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The rise and fall of the Inca Empire - Gordon McEwan

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Including a more in depth Origin Story about Viracocha

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The Inca Civilization

The Incas were a civilization in South America formed by ethnic Quechua people also known as Amerindians. In 1400AD they were a small highland tribe, one hundred years later in the early 16 th century the Incas rose to conquer and control the largest empire ever seen in the Americas forming the great Inca Empire. Its capital was located in Cusco, Peru and extended from what today is Ecuador in the north, Chile in the South, Bolivia in the east and limited by the Pacific Ocean in the west. In less than a century the Incas conquered a vast territory through war and watchful diplomacy.

The Inca Civilization was an agrarian civilization and at its height in 1500 AD reached more than 10 million people. It had a complex stratified vertical society governed by the Inca and his relatives. They shared a common polytheistic religion based on the worship of the Sun and the Sapa Inca as his son. Their centrally planned economy, the collection of tribute, a draconian law system, food security and its fair distribution along with free health care and education were the basis of its economic and social success and in that sense securing the loyalty of its subjects. The government was highly organized even without the benefits of a writing system. The organization of the empire rivaled that of the Romans.

The Inca civilization achieved highly developed art forms such as pottery, weaving techniques, metallurgy, music and architecture. A great example of their architectural achievement is Machu Picchu built by Inca Pachacuti around 1460AD. Their exquisite buildings were built without the use of modern tools and the wheel and they have withstood five centuries in an earthquake prone zone.

For the Incas being "Inca" meant being a member of the group identified by that name. They considered themselves superior to the other tribes and being Inca was a source of pride; only descendants of the original tribe were true Inca or children of the Sun. All others were subjects of the Child of the Sun.

The decline of the Incas started before the Spanish arrived in Inca territory. Their arrival accelerated its decline and eventually its fall. The conquest of Peru officially started in 1532 when a group led by Francisco Pizarro arrived in the city of Cajamarca to meet Atahualpa.

Where did the Incas come from?

The ancestors of the Incas were hunters who came from Asia crossing the Bering Strait. Over 20,000 years ago the Bering Strait connected Siberia and Alaska, it took several thousand years to populate and create civilizations in the Americas. Groups of people settled along the way creating communities. Others continued south and between 13,000 BC and 10,000 BC they reached the Pacific coast of South America and the Andes Mountains where they settled and found a new way of life. They learned how to cultivate plants such as corn and potatoes. Among the most important and first animals they domesticated were llamas and alpacas, this occurred between 3000 and 2500 BC. These animals were useful in many ways, they served as source of food, their wool was used for clothing and they were also used as pack animals. Between 3800 and 3000 BC they learned to grow cotton.

From around 8000 BC pre-Inca cultures started flourishing in the Andes and along the coast; Caral and Kotosh are one of the first cultures known in this area. They were followed by Chavin, Paracas, Nazca, Moche, Tiawanaku, Wari and Chimu. Between 1150 and 1250BC the Incas, by then a small tribe, were searching for farmland which they found in the fertile mountain valleys of Cusco. They dominated and improved on their ancestors' achievements creating the largest pre-Columbian civilization in the Americas, the Inca Civilization. The Incas explained their origin through legends, the best known are the legend of the Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo who emerged from Lake Titicaca and the Legend of the Ayar Brothers.

Inca expansion

From around 1200 to 1438 the Incas were a small tribe that gradually grew. Starting around the year 1438 the Incas started expanding when Inca Pachacutec came to the throne, at this point the Inca civilization became an empire. Their successful expansion and conquest of new territory would not have been possible without the construction of roads and bridges. It is important to note that the Incas developed a highly advanced engineering and architectural technology even without the benefit of the wheel.

When the Incas arrived in a new region they tried to establish a relationship with the tribe's head. He offered gifts such as wool clothing, coca leaves and mullu (shell believed to be food for the Gods). If the gifts were accepted they also accepted the Inca's authority. To consolidate this alliance they established family ties. If they did not accept the gifts they used force to subdue the tribe and since the Incas had a more powerful military force they always succeeded. The local leaders were executed to secure loyalty among the population. Read more about Inca expansion and its government.

Ruins in Peru tell stories of the fallen Inca Civilization and its predecessors. Some of them like Machu Picchu laid buried for centuries before it was discovered in 1911. Other Inca cities, yet to be discovered, may lay buried under modern buildings . What brought the collapse of such an advanced civilization?

