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Ecological degradation, from tropical deforestation to ozone depletion to toxic waste trade, is a corollary of existing economic practices

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Ecological degradation, from tropical deforestation to ozone depletion to toxic waste trade, is a corollary of existing economic practices

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The accelerating deterioration of ecosystems—manifested in phenomena such as large-scale deforestation, depletion of the ozone layer, and the transboundary movement of toxic waste—cannot be understood apart from the economic systems that generate them. These environmental harms are not accidental or isolated events but the predictable outcome of economic models built on continuous extraction, intensive production, and the externalization of ecological costs. Global markets reward practices that consume resources faster than they can regenerate and encourage the displacement of environmental burdens onto marginalized regions and populations. As a result, the very structures that drive economic expansion also undermine the ecological foundations on which long-term prosperity depends. The link between economic activity and ecological decline thus exposes the deep contradictions of a global economy that prioritizes short-term growth while eroding the environmental stability necessary for its own continuation.

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I maintain that an appreciation for the ways in which "environmental security" and "ecological interdependence" are socially constructed has important theoretical and policy implications.

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I maintain that an appreciation for the ways in which "environmental security" and "ecological interdependence" are socially constructed has important theoretical and policy implications.

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Recognizing that ideas such as environmental security and ecological interdependence do not arise solely from biophysical realities but are shaped through political discourse and social interpretation carries significant consequences for theory and practice. It suggests that what societies define as “environmentally threatening” or “interdependent” is contingent on cultural assumptions, institutional interests, and dominant power structures, rather than simply on objective ecological conditions. This awareness challenges scholars and policymakers to interrogate how categories of danger, vulnerability, and responsibility are produced, and how these constructions influence international cooperation, resource governance, and global environmental norms. By treating these concepts as socially mediated rather than self-evident, we open space to reconsider whose security is prioritized, which ecological relationships matter, and what forms of policy intervention become thinkable or legitimate.

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Environmental security functions as "an ambiguous symbol" for a wide array of policy and analytical positions 

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Environmental security functions as "an ambiguous symbol" for a wide array of policy and analytical positions 

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The notion of environmental security has evolved into a broad and multifaceted label whose meaning shifts depending on who employs it and for what purpose. Rather than denoting a single, well-defined concept, it operates as a flexible signifier that different political actors, institutions, and scholars project their own priorities onto. For some, it implies safeguarding national interests against resource scarcity or environmental instability; for others, it highlights the protection of human well-being or the preservation of ecosystems themselves. Because it accommodates such diverse and sometimes conflicting perspectives, environmental security functions less as a precise analytical tool and more as a symbolic space where various agendas—military, ecological, humanitarian, and developmental—intersect and compete.

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“The two core elements of traditional security discourse, the state and military defense, are decentered by trends in environmental politics.”

“Environmental problems are simultaneously physical phenomena and social constructions.”

“An authentic environmental security agenda for the twenty-first century, therefore, must somehow harmonize economic and ecological interdependence."

“Although it would be reckless to deny that environmental problems have real physical referents and consequences, it is important to recognize that ‘problems’ always presume a prior social process of recognition, prioritization, and some level of assent.”

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1) environmental security

ambiguous symbol

policy positions

analytical positions

2) environmental security

ecological interdependence

social construction

theoretical implications

policy implications

3) ecological degradation

deforestation

ozone depletion

toxic waste trade

economic practices

structural causes

externalities

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“Ecological degradation, from tropical deforestation to ozone depletion to toxic waste trade, is a corollary of existing economic practices” (Litfin, 1999, p. 368)

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“Ecological degradation, from tropical deforestation to ozone depletion to toxic waste trade, is a corollary of existing economic practices” (Litfin, 1999, p. 368)

