# data[].attributes.headline
17th-19th Century: Bilingualism vs. Monolingualism in the US

# data[].attributes.subject
17th-19th Century: Bilingualism vs. Monolingualism in the US

# data[].attributes.body
In the United States pre-history and early history, bilingual education was accepted in many cities across the country. The authors note that bilingual education was not universally accepted, especially in major urban areas. Still, bilingual education between English and German was common in the East and Midwest as a result of schools competing for students, who were mainly immigrants. The United States' beginnings as a country made by immigrants made this dynamic possible, despite the push-back from anti-German voices. Today, challengers to bilingualism mirror similar anti-immigrant stances, although the focus is directed more towards Middle-Eastern and Latin American populations. German ancestry in the United States today is less attacked, whereas immigrant students from countries such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Mexico experience politically and racially motivated opposition. This time period reflects a time in the United States when bilingualism would have some support, although it clearly marks historical roots of xenophobia in the United States.

# data[].attributes.headline
1919: Americanization Department of the US Bureau of Education recommends that all education occurs in English

# data[].attributes.subject
1919: Americanization Department of the US Bureau of Education recommends that all education occurs in English

# data[].attributes.body
Bilingual education received its first major attack at the hands of the government in the early 20th century following a spike in immigration. Following World War I, many immigrants turned to the United States for new opportunities at life outside of war-torn Europe. With a massive influx of immigrants into the United States, xenophobic sentiments likewise skyrocketed. Anti-immigrant sentiments were directed at Germans as a result of Germany's involvement in the war. Although the language of instruction has largely been ignored before the 20th-century, this new wave of immigrant students led the Americanization Department of the Bureau of Education to craft a resolution that education should occur in English only. Although it was only a resolution, the idea was popular amongst most of the nation. Thirty-four states turned the resolution into law in just four years, cementing the majority of the nation as monolinguist in the process. This turning point in educational policy would significantly change how instruction was and still is conducted, today. Most schools continue to offer instruction in English only, with the exception of foreign language courses. Bilingual education is available for some languages, although students must attend specific schools for that service. For example, there are some French-English bilingual schools in New York City that alternate one full day in French instruction and one full day in English instruction.

# data[].attributes.headline
1958: the National Defense Education Act passes, inspired by a shift in perspectives on bilingualism

# data[].attributes.subject
1958: the National Defense Education Act passes, inspired by a shift in perspectives on bilingualism

# data[].attributes.body
About halfway through the 20th-century, the United States underwent a second turning point in attitudes towards bilingualism. Following the United States' loss of the Space Race to the Soviet Union, the National Defense Education Act was passed in an effort to revamp education. The Space Race revealed that the United States was simply not as smart, capable, or intuitive as other countries. Following Sputnik's successful launch, the United States sought to strengthen American education programs by promoting foreign language instruction across the country. Foreign language was previously discouraged due to xenophobic and American-centric sentiments. Sputnik acted as a wake-up call to the United States. Today, many students are required to earn foreign language credit to graduate high school. However, foreign language instruction in not synonymous to bilingual education. In most foreign language classes, only the words, grammar rules, and syntax of the language are taught. Once the foreign language credit is earned, many students discontinue their studies and their language ability fades.

# data[].attributes.headline
1968: Title VII, the Bilingual Education Act, passes and sets federal precedent for the inclusion of bilingual education across the United States

# data[].attributes.subject
1968: Title VII, the Bilingual Education Act, passes and sets federal precedent for the inclusion of bilingual education across the United States

# data[].attributes.body
The Bilingual Education Act sees the United States government's policy towards bilingualism come full circle from its roots in earlier centuries. This act identifies bilingual education as included in educational policy at the federal level. This act overrules all state laws that treat bilingual education as separate from general education and mandates that educational funding also be accessible to bilingual education programs. With both federal support and funding, bilingual education programs are now empowered to serve students better. This act was supported by a number of court cases throughout the second half of the 20th-century, which upheld bilingual education as protected under the 14th Amendment. However, this act did not mean that instruction in schools would now be offered in multiple languages. Instead, this act began ENL teaching programs where students whose first language is not English were identified as English Language Learners. Most of these students do not receive content instruction in their home language. Rather, they are given staff support in navigating general education taught in English. The emphasis in education after this law was not that schools would offer instruction in more languages, but that schools would help the students acquire English language skills so that they could access the curriculum in English. This situation remains largely the same today, where an ENL teacher is present in general education classes with ELLs to offer them support in their academics. Most ENL teachers specialize in only a few languages as well, with varying levels of ability, and are thus incapable of providing instruction in every students' home language.

# data[].attributes.headline
2011: The Seal of Biliteracy Begins, encouraging pursuit of excellence in bilingualism

# data[].attributes.subject
2011: The Seal of Biliteracy Begins, encouraging pursuit of excellence in bilingualism

# data[].attributes.body
Following California's lead, the Seal of Biliteracy has made its way across the country and is offered in schools in Indiana, Utah, and New York. The Seal can be earned by students who display ability and mastery of a non-native language. The Seal elevates the student's diploma and offers them a unique addition to their educational repertoire. Unfortunately, the Seal is not offered in many languages. In many cases, it may only be offered in the main foreign languages that are taught at a given school. Additionally, the authors point out that the Seal is mostly pursued and obtained by students whose first language is English rather than by ELLs. Still, the Seal underscores the importance of bilingualism and an encouraging attitude towards students who can speak multiple languages. If the Seal program was expanded to include many other languages, then more ELLs would have the chance to earn it. The Seal is significant because it is another clear and continuing example of shifted attitudes towards bilingualism and the emphasis in the US on language education.

# data[].attributes.body
Baker, C. (2021). Historical Introduction to Bilingual Education in the United States (pp. 105-120).

Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (7th Edition). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters