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a human society that has highly developed material and spiritual resources and a complex cultural, political, and legal organization

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belief in the benefits of profitable trading

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the process by which plants, animals, diseases, people, and ideas have been introduced from Europe, Asia, and Africa to the Americas

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A person under contract to work for another person for a definite period of time, usually without pay but in exchange for free passage to a new country.

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CHATTEL SLAVERY defined these human beings as no different than any other piece of property. Listed on property records, CHATTEL left the enslaved individual with no ability to refuse as they were forcibly sold or transferred

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English Protestants who believed that the reforms of the Church of England did not go far enough

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The triangular trade was the name for the routes that people in Europe, Africa, and the Americas used to trade goods and enslaved people long ago

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a system of forced labor imposed on indigenous workers by Spanish colonists

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The Southern colonies were Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia

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The Middle colonies were made up of New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. They were located south of the New England colonies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

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The New England Colonies were the settlements established by English religious dissenters along the coast of the north-east of North America between 1620-1640 CE.

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The Proclamation Line of 1763 was a boundary that the British government established after the French and Indian War, which restricted American colonists from settling lands west of the Appalachian Mountains. This was to prevent further conflict with Native American tribes and to control colonial expansion. Many colonists were incensed over this move, feeling it limited their opportunities for land and growth.

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The Newburgh Conspiracy of 1783 was the possible uprising among the officers in the Continental Army who felt angry because they did not get any pay for service in the Revolutionary War. A crisis was diffused after an address to them by George Washington urging loyalty to the new government and faith in its future.

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The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 was a legislation that provided the method for admitting new states in the western territories and laid rules of governance. It banned slavery in the Northwest Territory and called for education and civil rights.

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A Patriot was basically that American colonist who supported the independence of America from Britain in the Revolutionary War. Patriots were those who opposed the rule of the British and fought for the establishment of a new nation with self-government. They played a very important role in the revolution, believing in freedom and resisting the British policies like taxes and military presence.

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A Tory, also known as a Loyalist, was any American colonist who remained loyal to Britain during the American Revolution. Tories opposed independence and supported the British monarchy and government because they felt staying under British rule was advantageous. Many Tories moved to Canada or other British territories after the revolution due to much hostility from Patriot colonists.

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The Albany Plan of Union proposed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754 was to have a unified government within which the American colonies could coordinate defense and other common interests. Although it was never adopted, it was the first serious proposal for intercolonial cooperation.

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The Articles of Confederation were the first constitution of the United States, adopted in 1781, which established a weak central government. It gave most powers to the individual states, with a limited federal government that lacked the ability to tax or regulate trade. The Articles were eventually replaced by the U.S. Constitution in 1789 due to their inability to address economic and political challenges.

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The Three-Fifths Compromise was an agreement during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that determined each enslaved person would count as three-fifths of a person for purposes of taxation and representation. It was a way to resolve the dispute between Northern and Southern states over how to count enslaved populations for apportioning seats in Congress.

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Salutary Neglect was a British policy throughout most of the 17th and 18th centuries whereby the British government avoided the strict enforcement of laws and regulations in the American colonies. It allowed self-governance to a large degree within the colonies and helped imbibe a sense of independence, contributing to their eventual self-governing desire.

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Federalists supported the U.S. Constitution during its late-18th-century ratification. They supported a robust central government that would deal with the issues of the nation such as defense and commerce. Federalists like Alexander Hamilton and James Madison believed that the Constitution provided a needed framework for a unified and stable country.

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The Great Compromise of 1787 was an agreement reached during the Constitutional Convention that resulted in a bicameral legislature, borrowing elements from both the Virginia and New Jersey Plans. It established the Senate, where each state has equal representation, and the House of Representatives, where it would be population-based.

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Anti-Federalists opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution because, in their mind, it granted too much power to the central government. In its place, they wanted more protection for the rights of individuals and the idea of a weak federal system wherein more powers remain in the hands of the states.

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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, and the pursuit of knowledge. It challenged traditional authority and inspired ideas about democracy, human rights, and scientific progress.

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Political parties are collective entities and activities that organize competitions for political offices. The members of a political party contest elections under a shared label. In a narrow definition, a political party can be thought of as just the group of candidates who run for office under a party label.