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To address the environmental issue, the interdependency should be used in economic policy regulations, considering the economic and social causes. Economic practices are considered to be the core problem of the environmental crisis. “Ecological degradation, from tropical deforestation to ozone depletion to toxic waste trade, is a corollary of existing economic practices” (Litfin, 1999, p. 368). When the Earth’s resources seemed endless, economic growth reached its peak in meaning. Then the realization of the problem, but not looking at its causes, led to a false concept of economic and ecological interdependence. In sustainable development, it relies on affluence again as the key to reach it, and the help of technological advances. However, it creates even more problems since the rise of production and consumption, which are the cause of the problem. Therefore, the responsibility should lie with economic policy regulations. Even though this approach started to be realized, it won’t be efficient unless the problem of consumption is solved. Litfin (1999) shows how the ratification of the Kyoto protocol did less in reducing greenhouse gas emissions (p.370). I concluded that the economic interdependence and the growth agenda themselves are the problem cause. All symbolic movements in sustainable development will be less efficient when production and consumption continue their growth.

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I maintain that an appreciation for the ways in which "environmental security" and "ecological interdependence" are socially constructed has important theoretical and policy implications. (Litfin, 1999, 360)

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I maintain that an appreciation for the ways in which "environmental security" and "ecological interdependence" are socially constructed has important theoretical and policy implications. (Litfin, 1999, 360)

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In constructing environmental security, the interest of nature itself should be secured. While talking about environmental security, we should consider that the more we care about security, the more vulnerable we become and harm the environment. Because security is a state-centric language. Thomas Homer-Dixon, in his work, for instance, showed how ecological decline in the periphery countries causes social one and creates acute conflict. Despite his findings depicting the social-ecological nexus, they neglect the social cause of the environmental vulnerability (Litfin, 1999, p. 363). The environment seems as the opponent here, and fighting with this opponent will cause even more ecological issues. That’s why, while forming the environmental security concept, we should give importance to socioeconomic causes of the problem. Coming back to developing countries, environmental vulnerability there is the consequence of inequality that led to primary mass production for the consumption of the rich. I interpret Litfin’s call for the change of the environmental security concept as the suggestion to move beyond the state. Because if we continue to focus on the state’s environmental security, we will fall into a fight with nature, not considering the roots of ecological decline.

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Environmental security functions as "an ambiguous symbol" for a wide array of policy and analytical positions (Litfin, 1999, p. 360)

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Environmental security functions as "an ambiguous symbol" for a wide array of policy and analytical positions (Litfin, 1999, p. 360)

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Constructing a social and economic definition of ecological interdependence and environmental security enforces theoretical and policy implications. (Litfin, 1999, p. 360) Environmental problems indeed have physical roots and consequences. On the other hand, social constructivism suggests that to address these environmental issues properly, we should shape the social and economic understanding of them. Before the solution the problem, there should be an understanding of its concept. Because actors act depending on what meaning they give to a specific issue. Litfin (1999) gave a great example where the death of microorganisms occurs because of concrete pavements, and the mass deaths of whales are both problems.  However, only the latter is considered like this for international actors (p. 360). Therefore, it is important to widen the vision of international actors to stop naturalizing environmental security and interdependence. Undermining leads to the mistreatment of ecological problems and creates a situation where nature is considered an enemy that should be conquered. Today’s interpretation may be different in details, but the same in general. Social recognition of environmental issues mostly lies on consumers’ shoulders. We should still deeply consider the various economic and social roots of this problem.

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Environmental security functions as "an ambiguous symbol" for a wide array of policy and analytical positions (Litfin, 1999, p. 360)

I maintain that an appreciation for the ways in which "environmental security" and "ecological interdependence" are socially constructed has important theoretical and policy implications. (Litfin, 1999, p. 360)

“Ecological degradation, from tropical deforestation to ozone depletion to toxic waste trade, is a corollary of existing economic practices” (Litfin, 1999, p. 368)

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"A liberal world economy will need relatively open access to resources, and nature plays this role with the often disastrous consequences we have seen emerge in the last decade." (Laferrièr & Stoett, 1999)

