# data[].attributes.body
Abusive husbands threaten to call INS, withdraw petitions for their LPR, destroy legal paperwork, social isolation, mobility, language barriers associated with immigration also constrain battered women´s safety strategies 
“speak with someone without feeling that I am being judged or that when speaking, I may reveal too much and cause more harm and create more resentment against him…”
Unemployed and relied on an intimate partner or son for financial support
“coming to the US has meant becoming accustomed to having less of everything: income, social mobility, everything… The majority reported negative experience with social service agencies, due to fear, denial of services, or detrimental outcomes”
Racialized national identity, marginal economic positions.
Sonia and Jazmin went back and they were blamed for not keeping their husbands
Women are concerned that calling the police may lead to their own arrest or deportation
Could risk an escalation of abuse, along with unwillingness to support LPR applications
Women struggle to obtain safety and simultaneously avoid detection by the state
1. Women who cross “illegally” are considered criminals and therefore are eligible for deportation unless they meet the criteria of VAWA II
2. To survive while excluding deportation, women may work illegaly, including sex work, drive without a license, or present fraudulent papers to obtain financial aid for education or other forms of public assistance, sush as chilld care
3. Engage in criminal activities
4. “Women who cross the border legally may become illegal or undocumented as a result of battering when a hubsband refuses to petition her LPR, wothdraws his sponsorship, or prevents her form completing the applications process by stealing mail, destroying official documents, or reporting her illegal work arrangements or activities of questionable morality”

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“border crossing and criminality can constitute survival as well as battering strategies and reflect on the place of kin and family in how immigrant women from Mx struggle simultaneously around being illegal and battered.”
undocumented status contribute to or contain men´s battering
“The US allocates immigrant visas largely based on occupation, race or nationality, gender, or marital status, while sustaining conservative notions of a husband's authority over his wife.
Immigration Act, 1921: expanded the number of legally dependent women
Immigration Marriage Fraud Amendment, 1986: she has to prove that marriage is/was on good faith
Immigration Act, 1990: a resident who legally entered the US via the sponsorship of her spouse child request that her conditional residency be changed to permanent, even if the marriage ended during the conditional period
Violence Against Women Act, 1994, Reautorized in 2000, VAWA II: they dont have to prove extreme hardship, created a discretionary waiver for good moral character determinations
Excludes wifes who crossed the borders, lesbian or unmarried but living with a legal resident
Immigration shapes domestic violence and domestic violence informs the movement of people across the border
“The border can be an emergency exit or an escape from a violent and controlling spouse. But the border also can be a prison, containing women and thwarting their escape from the near total institution of battering. The border can be a resource and a strategy of survival but it can also be a means of violence and illegality.”

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Women are often the first to explore informal economies and become self employed“According to disadvantage theory, reasons for self-employment are rooted in the challenges posed by the low social status of immigrants, such as those caused by sopcial exclusion, discrimination, unauthorized status, lack of access to labor markets, and high unemployment” Aprox. 500 000 migrants without documents reside in Arizona, 10% of the entire state´s labor force. Legal Arizona Workers Act, Arizona, 2007: made it a requirement for licensing agencies to verify legal residenceMore likely to be exploited in the labor market than their male counterpartsThey experienced greater increases in wage earnings after they were given legal authorization to workMexican women earn lower wages when compared to women migrants from other countriesGender income disparities persists

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“According to disadvantage theory, reasons for self-employment correspond to the challenges inherent in belonging to a socially-disadvantaged group… social exclusion, discrimination, lack of access to labor markets and high unemployment…”“American entrepreneurs”, life chances and upward mobility are not wholly determined by individual agency but rather conditioned in part by the structural forces and individual´s control and socially constructed by the realities of class, privilege, and stigma. At the same time, such realities are overshadowed by the idealized and illusory image of the American entrepreneur as self-reliant and endowed with rugged self-determination; and through the power of myth, barriers congealed by race, gender, and ethnicity are effectively downplayed.”“undocumented status is one of several factors that contribute to the socially and economically disadvantaged situaciton of immigrants, and likewise of those that are seld employed.”Those who are undeocumented are more disadvantaged in the formal labor market

