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This morphology post has been a long time coming! I have started and stopped so many times because it feels so big! I have had an interest in morphology for years and have slowly been developing my understanding of morphology and dabbling with how to incorporate morphology in the elementary classroom. I've always been hesitant to complete and publish this post because I still don't have all the answers. But I decided a little snippet about morphology is better than nothing! Morphology is one of the components of a Structured Literacy classroom. To read more about Structured Literacy, click here.

I decided to split this blog post up into 3 blog posts. This first one will provide background knowledge about morphology. I've realized over the years that before I can truly help my students apply morphological concepts, I need to have a better understanding of morphology myself! I hope this first post can provide the background knowledge you need to get started. The second will be about teaching morphology in the primary grades (K-2) and then the third will be about teaching morphology the intermediate/upper grades.

What is Morphology?

Morphology is the branch of linguistics that deals with the structure and formation of words in a language. It focuses on the smallest units of within words, known as morphemes. So, morphology is the study of how morphemes are combined to form words. I have found huge benefits to teaching morphology early and often. Usually in elementary classrooms, we focus on phonology, or the study of sounds in our language. This is absolutely essential! However, I have also found that sprinkling in morphology in the younger grades can set our students up for success by providing a deeper understanding of how words work. Then, by third grade we start to shift our focus from phonology to morphology. If they have some instruction all along, they are primed for more!

Morphological Awareness is the ability to consciously recognize, comprehend, and manipulate morphemes (Kirby & Bowers, 2012). The key word there is "consciously". We manipulate morphemes all the time when we speak but we are not conscious of what we are doing or how we are doing it. My goal with younger students is to help them to become aware of this process.

What are Morphemes?

A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning. I always like to compare it to phonology, which is the study of sound patterns. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound. Letters and graphemes represent those sounds. By itself, a phoneme or grapheme does not carry any meaning. It is just a sound or a written representation of that sound. On the other hand, a morpheme does carry meaning. In her book, Beneath the Surface of Words, Sue Hegland says that "morphemes contribute to the overall sense of a word." She goes on to explain that "Morphemes cannot be further divided without losing the sense they contribute to words."

A morpheme can be an affix (like a prefix or a suffix), a base word, or a root. A morpheme can also be a function word like "to", "the", or "of".

Examples of Morphemes

A word can have only one morpheme or it can have several. I always think it's easiest to understand with examples.

Types of Morphemes

There are two types of morphemes: A free morpheme and a bound morpheme.

A free morpheme can be a word all on its own and it can also add additional morphemes to make new words.

A bound morpheme cannot be a word on its own. It has to have other morphemes added to it in order for it to be a real word.

The image below shows the types of morphemes and examples of each:

Base Words and Root Words

I get a lot of questions about the difference between base words and roots. Here is my understanding of the difference: Both carry the bulk of a word's meaning. Base words can be words on their own, whereas roots cannot.

Base words are the first type of morpheme that we teach. Base words are just regular words that do not have any additional morphemes attached to them. When I first introduce morphology, I begin with the concept of a base word. Base words are free morphemes, so they hold their own meaning and do not necessarily need any other morphemes attached to them to be a real word. Base words can have additional morphemes attached to them, but they don't have to. Roots, on the other hand, do need other morphemes. That is what makes them a bound morpheme. Examples of roots are "ject", "struct", "spect", and "rupt".

Bound morphemes carry their own meaning, but they are not a word on their own. They are simply a part of a word. This includes roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Take the root "ject". It means "to throw" but it is not a word on its own. But, you can add prefixes in-, sub-, or pro- to make the words "inject", "subject", and "project". You can also add suffixes to make the word even bigger: subjective, injection, projector. Because roots are not words on their own, I teach roots a little later. It is easiest to begin with base words with our younger students, then add on simple suffixes or prefixes.