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"A liberal world economy will need relatively open access to resources, and nature plays this role with the often disastrous consequences we have seen emerge in the last decade." (Laferrièr & Stoett, 1999)

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Liberal International Relations theory views global economic openness as the key to peace and progress. It assumes that a liberal world economy, grounded in free trade and interdependence, will create harmony among nations through shared prosperity. Within this system, open access to resources and markets is seen as a natural condition of global growth, while nature becomes a provider of the raw materials necessary to sustain that expansion. However, by reducing the environment to a supply base for human development, liberal thought encourages the overuse and commodification of natural resources, often resulting in ecological degradation and social inequality. The reliance on technological and institutional solutions reinforces a belief that environmental problems can be managed within existing economic frameworks, without questioning their structural causes. Thus, liberal IR theory incorporates ecology only as a technical issue within its economic model, overlooking the deeper contradictions between endless growth and planetary limits. In doing so, it exposes the disastrous consequences of applying market logic to nature, demonstrating the limits of liberalism in addressing the ecological crisis.

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A liberal world economy, based on the belief that global peace and progress can be achieved through free trade and economic interdependence, depends upon maintaining an open international system. Within this framework, the free flow of goods, capital, and information is seen as both natural and desirable, fostering the notion that unrestricted exchange among states leads to mutual benefit and stability. Such an outlook assumes that open access—not only to markets but also to the world’s resources—is essential for sustaining material growth. Nature, in this sense, becomes a vital component of the global market, functioning as a reservoir of raw materials and energy to feed economic expansion. However, this utilitarian treatment of the environment, rooted in liberal optimism and technocratic management, has led to disastrous consequences. The liberal pursuit of perpetual growth, institutionalized through international agencies and regulatory regimes, has intensified ecological degradation and deepened global inequalities. Thus, while liberal theory envisions an open, cooperative, and prosperous world order, in practice it has contributed to the unsustainable exploitation of the planet’s ecological assets and the erosion of natural systems on which that order depends.

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“In sum, liberal IR theory… draws a near consensus on the possibility of a peaceful order through material growth which… is best attained through open-door policies of trade."

“Trade, as open as possible within a world of sovereign states.”

“Functional control and planning,” “resource management,” “environmental authority.”

“Is there any way that such law could truly reflect a sui generis global consensus…? Most proposals… lead anywhere but to a new form of statism — of ‘machinery’.”

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Liberal world economy - global market, international capitalist system, free-market international economy, open global economy

Open access - unrestricted access, free availability, non-restricted use, universal access

Resources - natural resources, raw materials, commodities, ecological assets

Disastrous consequences - severe impacts, catastrophic outcomes, harmful effects, negative repercussions

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"A liberal world economy will need relatively open access to resources, and nature plays this role with the often disastrous consequences we have seen emerge in the last decade." (Laferrièr & Stoett, 1999)

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"A realist framework would reveal evidence of ecological crises in related intergovernmental bargaining, yet the internationalization of production and the transnational suffering of impacted groups is far more pervasive." (Laferrière & Stoett, 1999, p.77)

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"A realist framework would reveal evidence of ecological crises in related intergovernmental bargaining, yet the internationalization of production and the transnational suffering of impacted groups is far more pervasive." (Laferrière & Stoett, 1999, p.77)

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Laferrière and Stoett contend that environmental issues cannot be fully understood in isolation from the political and economic systems in which they are embedded. They argue that ecological degradation, although often manifesting as localized crises, reflects the deeper structures of industrial growth, state power, and global capitalism. As they note, “A realist framework would reveal evidence of ecological crises in related intergovernmental bargaining, yet the internationalization of production and the transnational suffering of impacted groups is far more pervasive” (Laferrière and Stoett, 1999, p.77), highlighting that environmental harm extends beyond the boundaries of single states and is intimately linked to global economic and political processes. This perspective positions ecological problems not merely as scientific or ethical concerns but as indicators of underlying hierarchies and power relations in international relations. By connecting the material realities of environmental harm with theoretical insights from international relations, Laferrière and Stoett demonstrate that ecological thought and global politics are mutually constitutive. Ultimately, addressing environmental crises requires reimagining the systemic structures of global governance, illustrating that sustainable ecological outcomes are inseparable from broader transformations in political and economic order.