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Women developed a strong work ethic that had emerged as a result of experiencing hardshipMore jobs, bad salariesThey need help from the family to register their business: social networkThey cannot get tax refunds to invest in their businessManage their own timeMany of the stylist work at their clients houses, they charge less money than in a localTo be safe, they just work with people they knowself employment but working in the shadows

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Women developed a strong work ethic that had emerged as a result of experiencing hardship
More jobs, bad salaries
They need help from the family to register their business: social network
They cannot get tax refunds to invest in their business
Manage their own time
Many of the stylist work at their clients houses, they charge less money than in a local
To be safe, they just work with people they know
self employment but working in the shadows

# data[].attributes.body
“According to disadvantage theory, reasons for self-employment correspond to the challenges inherent in belonging to a socially-disadvantaged group… social exclusion, discrimination, lack of access to labor markets and high unemployment…”
“American entrepreneurs”, life chances and upward mobility are not wholly determined by individual agency but rather conditioned in part by the structural forces and individual´s control and socially constructed by the realities of class, privilege, and stigma. At the same time, such realities are overshadowed by the idealized and illusory image of the American entrepreneur as self-reliant and endowed with rugged self-determination; and through the power of myth, barriers congealed by race, gender, and ethnicity are effectively downplayed.”
“undocumented status is one of several factors that contribute to the socially and economically disadvantaged situaciton of immigrants, and likewise of those that are seld employed.”
Those who are undeocumented are more disadvantaged in the formal labor market

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A negative impact on the number of employees but not on the number of businesses
More policing by employers 
Revival of long-standing racial profiling practices

# data[].attributes.body
Women are often the first to explore informal economies and become self employed
“According to disadvantage theory, reasons for self-employment are rooted in the challenges posed by the low social status of immigrants, such as those caused by sopcial exclusion, discrimination, unauthorized status, lack of access to labor markets, and high unemployment” 
Aprox. 500 000 migrants without documents reside in Arizona, 10% of the entire state´s labor force. 
Legal Arizona Workers Act, Arizona, 2007: made it a requirement for licensing agencies to verify legal residence
More likely to be exploited in the labor market than their male counterparts
They experienced greater increases in wage earnings after they were given legal authorization to work
Mexican women earn lower wages when compared to women migrants from other countries
Gender income disparities persists

# data[].attributes.body
mmigrant concentration is
positively associated with early reading and mathematics test scores among Mexican children of both undocumented and
documented immigrants, but is not similarly protective of children with U.S.-born parents.

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AP scores are higher among Mexican children with undocumented mothers when
they live in a neighborhood characterized by high immigrant concentration. Residing in a neighborhood with high immigrant
concentration does not similarly benefit children with U.S.-born mothers, regardless of their ethnicity. Again, the role of neigh
borhood
immigrant concentration is similar for Mexican children of undocumented and documented immigrant mothers

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Anti-Immigrant policies, law enforcement, and governance and their impact on Women. Landale, Nancy S., Oropesa, Aggie J. Noah, Marianne M Hillemeier. 2006. “Early cognitive skills of Mexican-origin children: The roles of parental nativity and legal status.” Social Science Research 58: 198-209.

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Anti-Immigrant policies, law enforcement, and governance and their impact on Women. Landale, Nancy S., Oropesa, Aggie J. Noah, Marianne M Hillemeier. 2006. “Early cognitive skills of Mexican-origin children: The roles of parental nativity and legal status.” Social Science Research 58: 198-209.

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1.According to the authors, there are hierarchical positions established by the immigration status and ethnicity. Which ones do the authors identify? What variables impact the hierarchical positions and why? Could you add another variable?

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1.According to the authors, there are hierarchical positions established by the immigration status and ethnicity. Which ones do the authors identify? What variables impact the hierarchical positions and why? Could you add another variable?

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2. Does the mother’s legal immigration status have an impact among Mexican children? How? 

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2. Does the mother’s legal immigration status have an impact among Mexican children? How? 

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3. What is the role played by the communities and the neighborhood environment in the families and therefore, in the cognitive skills of the children?

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3. What is the role played by the communities and the neighborhood environment in the families and therefore, in the cognitive skills of the children?