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"Marbury v. Madison" refers to a landmark Supreme Court case from 1803 where the Court established the principle of "judicial review," meaning that the judiciary has the power to declare laws passed by Congress unconstitutional if they violate the Constitution, effectively giving the courts the ability to interpret the Constitution and check the power of the legislative branch; this decision was written by Chief Justice John Marshall.

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temperance movement, movement dedicated to promoting moderation and, more often, complete abstinence in the use of intoxicating liquor

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The Abolitionist Movement aimed to outlaw slavery in the United States and help all enslaved people find freedom. The movement was ultimately successful in 1865.

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women's rights movement, diverse social movement, largely based in the United States, that in the 1960s and '70s sought equal rights and opportunities and greater personal freedom for women. It coincided with and is recognized as part of the “second wave” of feminism.

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is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, enabling much greater productivity than manual cotton separation.

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Machine that uses steam power to perform mechanical work through the agency of heat (hence a prime mover). In a steam engine, hot steam, usually supplied by a boiler, expands under pressure, and part of the heat energy is converted into work.

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The factory system was a new way of making products that began during the Industrial Revolution. The factory system used powered machinery, division of labor, unskilled workers, and a centralized workplace to mass-produce products.

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an artificial waterway constructed to allow the passage of boats or ships inland or to convey water for irrigation.

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he Monroe Doctrine is the best known U.S. policy toward the Western Hemisphere. Buried in a routine annual message delivered to Congress by President James Monroe in December 1823, the doctrine warns European nations that the United States would not tolerate further colonization or puppet monarchs

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The Democratic Party is the world's oldest active political party. It initially supported expansive presidential power, agrarianism, and geographical expansionism, while opposing a national bank and high tariffs.

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a member of the British reforming and constitutional party that sought the supremacy of Parliament and was eventually succeeded in the 19th century by the Liberal Party.

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a system for transmitting messages from a distance along a wire, especially one creating signals by making and breaking an electrical connection.

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interchangeable parts, identical components that can be substituted one for another, particularly important in the history of manufacturing.

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Impressment was the practice of forcing men to serve in the military against their will. Most often used by the British Navy, impressment often involved violence. Forcing someone to join the military might seem a little extreme, but the British navy used the method for centuries.

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was a 19th-century belief in the United States that Americans were destined by God to expand westward across North America, justifying territorial expansion and the displacement of Native Americans

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a package of five laws passed in September 1850, designed to resolve disputes over slavery in newly acquired territories, including California's admission as a free state, the Fugitive Slave Act, and the abolition of the slave trade in Washington, D.C.

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The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, officially titled "An Act to Organize the Territories of Nebraska and Kansas," repealed the Missouri Compromise, allowing residents of these territories to decide on the issue of slavery through popular sovereignty, leading to increased sectional tensions and violence, including "Bleeding Kansas

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the principle that the legitimacy of a government derives from the consent of the people

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were federal laws passed in 1793 and 1850 that authorized the capture and return of escaped enslaved people to their owners, even in free states, and imposed penalties on those who aided them

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the loyalty to one's own region or section of the country, rather than to the country as a whole, often leading to conflict and division, as seen in the lead-up to the Civil War.

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the action of withdrawing formally from membership of a federation or body, especially a political state.

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the "Union" refers to the United States, led by President Abraham Lincoln, fighting to preserve the nation against the seceding Southern states, known as the Confederacy.

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the government of 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union in 1860–61, carrying on all the affairs of a separate government and conducting a major war until defeated in the spring of 1865.

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abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime, and granted Congress the power to enforce it through legislation.

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, granted citizenship and equal civil and legal rights to formerly enslaved people and all those born or naturalized in the United States, including the guarantee of due process and equal protection under the law.

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prohibits the federal government and each state from denying or abridging a citizen's right to vote "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude".

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the court upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine, allowing states to enforce segregation in public facilities as long as they provided equal facilities for different races.

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a labor protest rally near Haymarket Square turned violent after someone threw a bomb, resulting in the deaths of several police officers and civilians.

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a violent labor dispute at the Carnegie Steel Company's Homestead Steel Works in Pennsylvania, where workers, members of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, clashed with management and hired security guards, resulting in a major setback for unionization efforts in the steel industry.