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Laferrière and Stoett argue that environmental issues cannot be separated from the political and economic systems in which they arise. Ecological degradation, while manifesting in local crises, reflects the deeper structures of industrial growth, state power, and global capitalism. Through this lens, environmental problems are not merely scientific or ethical concerns but expressions of political order and hierarchy. The authors suggest that understanding ecology requires connecting the material realities of environmental harm with the theoretical foundations of international relations. This synthesis reveals that ecological thought and global politics continuously inform and shape one another, emphasizing that environmental well-being depends on reimagining the very systems governing international cooperation and conflict.

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"The main approaches to international politics that have sought, in very limited fashion, to intellectualize ecological considerations have reduced them to a threat in the realist tradition (scarcity, geostrategic resource war, population imbalance)" p. 21

“All in all, planet Earth’s ‘biotic capacity’ has been put into serious question… it is to recognize the formidable scale and speed at which ecological degradation has operated in the late contemporary period”

Negotiating treaties to establish regulatory regimes for marine oil pollution

Contemporary ideologies of growth and power… have harnessed the forces of science and technology to create large markets for high value-added goods. In the process, ‘natural resources’ have been mined at staggering levels

Radical ecologists are specifically social theorists, who see in degraded nature an attack on the weak and marginalized

“The rapid industrial take-over of nature constituted an absurdity, a perversion of the ‘biotic ideal’ of humankind… thus arose a ‘preservationist’ reaction”

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realist framework – realist perspective, realist theory, realist paradigm, realist lens

intergovernmental bargaining – diplomatic negotiation, state-level negotiation, international diplomacy, policy bargaining

internationalization of production – globalization of production, global supply chains, transnational manufacturing, economic integration

transnational suffering – cross-border hardship, global distress, international human suffering, transboundary adversity

impacted groups – affected populations, vulnerable communities, influenced groups, disadvantaged sectors

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"A realist framework would reveal evidence of ecological crises in related intergovernmental bargaining, yet the internationalization of production and the transnational suffering of impacted groups is far more pervasive." (Laferrière & Stoett, 1999, p.77)

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"Neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both." (Mills, 1959, p. 2)

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"Neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both." (Mills, 1959, p. 2)

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Understanding the interdependence of individual experience and social structure is essential for developing a critical awareness of modern life. Mills argues that personal troubles cannot be fully understood in isolation, as they often reflect deeper public issues rooted in historical and institutional contexts. The sociological imagination provides the analytical bridge between biography and history, revealing how private experiences are shaped by broader social forces. Through this lens, individuals gain the capacity to see their own circumstances as part of collective patterns, transforming personal anxiety into sociological insight. Recognizing this interconnection fosters not only intellectual understanding but also social responsibility, as awareness of structural influences opens pathways for collective change. Ultimately, Mills’s perspective urges a shift from viewing problems as individual failures toward understanding them as manifestations of systemic conditions, encouraging a more holistic and engaged approach to human life within society.

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The promise of the sociological imagination 

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The promise of the sociological imagination 

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Mills says that personal experiences are inseparable from the wider social and historical contexts in which they occur. Individual lives, shaped by private troubles, reflect and reveal broader public issues rooted in social structures and institutions. The sociological imagination bridges this divide, enabling individuals to understand how biography and history intersect. Recognizing this connection transforms isolated personal concerns into insights about systemic conditions, illustrating that agency and structure continuously shape one another. Social understanding, therefore, requires an integrated perspective that connects the micro realities of individual life with the macro forces of history and society.

