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1648 was a period of internal instability for the Kingdom of Kongo. The kingdom was in dire need of slaves, and they took any citizen who misbehaved into enslavement. This caused a period of fracturing in the kingdom.

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The Kingdom of Kongo did not have an aristocratic class, instead their social structure included the king, appointed governors, free or babuta (craftworkers and farmers) and the unfree or babika (slaves who were war captives or those unable to pay their debts).

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Portuguese colonized islands off of coast (Sao Tome and Principe) in 1491, invaded Luanda (source of currency) in 1641

Kongo became a trading partner with Portugal and kept diplomatic relations

In 1490, after 8 years of Portuguese and Kongolese contact, the leader, King Nzinga a Nkuwu, was baptized and became Christian, taking the new name João I. (the Portuguese variation of John)

Baptisms were all voluntary and most nobles converted with the king, most nobles also changed their names to Portuguese variants (king, count, etc.)

Capital was renamed from Mbanza Kongo to São Salvador (westernization of Kongo)

Diplomatic affairs were conflicted over time, with some rulers denouncing Portugal and others praising it. Several rulers of Kongo were denounced to the pope by Portuguese clergy.

After Portugal moved south to Ndongo (region of Kongo), relations between them and Kongo became more strained due to the Portuguese interfered with the trade laws of the kingdom

Slave trade (mostly fueled by Portuguese demand) caused internal conflict, as claims to independence and civil wars weakened kings' authority and misbehaving citizens were put into slavery.

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Political and Administrative Organization

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Political and Administrative Organization

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The Kingdom of Kongo was ruled by a king with 12 advisors, who were chosen by the king. The 12 advisors were from each of the 12 provinces within Kongo: Soyo, Ngoyo, Kakono, Loango, M'pumbu, Matamba, Ndongo, Nsundi, Mbamba, Mpemba, Pangu, and Mbata. Kingship in Kongo was not hereditary. This meant any citizen could be elected as king. Once the candidates were elected, they were required to go through oral exams that were assessed by the 12 advisors. Until a new king was elected, the advisors led the kingdom of Kongo.

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Kingdom of Kongo's style of expansion was not through military conquests. Expansion was through voluntary adhesion to the kingdom by surrounding kingdoms. Kingdoms nearby Kongo voluntarily became part of the kingdom and convert into provinces. They were allowed to do so as long as they agreed and committed to respect and follow the established laws of the Kongo kingdom. Similarly, the provinces were allowed to leave the kingdom free from any opposition from the central government of the Kingdom of Kongo.

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Bernardino da Vezza d'Asti. The Missionary, traveling by foot, ca. 1750

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Europe and European Influences on the Kingdom of Kongo

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Europe and European Influences on the Kingdom of Kongo

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The Kingdom of Kongo had an interest in European culture, but preserved their autonomy. For instance, King Alfonso I showed interest in what Portugal could offer him such as literature. However, he resisted Portuguese attempts to settle deep within their territory.

Christian influence on Kongo caused many nobles to change their names to Portuguese variations and included European titles such as duke, count, king, etc. In addition, most nobles got voluntarily baptized.

In 1491, 10 years after first contact with the Portuguese, King Nzinga Nkuwu converted to Catholicism. He then took the name of a Portuguese king: João I. His son, King Afonso I developed and spread the Christian religion throughout the kingdom and sent students to Europe to further study Christian religion.

Afonso I also worked to make a functioning version of the Roman Catholic Church in Kongo and created a merged version of Christianity that remained a part of the Kongo culture in the rest of its existence.

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The Kingdom of Kongo was considerably one of the largest and most powerful kingdoms located in the western coast of Africa. With Mbanza Kongo serving as a political and spiritual capital of the kingdom, it remained one of the most important architectural structures of the 16th century.

Currently located in modern day Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola

The kings were converted to Christianity, therefore the kingdom was mostly Christian as well. The kingdom was centralized around the nkani (king).

The economy relied on trade, allowing the kingdom to prosper

In 1470, the Portuguese colonization resulted in further slave trade development as they received cotton, silk, china, and more.

Probing Question: How did Christianity divide the kingdom of Kongo and lead to a lack of connectivity?