Affixes: Prefixes and Suffixes

As I mentioned, base words and roots carry the bulk of the word's meaning. We tend to teach base words in the primary grades (k-2) and then get into roots later (starting in 2nd, but mainly 3rd grade and beyond). Prefixes and suffixes are both affixes. They are bound morphemes because they are not words on their own, but they are added to the beginning or end of a base word or root to change that word.

Prefixes

Prefixes are affixes attached to the beginning of words. Prefixes modify the meaning of words. "Prefixes negate the meaning of a word, intensify the meaning, or change the direction." (Unlocking the Logic of English by Denise Eide)

Take a look at the example below. All of these prefixes can be attached to the same root. The Latin root "port" means "to carry". They all change the meaning of the word slightly. When you report, you carry back information. When you "import" something, you carry it in. When you "export", you carry it out. Transporting is to carry across from one place to another and deport is to carry from a place. Pretty fun, right?!

The 4 most common prefixes (dis-, in-, re-, un-) in English "account for 97% of prefixed words in printed school English". (Scholastic source here)

These nine prefixes account for 75% of words that use a prefix.

Suffixes

Suffixes are affixes attached to the end of words.

The 4 most common suffixes (-s/-es, -ed, -ing, -ly) "account for 95% of suffixed words in printed school English." (Scholastic source here)

Ten suffixes (-s/-es, -ed, -ing, -ly, -er/or, -ion, -ible/able, -al/ial, -y, -ness) account for 85% of words that contain a suffix.

There are two types of suffixes: inflectional and derivational. (I do not get into these terms with my younger students. I simply use the term suffix. I am sharing this for your background knowledge.)

Inflectional suffixes change the verb tense (-ed, -ing, -s, -es), pluralize nouns (-s, -es), or show comparison (-er, -est). These endings do not change the part of speech.

Derivational suffixes create (or derive) a new word. It changes its meaning. These endings do change the part of speech.

I have created suffix posters (a small size for a morpheme wall and a larger size. You can find those suffix visuals here.

Suffix Changing Rules

Unlike with prefixes, adding suffixes isn't always straightforward. When you add a prefix to a word you just add it. It doesn't affect the base word at all. On the other hand, when adding, the base word can change. But don't worry! There are very consistent suffix-changing rules that you will see over and over again. The consistency of these rules makes them easier for kids to grasp and understand. The rule that applies to a suffix depends on what kind of suffix it is: a consonant suffix or a vowel suffix. ( Consonant suffixes begin with a consonant. Vowel suffixes begin with a vowel.) Most of time, when we add a consonant suffix to a root word, the spelling of the root word remains the same (except the y changing rule). No letters of the base/root are changed or added. However, when you add a vowel suffix to a base or root, changes often may be made.

I first teach the doubling rule at the end of my closed syllable unit. I review it again and again though, because it takes a while to get! I teach the drop e rules with my silent e unit. I teach the change y rule with my open syllables unit. (More about that in the next post!)

Here are some examples of those words in action. I hope it helps!

Morphemes Compared to Other Linguistic Terms

I posted this visual several years ago on Instagram and it seemed to help with understanding these terms.

There is often confusion about the difference between graphemes and letters. There are 26 letters of the alphabet. However, there are 44 sounds in our language. Graphemes are the written representation of those sounds. Graphemes can be one letter or they can be more than one letter. For example, the sound (phoneme) /b/ is represented by the grapheme <b> (which is also a letter). The sound (phoneme) /sh/ is represented by the grapheme <sh>. (The letters <s> and <h> together form the grapheme that spells /sh/.)

If you like those examples, I have created a few more and posted them on Instagram from time to time.

If you would like to download these examples, click here.

Morphemes vs. Syllables

Morphemes and syllables are easily confused. A syllable has to do with sound. It's like a beat in a word. It is chunk of sound that revolves around a vowel. With each syllable, our chin drops and it creates a separation. You can hear and feel syllables. You cannot always hear each morpheme. A morpheme is a piece of a word that has meaning. In short, a syllable is like a beat in a word, and a morpheme is a meaningful piece of a word.