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The Promise of the Sociological Imagination

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The Promise of the Sociological Imagination

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"What ordinary people are directly aware of and what they try to do are bounded by the private orbits in which they live; their visions and their powers are limited to the close-up scenes of job, family, neighborhood; in other mile , they move vicariously and remain spectators."

"The facts of contemporary history are also facts about the success and the failure of individual men and women"

"The sociological imagination enables its possessor to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for the inner life and the external career of a variety of individuals.”

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The Promise of the Sociological Imagination

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The Promise of the Sociological Imagination

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Life of an individual – Personal biography / agency / micro-level analysis

History of a society – Social structure / institutions / macro-level forces

Understanding both – Interrelation / intersection of personal and social / synthesis of micro and macro

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The Promise of the Sociological Imagination

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The Promise of the Sociological Imagination

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"Neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both." (Mills, 1959, p. 2)

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"Moving beyond the symbolic politics typically associated with the language of sustainable development, genuine sustainability requires a more universal adoption of ecologically inclusive economic indicators and a more thoroughgoing integration of environmental considerations into economic and social development." (Litfin, 1999, p. 374)

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"Moving beyond the symbolic politics typically associated with the language of sustainable development, genuine sustainability requires a more universal adoption of ecologically inclusive economic indicators and a more thoroughgoing integration of environmental considerations into economic and social development." (Litfin, 1999, p. 374)

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Symbolic politics, while often limited to rhetorical gestures in environmental governance, should evolve into genuine inclusion of ecological considerations to guide international action. Litfin shows that environmental language is frequently used to signal commitment without producing substantial change, yet it shapes how states and institutions approach global challenges. By moving beyond symbolic framing toward the integration of environmental considerations, sustainable development can reconcile economic growth, social progress, and ecological integrity, ensuring that policies reflect the interconnectedness of human and natural systems. Ecologically inclusive economic indicators provide practical tools to assess development while accounting for environmental costs, reinforcing the principle of ecological interdependence. In other words, economic and social development must operate within ecological limits, recognizing that human activity and natural systems are mutually linked. Consequently, Litfin’s perspective offers a framework for rethinking international relations, transforming symbolic gestures into substantive action and fostering a holistic understanding of humanity’s role in sustaining the planet.

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Litfin argues that symbolic politics uses environmental language to signal commitment without necessarily producing real change. Sustainable development seeks to combine economic growth, social progress, and ecological integrity, encouraging long-term policies that respect environmental limits. Integrating environmental considerations across sectors ensures that decisions account for ecological interconnections. Ecologically inclusive economic indicators measure development while reflecting environmental costs. Economic and social development, therefore, must align with ecological interdependence, recognizing that human societies and natural systems are mutually linked.

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“…environmental security functions as ‘an ambiguous symbol’ for a wide array of policy and analytical positions.” (p. 361)

“…environmental security is akin to more expansive notions of global or human security, bringing together the twin pursuit of development and sustainability.” (p. 361)

“…long-term solutions will require a willingness to grapple with deeper social, economic, and political roots.” (p. 360)

“…all fields of social practice and analysis, including international relations, are being compelled to widen their vision.” (p. 359)

“…the greening of international relations has entailed a movement away from its traditional state-centric orientation.” (p. 359)

“…bringing together the twin pursuit of development and sustainability.” (p. 361)

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Symbolic politics — Discursive legitimation / performative environmentalism / rhetorical governance

Sustainable development — Eco-development / green modernization / integrated sustainability

Ecologically inclusive economic indicators — Green national accounting / sustainability metrics / genuine progress indicators

Integration of environmental considerations — Environmental mainstreaming / policy coherence for sustainability / systemic ecological integration

Economic and social development — Human-centred growth / equitable prosperity / sustainable modernization

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Constructing Environmental Security 
and Ecological Interdependence

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Constructing Environmental Security 
and Ecological Interdependence