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Olivia Salcido, & Madelaine Adelman. (2004). He Has Me Tied with the Blessed and Damned Papers: Undocumented-Immigrant Battered Women in Phoenix, Arizona. Human Organization, 63(2), 162-172

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Olivia Salcido, & Madelaine Adelman. (2004). He Has Me Tied with the Blessed and Damned Papers: Undocumented-Immigrant Battered Women in Phoenix, Arizona. Human Organization, 63(2), 162-172

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1. How are immigration policies linked to the domestic violence policies? 

# data[].attributes.subject
1. How are immigration policies linked to the domestic violence policies? 

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2. How are the experiences of immigrant women around being “illegal” and facing gender violence? 

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2. How are the experiences of immigrant women around being “illegal” and facing gender violence? 

# data[].attributes.headline
3. What do you think about terms such as “battered women,” “illegal women,” and domestic violence? 

# data[].attributes.subject
3. What do you think about terms such as “battered women,” “illegal women,” and domestic violence? 

# data[].attributes.headline
Woo Morales, Ofelia, Montoya Zavala, Erika, & Ochoa O'Leary, Anna. (2014). A Headache Every Day since the New Law: Mexican Women in the Hair Salon Business and Anti-immigrant Policies in Arizona. Migraciones Internacionales, 7(3), 133-164.

# data[].attributes.subject
Woo Morales, Ofelia, Montoya Zavala, Erika, & Ochoa O'Leary, Anna. (2014). A Headache Every Day since the New Law: Mexican Women in the Hair Salon Business and Anti-immigrant Policies in Arizona. Migraciones Internacionales, 7(3), 133-164.

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1. How is the involvement of immigrant women in the informal sector in Arizona? 

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1. How is the involvement of immigrant women in the informal sector in Arizona? 

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2. What are the factors that impact self-employment activities of Mexican immigrant women amidst restricted immigration policies?

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2. What are the factors that impact self-employment activities of Mexican immigrant women amidst restricted immigration policies?

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3. In your opinion, self-employment contributes with women´s liberation or oppression, according to “disadvantage theory.”

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3. In your opinion, self-employment contributes with women´s liberation or oppression, according to “disadvantage theory.”

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Violence against immigrant and refugee women

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Violence against immigrant and refugee women

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How to report abuse if you're an immigrant women

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Violence is a crime, even the abuser or victim is not a U.S. citizen. Learn what you can do to protect yourself and your children.

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Tens of thousands of demonstrators calling for government action to end domestic violence against women took to the streets in Madrid in a historic march on 7 November, just a few weeks before the International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women on 25 November. Members of 380 regional and 70 national feminist organizations marched in solidarity with representatives of political parties and trade unions, non-governmental organizations, and concerned members of the public.

People came from across Spain to attend the march, bringing much-needed visibility to a problem that is often absent from the public eye because it is dismissed as a private concern to be dealt with behind closed doors. By occupying the public space, survivors and activists together are sending a message to victims that they can speak out, and simultaneously demanding that the government acknowledge domestic violence as a public issue.

Such public action is especially important for migrant women, who often suffer from a social invisibility that can mean that concerns about protecting their rights are easily ignored.

Increased vulnerability of migrant women

Gendered power relations are reproduced and exacerbated during migration, which leaves women even more susceptible to all forms of gender-based violence during the migration process. Alongside important discussions about ending gender-based violence targeting women in refugee camps, it is essential to consider the everyday violence some immigrant women suffer when settling in a new country.

The feminization of migration reveals more women migrating independently, but a significant number of women still migrate for family reunification and marriage, meaning their residency in the new country is dependent on their partner. Additionally, when women are unable to work for themselves due to their dependent residency status, it makes them more socially isolated and more vulnerable to an abusive partner.

A 2012 report by Human Rights Watch considers the case of migrant women in Belgium who are victims of domestic violence. Although Belgium has mechanisms in place to protect victims of domestic abuse, including a National Action Plan and state and charity- run shelters, the report reveals that migrant women have trouble accessing such services and in some cases are even deported after reporting abuse. The situation in Belgium is not unique; it is just one example of the many states in which adequate legal provisions have not been made or implemented in such as way as to protect migrant women who are victims of domestic violence.