The invasion of the Spaniards brought warfare and disease, they also brought a new culture that wiped out the local one imposing their own system of beliefs and government. Even before the Spanish arrived in Inca territory disease had spread from central America to South America. It is believed that in ten years between 50% and 90% of the population was attacked by diseases like smallpox, flu, typhus, diphtheria, chicken pox and measles to which the Inca population had no inmunity. The first disease to make its mark was smallpox when in 1527 it took the lives of Sapa Inca Huayna Capac and Ninan Cuyochi, the heir to the throne. According to Inca tradition the next in line to the throne was the oldest son of the Inca and the Coya, his wife, and following this tradition, Huascar was the next in line. He was stationed in Cusco and was crowned as Sapa Inca by the Cusco nobility. Among Huayna Capac's many illegitimate sons was Atahualpa, a more capable warrior and administrator who was in charge of the northern territories in the administrative capital of Quito. Atahualpa's supporters considered him the Sapa Inca and a civil war broke out between the two brothers and their supporters . In 1532 Huascar was defeated and Atahualpa was proclaimed the emperor.

As the Spanish made their way to Inca territory from the north they encountered a diminished and weak population. Francisco Pizarro arrived in the city of Cajamarca in 1532 with 110 armed men and a cavalry of 67. The following day he sent an invitation to Atahualpa to visit him. It appeared obvious to Atahualpa that this was to be a peaceful meeting where the foreigners were to show their respect to him as his entourage was not armed. As the King of the Incas walked into the square he was approached by a priest named Valverde who handed him a bible and tried to make him swear loyalty to the Pope and the King of Spain. Atahualpa threw the Bible to the floor and the attempt to capture him started. The conquerors showed their superiority by capturing Atahualpa and killing most of his warriors in less than thirty minutes.

As a payment for his freedom Atahualpa offered to fill two full rooms of silver and one of gold. He was never let go even when the ransom was paid, instead he was charged of treason and crimes against the Spanish state. He was executed on August 29, 1533.

The Spanish easily advanced south conquering and dominating the rest of the Inca territory and wiping its culture and its civilization, spreading their religion and governance along the way.

Tags: ancient inca civilization, Inca civilization, inca culture, Inca empire, incas, peru inca

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Who were the Incas? Where did the Incas come from? | Discover Peru

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The Incas were a civilization in South America formed by ethnic Quechua people also known as Amerindians. In 1400AD they were a small highland tribe, one hundred years later in the early 16 th century the Incas rose to conquer and control the largest empire ever seen in the Americas forming the great Inca Empire.

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The Inca Empire flourished in the South American continent from 1438 until the Spanish arrived in the continent in 1533. From around 1200 to 1438 the Incas were considered a tribe which gradually grew occupying a territory of 800,000 sq km or 308,882 sq mi. Starting around the year 1438 the Incas started expanding absorbing neighboring territories and incorporating their culture and practices into their own societies and becoming an empire. The expansion started when Sapa Inca Pachacutec came to the throne. With the help of this son Topa Inca and his grandson Huayna Capac they expanded the empire controlling a vast territory known as the Tawantinsuyu or Four United Kingdoms. They made Cusco, the sacred city, its capital.

The empire reached its peak in 1527 under the reign of Sapa Inca Huascar covering a territory of 2 million sq km or 772,204 sq mi that extended to present day Peru, Quito, Ecuador and part of Colombia to the north; Bolivia to the east and Santiago, Chile and part of Argentina to the south. The Inca Empire was the largest empire built in the Americas reaching unparalleled cultural achievement. Read more about achievements of the Incas.

Administrative regions of the Inca Empire

The empire was so large that it was divided into four administrative regions:

Chinchaysuyu was the most populous of all suyus, it extended north from Cusco to modern day Ecuador and Colombia along the coast absorbing northern civilizations such as the Chimu and Chanchan.

Antisuyu was the territory northeast of Cusco covering the high Andes and bordering the Amazon region and the Bolivian Altiplano.

Contisuyu was the smallest region and covered the southern coast to the modern day department of Arequipa.

Coyasuyu extended from Cusco to the south covering part of Bolivia and Argentina as far as the Maule River near Santiago, Chile.

The Incas did not leave a written record of their history as they never developed a written language. Its history has been passed on orally from generation to generation in the form of myths and legends. The history of the Incas is endlessly fascinating and what we know from them and the civilization they developed is from discoveries made by archaeologists. Inca artifacts, tools, textiles, pottery and art have helped archaeologist understand their culture and how it impacts modern Andean society in Peru.

The Inca Dynasty

The title of emperor or Sapa Inca was hereditary. There were a total of thirteen Incas from 1198 to 1533. The first was Manco Capac and the last Atahualpa.