A great example of this is with the syllable -tion. The syllable -tion consistently spells the sound "shun". However, did you know that the suffix is actually -ion?

Let's look at the word "instruction". When I break it up into syllables, I would say in-struc-tion. By contrast, when I break it up by morpheme, it is prefix in-, root "struct" (to build) and suffix -ion (in-struct-ion). The root is "struct" with that <t> being part of the root. The suffix is -ion. By itself, suffix -ion doesn't say "shun". It is only when it is combined with the <t> from the root that is says "shun".

The same is true for syllable -ture vs. suffix -ure. In the word "fracture", the syllables are frac-ture (with -ture saying "cher"), but the morphemes are root "fract" meaning to break and suffix -ure. This may seem confusing at first, but I've taught these same concepts to second and third graders and after much exposure and investigating lots of words, it clicks and makes sense to them. (More to come on that in the third blog post of this series.)

Influences on the English Language

One of the reasons why our language is so complicated (and interesting) is because it has many influences from other languages. The English language reflects English history. I don't get into this with my younger students, but it could be interesting for older students. Here is a quick breakdown. (Information is from Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading and Spelling LETRS: Module 4)

Why Should I Teach Morphology?

Understanding morphology involves exploring how words can be broken apart into meaningful units. Teaching morphology is beneficial for decoding unfamiliar words, expanding vocabulary, and enhancing language comprehension.

Improve Decoding of multi-syllabic words: It is so helpful to be able to quickly identify prefixes and suffixes and common roots or bases while decoding. By the age of ten, morphological awareness is a better predictor of decoding ability than is phonological awareness. (Mann & Singson, 2003).

Building Strong Vocabulary: Teaching morphology helps students break down and understand the meaning of words. By learning about prefixes, suffixes, and root words, our students can figure out the meaning of or have a deeper understanding of so many more words. For example, if our students know that the prefix re- means "again", they can figure out that "rewrite" means to write again. "60% of new words that students read are made up of familiar morphemes that can lead the reader to its meaning (Carlisle, 2000).

Improving Reading Comprehension: Morphological awareness is closely linked to reading comprehension. Teaching students to recognize word parts allows them to figure out complex words and infer meanings. "Researchers have found that a 5th grade student's understanding of word parts, or knowledge of morphology, is a better indicator of reading comprehension than his or her vocabulary level." (Kieffer et al, 2007)

Enhancing Spelling Skills: Understanding the structure of words can really help with spelling! Teaching morphology helps students understand spelling patterns, making it easier for them to grasp spelling rules and exceptions. Multi-syllabic words often are not spelled how they sound. Students who can identify morphemes are much more likely to spell the word correctly. Here are some examples:

If a student is struggling to remember how to spell the word "really" and keeps spelling it "realy" with one <l>, you can explain that the word is made up of two morphemes: base word "real" + suffix -ly. There are two <l>'s in that word because one <l> belongs with the base word and the other belongs with the suffix.

Another example I like to use is the word "different". It sounds like it should be spelled "difrent". When we use morphemes, we can see that it is base word "differ" plus suffix -ent. When we say "differ", we can hear that /er/ sound. There are endless examples like this one.

When spelling the word "rocks", a student may want to spell it like "box" or "fox". Afterall, it does sound the same. The understanding that "rocks" is really "rock" plus suffix -s, meaning more than one rock can help with understanding of the word and spelling of the word. (See Instagram post explaining here.) This is a basic example, but it serves as a foundation for later understanding with more complex words.

(Read more about spelling instruction here. )

English is Morpho-Phonemic

To wrap it all up... English words are made up of two components: phonemes and morphemes. English spelling represents sounds, syllables, and morphemes. Students need knowledge of both phonology and morphology to fully understand English words.

Although we must teach sound-symbol correspondences and spend ample time mastering decoding and encoding early on, we also should begin introducing the concept of morphemes. We want students to be thinking about structures along with pronunciation. Both are equally important.