Difficulties in reporting domestic violence and accessing services

Any woman suffering from domestic abuse struggles with how to handle the situation. The problem is doubly difficult for immigrant women, who face additional barriers to reporting violence and accessing services.

First, there is the difficulty of reporting domestic abuse. Immigrant women, particularly those who have arrived recently, may lack the familiarity with the language and public services necessary for seeking help. Additionally, there is a fear among women who migrate for family reunification, marriage, or without proper documents that if they report the abuse they may lose their residency status or be deported.

In many European Union countries, people who migrate to join a partner who is an EU national or long-term resident must wait several months following their arrival for their family reunification application to be processed, and then they are granted a conditional residence permit for a certain number of years. If the relationship ends before this probationary period is over, the dependent partner loses their residency rights and must leave the country. Some states have adopted laws allowing exceptions for partners that split due to abuse, but this is not yet universal. For undocumented women who do come forward to report domestic violence, they lack options for obtaining legal status.

In the previously mentioned research by Human Rights Watch, some migrant women in Belgium who reported cases of abuse and then separated from their abusive partner subsequently received expulsion orders for not respecting the conditions of their provisional residency.

Even when migrant women do report domestic abuse, they face obstacles to accessing services. Lack of space in shelters is problematic for all victims of domestic abuse, but particularly so for migrant women who may not have a network of friends and family to fall back on if a shelter is unable to accommodate them.

Because of the exacerbated difficulties in reporting domestic violence and accessing protective and legal services, as well as due to the fear of deportation, many migrant women suffer in silence.

Taking action

Actions are being taken at the international, national and local levels to address violence against women, and special provisions and services for migrant women should be included.

At the regional level, the Council of Europe has adopted the Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence, which went into effect in 2014. Importantly, this Convention has a non-discrimination provision that specifies that "the implementation of the provisions of this Convention by the Parties, in particular measures to protect the rights of victims, shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as... migrant or refugee status". This provision protects women whose residency permits are still being processed or are in the probationary period, as well as undocumented women, from suffering a secondary victimization of losing their residency status or being deported because they report domestic abuse. However, only 18 of the 47 member states of the Council of Europe have ratified the convention and thus, in the 29 states that have not yet ratified the Convention, it is not enforceable. Putting these legal mechanisms in place is essential to protect all domestic violence victims.

Legal solutions are an important step, but they are not a complete solution. Gender mainstreaming in policy is an integral step to ensure that women´s rights are particularly protected. Implementation remains a major challenge, and even once that has been achieved, migrant women may be unaware of the legal protections to which they are entitled. Information about victims´ rights and access to legal and protective services is only useful if it is readily available and accessible in languages migrant women understand. To advance implementation of protective legal measures and increase awareness, several non-governmental organizations at the national level are developing materials. Additionally, the media plays a vital role in increasing awareness of both the problem of domestic violence and the available solutions.

As the world mobilizes against gender-based violence against women this 25 November, and throughout the 16 Days of Activism Against Gender Violence Campaign, migrant women must be empowered to denounce domestic violence and access appropriate support.

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Ending Violence Against Migrant Women - Our World

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Tens of thousands of demonstrators calling for government action to end domestic violence against women took to the streets in Madrid in a historic march on 7 November, just a few weeks before the International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women on 25 November.

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UNITED NATIONS, New York - Today, international leaders are convening at United Nations Headquarters, New York, to discuss the critical issue of migration and human mobility, a megatrend that is reshaping the global landscape.

An estimated one billion people around the world are migrants - one in every seven people.

But as policymakers scramble to understand how these mass movements affect societies, economies, security and sustainability, the needs of women and girls are falling through the cracks.

Below are five reasons migration is a serious concern for women and girls.

This internal migrant works at a food stall. She is part of a wave of internal migration in Viet Nam. © UNFPA Viet Nam/Nguyen Minh Duc

1. Almost half of migrants are women and girls. And women are increasingly migrating alone or as heads of their households.

Some 250 million people are international migrants - people who leave their home countries for opportunity or safety. Of these, nearly half are women and girls.