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"Moving beyond the symbolic politics typically associated with the language of sustainable development, genuine sustainability requires a more universal adoption of ecologically inclusive economic indicators and a more thoroughgoing integration of environmental considerations into economic and social development." (Litfin, 1999, p. 374)

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Gaia theory, an interdisciplinary scientific perspective that understands Earth holistically as an integrated, self-regulating biogeochemical system, offers a rich portfolio of concepts and imagery for “thinking globally.” (Litfin, 2012, p. 419)

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Gaia theory, an interdisciplinary scientific perspective that understands Earth holistically as an integrated, self-regulating biogeochemical system, offers a rich portfolio of concepts and imagery for “thinking globally.” (Litfin, 2012, p. 419)

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Gaia theory, through its interdisciplinary approach and explanation of the interdependence of species and surroundings, helps humanity to think globally and understand the role of human beings in the self-regulating Earth system. The theory views the planet as an integrated network. Living organisms and the environment cooperate to maintain ecological balance with the help of biogeochemical factors and feedback processes. In other words, the Earth is like another living organism with its own homeostasis. This leads to the thought of humanity's role in this system. Gaia theory starts to play the role of a framework for global thinking and give a birth to new concepts. Consequently, Gaia theory offers a way of rethinking human–Earth relations that moves beyond individual disciplinary views toward a holistic, planetary perspective.

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Litfin says that Gaia theory is an interdisciplinary scientific approach. It combines insights from biology, geography, and chemistry. This helps to understand that the Earth is a holistic and integrated system where living organism and their surroundings live interdependently. This leads to self-regulation and maintains ecological balance. Litfin says that species’ actions favour both its environment and itself, it will tend to spread. This approach helps us to understand that we are all in this together. Therefore, Gaia theory's role is not only to represent a scientific model, but also a framework for understanding humanity’s role within a self-sustaining planet.

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“Gaia theory articulates ‘a new iteration of an old intuition’ – the ancient Earth goddess, reborn late modernity.”

“Systems theory is a conceptual tool for separating one part of the universe from the rest …”

“Holism helps us to see that systems are more than the sum of their parts … Likewise, Gaia’s emergent properties arise out of the interaction of Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere (soils and rocks), hydrosphere, and biosphere.”

“Gaia theory predicts that when a species’ actions favour both its environment and itself, it will tend to spread.”

“Humanity is now operating on a Gaian scale.”

“Gaia’s planetary perspective reminds us that we are all in this together."

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Gaia theory - Gaia hypothesis / Earth system theory

Interdisciplinary scientific perspective - Interdisciplinarity / systems thinking

Earth holistically / integrated system - Holism / planetary systems approach

Self-regulating biogeochemical system - Homeostasis / ecological balance / feedback mechanisms

Thinking globally - Global consciousness / planetary perspective / global interdependence

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The IR literature has mostly treated the environment as yet another issue of collective (in)action, and/or as a trigger of conflict. (Laferrière & Stoett, 1999)

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The IR literature has mostly treated the environment as yet another issue of collective (in)action, and/or as a trigger of conflict. (Laferrière & Stoett, 1999)

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Mainstream International Relations theories see the environmental issues as part of their main concepts, like state behavior and security. The environment acts as the field for cooperation since it directly affects the state mechanisms. However, ecological problems are also an example of a familiar concept of a collective action problem. Other scholars view the environment as the cause of the conflict. Because scarcity and ecological decline intensify the competition and insecurity. This approach shows that in IR, there is a tendency to incorporate upcoming issues into existing frameworks. Consequently, environmental issues are discussed in IR through the well-known lenses, and this constrains scholars from addressing the ecological dimensions of global politics precisely.

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International Relations Theory and Ecological Thought

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International Relations Theory and Ecological Thought

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By IR literature, authors refer to the main IR theories, such as realism and liberalism. The environmental issues for its scholars concern a specific area of state regulation that needs to be addressed. In other words, ecological problems are seen as an issue of what states can cooperate to solve. Collective (in)action refers to a collective action problem, which means states fail to collaborate to address this issue. At the same time, scarcity caused by these issues can lead to conflicts related to environmental security and sources. Therefore, IR literature sees environmental issues as part of the existing concept of cooperation and conflict.