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After the Portuguese came into contact with the Kongolese people, Christianity became more prevalent in the kingdom. However, views on the religion were mixed. Despite the fact that there was no involuntary conversion, leaders after the initial conversion of King Nzinga a Nkuwu/João I were split on the issue. Some leaders, like João's son Afonso I, actively tried to convert his kingdom, allowing missionaries to come to the mainland of Kongo. However, some other rulers disliked this, and decried the Catholic Church as a whole. This led to shaky relations between the two parties.

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From Olfert Dapper, a Dutch writer and physician. 

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The geographic location of Kongo was very beneficial in making this site a center of trade as it was placed so close to the sea. This ensured easy access for the Portuguese by sea. Furthermore, this location assisted in the start of slave trade as it was controlled by the Portugese who were able to start this trade as a result of the convenient placement and easy accessibility to Kongo. Overtime, the Portuguese integrated onto the lands of Kongo and colonized it.

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Some of the goods traded by the people in Kongo include ivory, copper, salt, and cattle hides. This demonstrates the accomplishments of their society as we can note that they have the capabilities to create and distribute all of these goods.

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Interconnected knowledge production and religion 

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Interconnected knowledge production and religion 

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In the Kingdom of Kongo, knowledge production and religion were deeply interconnected. The arrival of Christian missionaries brought formal education and literacy, establishing schools and promoting the study of reading and writing. Religious texts, particularly Christian ones, became significant sources of knowledge. The translation of the Bible and other religious documents into Kikongo made religious teachings more accessible, intertwining religious instruction with the broader dissemination of knowledge.

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An illustration from the 17th century by Giovanni Antonio Cavazzi in the Ndongo Kingdom depicting a trade. The intricately patterned cloth made from palm fiber is being traded. 

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Trade facilitated and encouraged the creation of new and more advanced products for society. Furthermore, technical knowledge was transferred amongst the Kingdom of Kongo and other civilizations which allowed them to learn and prosper within. This allowed the kingdom to become more effective in creating goods, and thus a more valuable and desirable trading partner.

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The society of Kongo during the pre-1500 had a well established oral system that played crucial roles in maintaining and transmitting historical knowledge, cultural practices, and social norms through storytelling. Proverbs, songs, and dances were also essential mediums for conveying values, beliefs, and history. These oral systems ensured that knowledge was accessible to all members of society, preserving the collective memory and cultural heritage of the Kongo people. However the written system was adopted when the Portuguese introduced scribes and missionaries who documented treaties, correspondences, and historical events. The adoption of Christianity also brought religious texts, which were later translated into Kikongo, the Kongo language.

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Evidence of cross-cultural exchange and influence are prevalent in the Kingdom of Kongo as it can be noted that many kings and officials from Kongo adopted Christian names as a result of Portuguese colonization in the later portion of the 15th century. The slave market was then at an all time high, thus Christianity was further integrated as even the capital of Kongo was renamed to a Christian name, Christianity had effects on art and literature, which all demonstrate cross-cultural exchange.

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The introduction of Christianity by Portuguese missionaries in the late 15th century marked a significant religious shift in the Kingdom of Kongo, beginning with King Nzinga a Nkuwu's conversion in 1491. However, rather than abandoning their indigenous beliefs, the Kongo people blended Christianity with their traditional practices, creating a syncretic religious landscape. This fusion, which integrated beliefs in a creator god (Nzambe) and ancestor spirits (bakulu) with Christian elements, made Christianity more culturally acceptable and facilitated its spread. Despite this, indigenous practices such as ancestor worship, divination, and agricultural rituals persisted, often integrated with Christian rituals, reflecting a practical approach to religion that ensured cultural continuity. While Islam had limited influence compared to Christianity, interactions with Muslim traders did facilitate some cultural and religious exchanges.

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Some of the goods traded by the people in Kongo include ivory, copper, salt, and cattle hides. This demonstrates the accomplishments of their society as we can note that they have the capabilities to gather and distribute all of these goods. Furthermore, there was a currency that existed in the Kingdom of Kongo which depicted the advancement of their society as they had goods to purchase and sell alongside an effective currency to perform these transactions.

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Trade is more than an economic activity as it facilitates the transfer of ideas. If a Kingdom does not have desirable goods, no other kingdoms will want to trade with them. Thus, they work to produce goods which other kingdoms want to trade which helps the kingdom grow. Furthermore, it helps transfer many ideas, in the instance of Kongo, they would trade technical ideas with Brazil which further helped the growth of the dynasty. While trading, slaves were one of the things transferred which facilitated the movement of people which demonstrated dynamism due to the frequent movement of people.