Some of this movement is driven by conflict. Today, a record-high number of people have been forcibly displaced from their homes. It is estimated that about half of all refugees are female.

Women and girls are also a significant proportion of economic migrants. They are the vast majority of all migrant domestic workers, for example.

And women are increasingly migrating on their own, or as the heads of their households. This trend represents a key opportunity for their economic independence and empowerment.

These migrant and refugee women spent months adrift on the open ocean after the captain of their boat abandoned them. They were rescued by fishermen near Aceh, Indonesia. © UNFPA Indonesia/Sandra Siagian

2. Female migrants face major risks, including sexual exploitation, trafficking and violence.

All migrants are vulnerable to abuse and exploitation, but female migrants are particularly at risk. Women and girls account for 71 per cent of all human trafficking victims, according to a 2016 report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.

Women and girls also face additional vulnerabilities when they are displaced by conflict or natural disaster.

Chaos and the breakdown of protection systems mean perpetrators can abuse with impunity. Lack of shelter, overcrowding in camps and poorly lit public toilets all increase the risk of gender-based violence, including sexual violence.

Families under extreme hardship may also adopt coping mechanisms that jeopardize women's and girls' welfare. A UNFPA-supported study, for instance, found alarming rates of child marriage among some vulnerable Syrian refugee populations.

And when abuses occur, many migrant women and girls lack the resources, support systems and knowledge to seek help.

Lily and her family were displaced by flooding in Peru. She and other displaced people faced threats and difficulty accessing services. © UNFPA Peru/Angela Valverde

3. Migrant women face double discrimination - as women and as migrants.

Racism and xenophobia are serious concerns wherever large-scale migration takes place, and anti-immigrant sentiment is on the rise in many countries.

Negative depictions of migrants and refugees often appear in the media, for instance, while the benefits migrants bring - such as their economic contributions - rarely make the news.

Women and girls can suffer doubly from these attitudes, experiencing not only discrimination based on their migrant status but also based on based on their gender.

This can take the form of discrimination and mistreatment - including sexual harassment - in the workplace, while seeking housing, while using public transportation, and while accessing education and health services.

Nyiomngere, 24, gave birth to twins while fleeing unrest in Burundi. She was also diagnosed as severely anaemic. © UNFPA Tanzania/Sawiche Wamunza

4. Women do not stop getting pregnant when they are on the move.

Significant numbers of female migrants are likely to be pregnant or to become pregnant. While travelling - or in the chaos of displacement - women may lose access to sexual and reproductive health care, including family planning, antenatal services and safe childbirth care.

Lack of these services can be deadly. In fact, it is considered one of the leading causes of death, disease and disability among displaced women and girls of childbearing age. Even so, migration may be a pregnant woman's best option in a crisis setting, especially if insecurity or collapsing health systems threaten her life at home.

UNFPA works with governments and other partners to uphold migrants' right to access sexual and reproductive health care, including deploying mobile health clinics to displacement camps and refugee communities. But much more must be done to increase access to these services.

A UNFPA-supported mobile team performs an ultrasound for a pregnant woman displaced from Afrin, in Syria. © UNFPA Syria/Sufian Abdulmouty

5. Women and girl migrants are more likely to face health problems - both in transit and at their destinations.

Even after female migrants reach their intended destinations, they continue to face barriers to health care, especially sexual and reproductive health services. Foreign-born migrants can face significantly higher risks of maternal injury and death than native-born women, for example, and higher risks of HIV infection, trauma and violence.

A majority of international migrants end up in cities, where they may face barriers to sexual and reproductive health care, including cost, overcrowding, transport challenges and insecure housing.

Yet evidence shows that there are major returns on investing in the health of migrant populations, particularly reproductive health care, such as family planning and prenatal care.

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Five reasons migration is a feminist issue

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UNITED NATIONS, New York - Today, international leaders are convening at United Nations Headquarters, New York, to discuss the critical issue of migration and human mobility, a megatrend that is reshaping the global landscape. An estimated one billion people around the world are migrants - one in every seven people.

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What makes migrants vulnerable to gender-based violence?

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What makes migrants vulnerable to gender-based violence?