Morphological elements are spelled consistently even though the pronunciation will vary. Pronunciation can change as we add or take away affixes, but the spelling remains consistent. A schwa sound may move, the stressed syllable may change, and vowels may represent different sounds depending on the affixes you add. "Bases and affixes can have multiple pronunciations, but use consistent spelling to mark relations of meaning." (Pete Bowers)

Pronunciation Changes, Spelling is Consistent

Let's take a look at two examples of related words that change pronunciation, but keep spelling:

In this first example, see how the letters <e> and <a> change pronunciation. You can also see how the letter <t> represents the /t/ sound and then changes to /sh sound when combined with the -ion. The base here is "relate". We add the suffix -ive to make "relative". We add suffixes -ion and -ship to make "relationship". The pronunciation changes but when we look at it through the lens of morphology, it's easy to see the relationships. The only change in spelling was the consistent suffix rule of dropping e before a vowel suffix.

Now, let's look at another example. Here the root is "nat", which means "birth". When suffix -ive is added, the <a> makes a long a sound and the <t> represents the /t/ sound. But, if you add -ion to the root, the letter <t> no longer represents the /t/ sound. Once you another suffix -al, the <a> changes from a long a to a short a. Add yet another suffix -ity, and that second <a> goes from a schwa sound to a short vowel sound and that syllable is not the stressed syllable. See how pronunciation varies so much but the spelling and meaning totally make sense! It's like putting puzzle pieces together.

Irregular Words or Just Misunderstood Words?

Here is another picture from an old post to illustrate the words "do", "does", "doing", "done", "undone", and "redo". Often the word "does" is super tricky for students and we consider it an irregular word. It does seem irregular if we are only considering the sounds in the word. If we were to do phoneme-grapheme mapping, we would break it up like this: d-oe-s with <oe> representing the /u/ sound. However if we were considering morphology, the spelling sure does make sense. The word "does" is base word "do" plus suffix -es. This is similar to "goes". As with other words, the pronunciation changed when a suffix was added but the spelling remains intact.

The word done is base word "do" with suffix -ne (similar to "gone"). I remember reading somewhere that -ne is an irregular version of the suffix -en? That one is a bit trickier but super interesting! I'm sure there is a historical explanation.

The word "said" has a similar structure to "paid" and "laid". Pronunciation of "says" is different, but the spelling shows it is base "say" plus suffix -s. That's much better than trying to "sound out" that word.

One last example is the word "two". The <w> seems like it comes out of nowhere. Long ago, the /w/ may have been pronounced. The /w/ sound is still pronounced in related words, like "twin", "twelve", "twenty", "twice", and "between". All are related to the meaning of two.

This all feels like a lot of information that may be too overwhelming to throw at our students. Well, you're exactly right! It would be too much to just throw at them all at once. This is why we want to give little snippets starting early and continue to review and show more and more examples often! We start very basic and slowly add on.

So how do we do that? Check out my next blog post on how to get started with teaching morphology. Then, read the third morphology post about how to teach morphology in the intermediate grades.

Resources:

I've posted a few videos on YouTube that may be helpful. Click here to get to my morphology videos.

I'm still working on a morphology unit with activities that build and break apart words with roots and affixes. I'm hoping it'll be done soon! In the meantime, check out my other morphology resources.

Acknowledgements:

Eide, Denise. Uncovering the Logic of English: A Common-Sense Approach to Reading, Spelling, and Literacy. Logic of English, Inc., 2012.

Hegland, Sue Scibetta. Beneath the Surface of Words: What English Spelling Reveals and Why It Matters. Learning About Spelling, 2021.

Moats, L, & Tolman, C (2019). Excerpted from Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading and Spelling (LETRS): Module 4

Zafarris, Jess, and Marco Marella. Once upon a Word: A Word-Origin Dictionary for Kids: Building Vocabulary through Etymology, Definitions & Stories. Rockridge Press, 2020.