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International Relations Theory and Ecological Thought

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International Relations Theory and Ecological Thought

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“…the classical problem of scarcity and collective action looms large in the ecological reading of IR theory.” (p. 11)

“Mainstream IR theory tends to regard global ecological change as yet another item on the agenda of international politics — largely absorbed by cooperation or conflict frameworks.” (p. 4)

“What remains underdeveloped is a conceptual account of how environment-related issues challenge the foundational ontologies of IR theory, including the idea of security and state-centric conflict.” (p. 12)

“The ecological literature thus invites IR scholars to reconceive the environment not simply as an area for cooperation, but as a lens through which the very structure of international (in)action might be reassessed.” (p. 13)

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International Relations Theory and Ecological Thought

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International Relations Theory and Ecological Thought

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IR literature - mainstream IR approaches

Environmental issues - environmental politics / global environmental issues / environmental governance

Collective (in)action - collective action problem

Trigger of conflict - environmental security / conflict linkage

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Gaia theory, an interdisciplinary scientific perspective that understands Earth holistically as an integrated, self-regulating biogeochemical system, offers a rich portfolio of concepts and imagery for “thinking globally.” (Litfin, 2012, p. 419)

# data[].attributes.headline
International Relations Theory and Ecological Thought

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International Relations Theory and Ecological Thought

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The IR literature has mostly treated the environment as yet another issue of collective (in)action, and/or as a trigger of conflict. (Laferrière & Stoett, 1999)

The physical health of the planet is indeed in danger. it is not too late.

In most cases, the underlying causes of ecological degradation are political; and where they are not, the human consequences of natural disasters, including maldistributed relief, are.

In general, the state has continuously perpetrated the ideology of control necessary for this process, though it has also acted to mitigate some of the environmental excesses that result from it.

This is evident in both reformist and radical senses: whether we are enacting energy taxes, passing wildlife protection legislation, negotiating treaties to establish regulatory regimes for marine oil pollution, or resisting the communal value of corporate culture and centralized decisionmaking, we are engaging in politics.

In other words, by looking at environmental problems as political problems, ecological thought is arguably well positioned to help IR theory refine its own understanding of order, peace, security, and power (its traditional explananda).

Three basic views of nature: Western, Sineatic, and Indian.

We adopt an eclectic notion of ecology—as scientific field and as philosophical reflection, as a descriptive and ordering enterprise and as a normative investigation.

Conservationism is an appropriate label for this brand of ecological thought: beyond sustaining our survival, nature may be legitimately conceived as a pool of natural resources to be used for the primary purpose of economic growth.

In this sense, most (but not all) radical ecologists reject ecological anthropocentrism, which subordinates “nature” to “humanhood.”

a) Do those traditions mention the theme of ecology, and if so, what ecological perspectives do they reflect? b) Do those traditions possibly contribute to the process of ecological degradation, through their own ontologies, epistemologies, and policy prescriptions

Critical IR, on the other hand, makes only passing references to ecology, although one can see how congenial Critical IR is with radical ecology and this is a link that we explore in substantial detail in Chapter 5

Clearly, and as hinted above, ecology has been used as a realist theme—scarcity breeds conflict, and theorists of environmental conflict have adequately mapped out the process by which, say, land erosion or increased flooding may provoke intra/ inter-state crisis/conflict.

Similarly, ecological thought may be used as a critique of liberal IR theory. Liberals have also used ecology, treating environmental issues as case studies for theories of cooperation and compliance and so has appeared the concept of an environmental regime, and resurfaced the statement that natural-resource experts may be/have been empowered to depoliticize contentious international issues

In fact, ecological thought itself, at least in its radical form, is already tributary to critical theory (beyond IR)