Origin of the Incas

Before the Incas ruled Cusco there were many small tribes living peacefully in the same territory. After a long period of peace the Chanchas, a group coming from Ayacucho, tried to invade Cusco. Inca Wiracocha and his oldest son Urco afraid for their lives fled leaving his younger son Cusi Yupanqui in charge. Cusi Yupanqui and his soldiers with the help of soldiers from other tribes defended the city and prevented the Chancas from invading it. Because of his bravery and loyalty Cusi Yupanqui was named the new Inca or Emperor; he changed his name to Pachacutec which means "He who renew the world". Many local tribes joined him as he organized and expanded the empire to the east reaching the Bolivian Altiplano and to the north reaching Ecuador. Read Where do the Incas come from?.

Myths of the origin of the Incas

The history of the origin of the Incas is mostly mythical, it is a representation of reality that helps understand the origin of their world and the forces of nature, it explains the unexplainable. Because the Incas did not have a written language myths have been passed on orally through generations. There are two main myths of the origin of the Incas: The myth of the Lake Titicaca and the myth of the Ayar brothers.
Myth of Lake Titicaca
According to the myth of the Lake Titicaca the God Wiracocha created a couple, Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo, who originated from Lake Titicaca. This couple had a divine goal; to head north and to settle where the golden rod sunk. After trying in many places, they arrived at Mount Guanacaure, near the city of Cusco, Peru. In this place the rod sunk and it was there where the couple settled. Manco Capac taught the men to work the land, to build canals and organizational skills; Mama Ocllo taught the women how to weave, cook and take care of their children. They brought peace, culture, arts and the God Sun or Inti that emanated heat and power to the people.
Myth of the Ayar Brothers
The legend of the Ayar Brothers tells that God Wiracocha created them and made them emerge from a cave in Pacaritambo in Cusco. They were four brothers: Ayar Cachi, Ayar Manco, Ayar Uchu and Ayar Auca and four sisters: Mama Guaco, Mama Cura, Mama Sarahua and Mama Ocllo. They carried with them rods made of solid gold and wore fine clothes embroidered with gold. They led a large group of people who carried seeds with them. During their long journey to find the appropriate place to settle they arrived at the top of Mount Guanacaure where Ayar Cache with one sling shot torn down hills, he had magical powers that frightened his brothers. Afraid of Ayar Cache his brothers deceived him into returning to the cave in Pacaritambo, once inside they blocked the entrance with large blocks of stone leaving him inside forever.

The rest of the brothers returned to Guanacaure where they lived for one year. One day Ayar Oche flew to the sky to talk to his father the Sun who in turn commanded him to tell Ayar Manco to change his name for Manco Capac. After carrying on his task he turned into stone. Manco Capac, Ayar Auca and the four sisters reached their destination, the valley of Cusco, where they settled and build their house where the Coricancha Temple was later built.

The Inca society had a vertical, stratified and hierarchical organization resembling a three level pyramid. At the top was the Sapa Inca as the most important and powerful person in the empire. Below him was the royalty comprised of his closest relatives, sons and daughters. Following the royalty was the nobility and included his other relatives and those who had attained distinction through service to the royal family such as priests and chiefs. At the third level were professionals such as craftsmen, architects and engineers; they commanded much respect from the highest levels as they provided the skills to expand the empire. At the bottom of the hierarchical level and the most populous was the The ayllu was the working class that contributed the mita or tax in the form of labor. In exchange they received food, healthcare and free education. Every member of the ayllu was entitled to a piece of land which was distributed according to family size. This land was used to grow their own subsistence food and surplus could be exchanged among neighbors.

The redistribution of food, public services and the sense of security in this agricultural society made the population loyal to the highest ranks of society. Social stability was also achieved by applying a system of three basic laws: Ama Sua. Ama Llulla. Ama Quella" or "Do not steal. Do not lie. Do not be lazy". Inca law was draconian in essence, small offenses carried heavy punishments. There were no prisons, instead offenders were punished so that the penalty was a consequence of their actions and was meant to be exemplary to the rest of the population. For instance a person who steals would get his/her hand amputated. Read more about Inca law.

Inca society shared a common polytheistic religion in which the Sun or Inti and the Sapa Inca were their main gods. During the empire's expansion they assimilated territories with different beliefs which they were allowed to keep as long as they revered Inca's gods above their own deities. The result was a large number of deities and a melting pot of beliefs. It was common for the Inca people to worship natural resources such as a stream of water, animals, crops or a mountain. Among the most important and popular deities are: Inti or Sun, Wiracocha, Mama Quilla, Mama Cocha, Illapa, Ekkeko, among others. Read more about Inca gods and religion.

Viracocha

The creator, he created the Sun and the Moon.

Inti

The Sun and most important god in Inca religion, he ruled above all others.

Mama Quilla

Mother Moon, wife of Inti

Illapa

God of Weather. Thunder and war

Imahmana Viracocha

Son of Viracocha. Sent to the earth by his father to verify people follow his commands.