Home, www.wordworkskingston.com/WordWorks/Home.html. Accessed 14 Dec. 2023.

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Understanding Morphology: Part 1 - Sarah's Teaching Snippets

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Morphology is the study of how morphemes are combined to form words. Understanding morphology helps with spelling, decoding, and comprehension.

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Possible Advanced Word Study Scope & Sequence

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The Six Shifts Multiyear Example

Morphemes by possible grade level (p 4)

The Reading Teacher's Sourcebook- morphemes by commonality

Vocabularians- morphemes by commonality

50 "most useful" morphemic key words

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Etymonline

Word Searcher

Can Do Kids Academy (some paid, some free- also check out the Facebook page)

Engage with the Page (and Facebook page)

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Prefixes

Suffixes

Roots/Bases

Greek Combining Forms

*created by a teacher and shared on Morpheme Magic Facebook group

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Example

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To Group or Not to Group - That Is the Question

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We're being told to spend about 30 minutes delivering whole group instruction and then spend the next 60 minutes meeting with small groups of students while the other students work in literacy stations to practice skills previously taught either independently or in partners/groups.

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J Serravallo- What Can I Work On (Reader Reflection)

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J Serravallo- What Can I Work On (Reader Reflection)

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Qualitative rubrics (Achieve the Core)

Quantitative value (Lexile & Quantile Tools)

Multiple quantitative values (Readability Formula)

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Including PODCASTS!

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Children's books and activities

Many kids are fascinated by fairy tales, folktales, tall tales, myths, ghost stories, and pourquoi stories from around the world. We've gathered up a great collection of books, activities, apps, and websites for learning all about folktales, fairy tales and myths.

Try pairing fiction with nonfiction books and exploring different genres (like poetry and biographies) and formats (like graphic novels and audio books). You'll be creating your own "text sets" - collections of texts focused on a specific topic, such as folktales, fairy tales, and myths. Reading widely in this way helps children build background knowledge, vocabulary, and comprehension skills.

You may also want to explore the writing, oral storytelling, poetry, mapmaking, and other creative activities featured in our guide, We Are Storytellers: Exploring Multicultural Folktales, Fairy Tales, and Myths.

How to explore this theme:

More themed resources:

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Many kids are fascinated by fairy tales, folktales, tall tales, myths, ghost stories, and pourquoi stories from around the world. We've gathered up a great collection of books, activities, apps, and websites for learning all about folktales, fairy tales and myths.

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G5 Reading Unit Planner- Traditional Stories

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G5 Reading Unit Planner- Traditional Stories

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TEMPLATE (with G3/4 example)

Example with MLL language targets

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CAIS G6 Reading Unit Planner- Science integration

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Achieve the Core

CommonLit (free but requires login)

ReadWorks (free but requires login, gives paired texts)

Newsela (subscription)

Padlet (free but requires login, use generate reading list option)

ChatGPT (or other generative AI)

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CommonLit | Text Sets - Elementary: Fairytales & Folktales

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These classic stories from a variety of different cultures teach students important lessons.

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G2-3 Text Set Project Properties of Matter "Expert Pack"

G6-8 Text Set Project States of Matter "Expert Pack"

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Template 1

Template 2

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Learning at the Primary Pond

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Florida Center for Reading Research

Phonics & Stuff (good for sentence dictation and word chains)

UFLI Roll & Read Game Variations (from Facebook group)

The Measured Mom

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Achieve the Core

CommonLit (free but requires login)

ReadWorks (free but requires login, gives paired texts)

Newsela (subscription)

Padlet (free but requires login, use generate reading list option)

ChatGPT (or other generative AI)

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Qualitative rubrics (Achieve the Core)

Quantitative value (Lexile & Quantile Tools)

Multiple quantitative values (Readability Formula)

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G6 Reading Unit Planner- Science Integration

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G6 Reading Unit Planner- Science Integration

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TEMPLATE (with G3/4 example)

Example with MLL language targets

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CAIS G6 Reading Unit Planner- Science integration

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G4 Reading Unit Planner- Cinderella Stories

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G4 Reading Unit Planner- Cinderella Stories

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TEMPLATE (with G3/4 example)

Example with MLL language targets

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CAIS G4 Reading Unit Planner- Cinderella Stories

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The word mapping tool lets you type in a word and see its graphemes and phonemes mapped out. It’s great for teaching phonics!

