of diplomacy

Appeasement

Effects:

Massive global conflict

Great Death Toll

Brought America out of the great depression

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The goal if the Social Security act was to provide for the general welfare by establishing a system of Federal old-age benefits, and by enabling the several States to make more adequate provision for aged persons, blind persons, dependent and crippled children, maternal and child welfare, public health, and the administration of their unemployment compensation laws; to establish a Social Security Board; to raise revenue; and for other purposes.

Causes:

Economic hardships for the old and unemployed

The Great Depression and New Deal

Reform safety nets for future

Effects:

Some, like Townshend believed it was not enough

Old-age pensions

Unemployment insurance

Social safety net

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End of Prohibition (21st Amendment) (1933)

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End of Prohibition (21st Amendment) (1933)

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The end of Prohibition occurred with the ratification of the 21st Amendment to the United States Constitution, which repealed the 18th Amendment and effectively ended the nationwide prohibition of alcohol.

Causes:

Roosevelt's desire to boost the economy with taxes on alcohol

Public dissatisfaction with prohibition

Organized crime

Effects:

Economic boost from jobs in alcohol industry

Reduction of crime

Social and cultural shift, end of speakeasies

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In response to the Great Depression, President Roosevelt launched the New Deal, a comprehensive set of initiatives aimed at providing relief, recovery, and reform to address the economic and social challenges facing the nation.

Causes:

The Great Depression

Public outcry for federal help

Fulfillment of platform

Effects:

Three Rs, Relief, recovery, and reform

Formation of many programs

Helped unemployment and developed infrastructure

Changed perspective about federal assistance.

Created programs like the SEC, which are still around today.

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Franklin Delano Roosevelt elected (1932)

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Franklin Delano Roosevelt elected (1932)

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Roosevelt, a Democrat, won the presidential election in a landslide victory over incumbent President Herbert Hoover, who was widely blamed for the economic hardships of the Great Depression.

Causes:

The Great Depression was blamed on Hoover

FDR seemed personable

Roosevelt had a platform of change

Effects:

The New Deal, address economic crisis

Expansion of government, executive branch

Raise in morale

Growing expectations of federal government

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During World War I, Congress had passed the Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924, which promised veterans a bonus payment based on their wartime service. However, the payment was not scheduled to be made until 1945. As the Great Depression deepened in the early 1930s, many veterans found themselves struggling financially and facing unemployment, homelessness, and poverty. In response, they formed the Bonus Army and marched on the nation's capital to demand early payment of their bonuses.

Causes:

Economic hardship during the depression

Many felt betrayed by the government after WWI

Effects:

Hoover forcibly removed the bonus army

Negative perception of Hoover administration

Public sympathy