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a major railroad strike and boycott that began in Chicago in response to wage cuts and high rents in the company town of Pullman, leading to a nationwide disruption of rail traffic and a federal intervention that ultimately ended the strike.

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a muckraking exposé of the Chicago meatpacking industry, particularly its unsanitary conditions and exploitative labor practices,

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Women's suffrage refers to the right of women to vote in elections. The fight for this right, known as the women's suffrage movement, was a long and persistent struggle, gaining momentum in the 19th and 20th centuries. Ultimately, the movement led to the passage of the 19th Amendment to the US Constitution, granting women the right to vote

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Prohibition in the United States refers to the period from 1920 to 1933 when the 18th Amendment to the Constitution prohibited the manufacture, sale, transportation, import, or export of alcoholic beverages. The 18th Amendment, ratified in 1919, was accompanied by the Volstead Act, which provided the legal framework for enforcing the ban

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a policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, especially the political affairs of other countries.

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Alfred Thayer Mahan was a United States naval officer and historian, whom John Keegan called "the most important American strategist of the nineteenth century."

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An "open door policy" can refer to two distinct concepts: a workplace policy encouraging open communication between management and employees, and a historical U.S. foreign policy regarding China. In the workplace, it means managers make themselves readily available to employees, encouraging open dialogue about any work-related or personal concerns. In the context of China, the Open Door Policy was a U.S. initiative promoting equal trading opportunities

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the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests.

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Nationalism is an ideology and movement that prioritizes a nation's interests and identity, advocating for self-determination and a nation-state. It involves a belief in the natural and ideal basis of a nation for governance, asserting that each nation should govern itself free from external interference. Nationalism also aims to foster a shared national identity based on common characteristics like culture, ethnicity, or language, and to promote national unity and solidarity.

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The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization formed in 1920, following World War I, to promote international cooperation and prevent future wars. It was the first attempt at a global organization focused on maintaining peace and addressing international issues. The League had a mixed record, with some successes in resolving disputes but ultimately failing to prevent World War II.

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The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, was the peace treaty that officially ended World War I. It was signed by the Allied powers and Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The treaty imposed harsh terms on Germany, including territorial losses, demilitarization, and substantial reparations payments. It also held Germany responsible for starting the war.

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The Great Migration was a period between 1910 and 1970 where millions of African Americans moved from the rural South to the urban Northeast, Midwest, and West. This large-scale migration was driven by factors like economic opportunities, escape from Jim Crow laws and racial violence, and the pull of industrial jobs in the North. The migration resulted in significant population shifts and had a lasting impact on the social, political, and cultural landscape of both the South and the North.

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The Zimmermann Telegram was a coded message sent by German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann to the German ambassador in Mexico, Heinrich von Eckardt, in January 1917. The telegram, intercepted and decoded by British intelligence, proposed an alliance between Germany and Mexico if the United States entered World War I. In the telegram, Germany offered Mexico financial support and the return of territories lost to the U.S

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Buying stocks on margin means borrowing money from your broker to purchase shares, essentially using the broker's money to increase your buying power. This allows you to potentially amplify your gains if the stock price rises, but also magnifies potential losses if the price falls.

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The "American System," championed by Henry Clay, included tariffs designed to protect American industry from foreign competition, primarily those from Europe. The tariff of 1816, for example, placed a 20%–25% tax on imported goods, making foreign products more expensive and encouraging consumers to buy American-made goods.

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During Roosevelt's first hundred days in office in 1933 until 1935, he introduced what historians refer to as the "First New Deal", which focused on the "3 R's": relief for the unemployed and for the poor, recovery of the economy back to normal levels, and reforms of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression.

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Island hopping refers to two distinct concepts: a travel activity and a wartime strategy. As a travel activity, it involves visiting multiple islands within a specific region or archipelago. In World War II, island hopping was a military strategy used by the United States to advance against Japan, focusing on seizing key islands rather than heavily defended ones.