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Sentence to Symbol, Symbol to Sentence examples

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Sentence to Symbol, Symbol to Sentence examples

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1-Prealphabetic (sounds)
2-Partial Alphabetic (short vowels, CVC)
3-Full Alphabetic (long vowels)
4-Consolidated Alphabetic (multisyllabic)

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CAIS G4 Close Reading Small Group Planning - Chapter 37

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Framework for meaningful literacy practice

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Framework for meaningful literacy practice

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K-Syntax Example
G1-Sentence Expansion
G1-Subordinating Conjunctions
G2-Student Paragraph Example

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Foundational Understandings of a Sentence

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Foundational Understandings of a Sentence

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CAIS G4 Strategy Reading Planner- where you are in a book

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Reading Small Group -- Strategy Group Planner

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Close Reading Small Group Planning Template

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CAIS Reading- Strategy Planner- engaging and tracking thinking with a new topic

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CAIS G5 Multisyllabic Decoding Small Group Planner- Properties of Water

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CAIS G5 Reading Small Group - Strategy Focus- verbal reasoning with pronouns

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Using DIBELS Data and Action Steps - Detailed

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CAIS G5 Shared Text Comprehension Planning- Properties of Matter

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TextProject is the only website with student texts and teacher guides based on the science of reading-available for free download. Download our research-based, open-access resources for teachers, teacher educators, parents, tutors, and students.

TextProject is the only website with high-quality student texts and teacher guides that are all available for free download.

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Vocabulary instruction through networks of words

Vocabulary instruction through networks of words

A blog and video series based on evidence from reading research

A blog and video series based on evidence from reading research

Free Classroom Materials for Teaching Reading

Classroom-proven resources including favorite books, reading passages, vocabulary lessons, word pictures, literacy lists & forms.

Free Student Texts

Free texts for reading instruction! TextProject is the sole website with free texts based on the science of reading.

For programs such as BeginningReaders and FYI for Kids, world-renowned researcher and teacher educator, Patricia Cunningham, has written lessons to accompany the texts.

Vocabulary Instruction

Vocabulary is the strongest predictor of reading comprehension. TextProject provides free resources for the four kinds of vocabulary words that contribute to reading comprehension: core, academic, content-area, and literary.

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Strategies, tools, and texts to bring beginning and struggling readers to proficient levels of literacy

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Multisyllabic Decoding Small Group (Shared Reading)

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Multisyllabic Decoding Small Group (Shared Reading)

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EXAMPLE

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Condensed Planner for Multisyllabic Decoding - TEMPLATE

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General Assessments by Grade - Parent Guide, but can use for Teachers

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General Assessments by Grade - Parent Guide, but can use for Teachers

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Example Small Group Planner from DIBELS Data

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Example Small Group Planner from DIBELS Data

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Using DIBELS Data and Action Steps - Detailed

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G5 Shared Reading Small Group Demo- Plastic Straws

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Possible whole class shared reading flow

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Possible whole class shared reading flow

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Possible whole class shared reading flow

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Possible whole class shared reading flow

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G5 Shared Reading Small Group Demo- Plastic Straws

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Possible whole class shared reading flow

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Possible whole class shared reading flow

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G5 Shared Reading Small Group Demo- Plastic Straws

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Gots - Fiction creates windows and mirrors / How are we setting our readers up for success? - "Strategies are best taught in synergy with knowledge building."

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ISNS G1 Demo Reading Small Group Planner