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The Holocaust, also known as the Shoah (Hebrew for "catastrophe"), was the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million European Jews by the Nazi German regime and its allies and collaborators

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International organizations are entities with members from multiple nations, formed to address global issues or cooperate on specific goals. These can be intergovernmental (IGO) organizations, like the United Nations, or non-governmental organizations (NGOs), such as Greenpeace.

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The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization founded in 1945 with the goal of maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, and promoting social progress and better living standards. It is comprised of 193 Member States and operates through six main organs: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council,

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The Bretton Woods system was a monetary and exchange rate management system established in 1944, aiming to bring stability and order to the post-World War II global economy.

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NATO, also known as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is a military alliance of 32 countries from North America and Europe. Its primary purpose is to safeguard the freedom and security of its members through both political and military means. Founded in 1949, NATO is committed to protecting its members from any threat.

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The "Iron Curtain" is a metaphorical and later physical barrier that divided Europe after World War II, separating communist Eastern Europe from Western, democratic nations. The term was coined by Winston Churchill in his 1946 speech, describing the Soviet Union's control over Eastern Europe. This control manifested as restricted borders, limited travel, and suppression of dissent, creating a divide between the two blocs.

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The Warsaw Pact (officially the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance) was a military alliance formed in 1955 by the Soviet Union and its satellite states in Eastern Europe, established as a direct response to NATO's inclusion of West Germany. The pact aimed to create a collective defense system against perceived Western threats and solidify Soviet control over the Eastern Bloc

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Containment refers to the action of keeping something within limits or boundaries. It can involve physically restricting something, such as a disease or a fire, or it can refer to a policy aimed at limiting the influence or expansion of a nation or ideology.

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The domino theory was a Cold War-era geopolitical concept that suggested if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would also succumb, like a row of dominoes tumbling over. It was used to justify U.S. intervention in various countries, particularly during the Vietnam War.

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Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) is a military strategy where two or more superpowers have enough nuclear weapons to inflict unacceptable damage on each other, even if they are attacked first. This leads to a stalemate where no one would launch a first strike, as the devastating retaliatory attack would result in their own destruction,

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On 6 and 9 August 1945, the United States detonated two atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively, during World War II. The aerial bombings killed between 150,000 and 246,000 people, most of whom were civilians, and remain the only uses of nuclear weapons in an armed conflict.

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a bomb or missile that uses nuclear energy to cause an explosion.

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The "Great Society" was a set of domestic programs initiated by President Lyndon B. Johnson in the mid-1960s aimed at addressing poverty, racial injustice, and social inequality in the United States. The programs aimed to improve education, health care, housing, and social welfare.

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The Brown v. Board of Education case was a landmark Supreme Court decision in 1954 that declared state-sponsored segregation in public education unconstitutional. This ruling effectively ended the "separate but equal" doctrine established in the Plessy v. Ferguson case, which had permitted segregation in various aspects of life. The Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education was a pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement, leading to the desegregation of schools across the United States.

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refers to the economic policies of President Ronald Reagan in the 1980s, emphasizing tax cuts, reduced government regulation, and a belief that stimulating economic growth among the wealthy would benefit the entire economy.

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individuals or policies advocating for social and economic equality, government intervention in the economy, and progressive social values.

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individuals or policies favoring limited government intervention, traditional values, and a free-market approach to economic issues.

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a political movement in the 1980s, led by religious conservatives, advocating for socially conservative policies and seeking to influence American politics based on moral and religious principles.

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an economic theory asserting that benefits provided to the wealthy and businesses will eventually "trickle down" to the rest of the population through job creation and economic growth

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actions by a central bank to control the money supply and interest rates, influencing economic activity by managing inflation, employment, and overall economic stability

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government actions related to taxation and spending to influence the economy, aiming to achieve economic goals such as full employment and stable prices.

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an economic philosophy advocating minimal government interference in the marketplace, allowing natural market forces to determine prices, production, and distribution.

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the general increase in the prices of goods and services over time, reducing the purchasing power of currency.

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reducing or eliminating government restrictions and regulations on industries, with the goal of fostering competition and economic efficiency.

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the use of violence or threats to intimidate and create fear for political, religious, or ideological purposes

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the process of increased interconnectedness and interdependence among countries, economies, and cultures through international trade, communication, and cultural exchange

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the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period, serving as a key indicator of economic performance.