Mama Cocha or Cochamama

Mother Sea

Chasca

Goddess of the dawn and the dusk, protector of young girls

Coco Mama

Goddess of Health and Happiness

Urcaquary

God of treasures and buried riches

Pariacaca

God of Rain and Water.

Mama Oello

The mother goddess of the Incas, she taught the Incas spinning.

Zaramama

Goddess of Grain and Corn

Mama Pacha or Pachamama

Goddess of the Earth

The success of the Inca economy was due to its collective labor and high degree of central planing that allowed the collection of tribute in the form of labor and the redistribution of resources. Unlike other advanced civilizations trade was not part of the Inca economy, so much so that they never developed a monetary system.

Collective labor was the main economic activity. There were three types of collective labor - ayni, minka and mita. The first two benefited their own communities. The third one, mita, was a tax paid to the Inca which benefited the entire empire. Every member of the community or ayllu was required to fulfill mita labor which included serving as soldiers, messengers, farmers, builders. The tasks were temporary and rotational.

As a social state, the empire emphasized the importance of redistribution specially of agricultural products, developing sophisticated terrace agricultural techniques in such a rugged terrain. They focused on the optimization of land and irrigation networks resulting in high productivity rates. Every year after harvest crop that was not consumed was stored in collcas, storage houses located along the roads, which would be use through out the year or in case of drought or bad weather. This system of redistribution allowed the Inca government to feed its population and build social wealth and therefore a loyal society. Central planning in the Andes would not have been possible without roads and bridges. The Incas were expert engineers and built a network of roads and bridges that allowed them to reach every corner of the empire.

The arrival of the Spaniards brought new diseases to the Americas. Smallpox made its way from Central America to the Inca empire making Sapa Inca Huayna Capac and the heir to the throne, Ninan Cuyochi, victims of the disease. The next in line was Huascar as it was customary for the oldest son of the Sapa Inca and the Coya to inherit the throne. Huayna Capac's other son was Atahualpa, a more capable and stronger warrior but the son of a concubine. Atahualpa was proclaimed Sapa Inca by his followers in the northern administrative city of Quito starting a long and debilitating civil war.

When the Spaniards arrived in Peru the Inca empire was in the middle of a civil war and its population diminished by the onset of small pox and influenza which it is believed to have wiped out more than 50% of the population. Within the next fifty years other diseases such as typhus, diphtheria and measles weakened the population even further destroying the remains of the Inca civilization. Some archeologists suggest that up to 90% of the population was affected by theses diseases to which they did not have immunity. Read more about the fall of the Inca empire.

Tags: Andean society, Andes, archeology peru, Chancas, Cusco, Inca civilization, inca culture, Inca empire, Inca territory, incas, Pachacuti, peru inca, Pre-Inca Civilization, Tawantinsuyu, Wiracocha

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The Inca Empire flourished in the South American continent from 1438 until the Spanish arrived in the continent in 1533. From around 1200 to 1438 the Incas were considered a tribe which gradually grew occupying a territory of 800,000 sq km or 308,882 sq mi.

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Andean Music, the Music of the Incas | Discover Peru

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Andean communities have a powerful musical tradition inherited from the Inca Empire. The Inca society was based on collective effort and their success outweighed the individual's. This is the case of music in the Inca civilization, musicians joined to create music through cooperation and support.

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From around 1200 when the first Inca, Manco Capac, settled in Cusco, until 1533 when the last Inca, Atahualpa, was executed; the Inca civilization had grown from a group of settlers to the largest empire in Pre-Columbian America. The Incas had built more than 18,600 miles/30,000 km of paved roads in the most rugged terrain in the world uniting different cultures and religions into a harmonious society with a successful centralized economy.

The spread of disease

The collapse of the Inca Empire started when the Spaniards arrived in Central America and transmitted their diseases to locals who spread them to other parts of the continent including South America. It is believed that in ten years between 50% and 90% of the population was attacked by diseases like smallpox, influenza, typhus, diphtheria, chicken pox and measles, disease spread alarmingly fast as Amerindians did not have the immunity to fight off newly brought viruses. Influenza and smallpox were the main causes of death among the Inca population and it affected not only the working class but also the nobility. As a result disease weakened the working class which resulted in lower agricultural output as well as in the effectiveness of the communication network which were the backbone in the success of the empire. Without its reliable communication network which used man power or chasquis, officials in Cusco, the capital, did not know what was happening as they were invaded in the north. When the nobility got affected by disease it unraveled previously unseen struggle for power and a fight for the succession to the crown of Sapa Inca. This situation triggered a civil war between supporters of the two brothers Atahualpa and Huascar which enabled the Spaniards quick access to the control and the wealth of the empire.

Civil War

The civil war was triggered by the death in 1527 of Sapa Inca Huayna Capac and his eldest son Ninan Cuyochi, who was the heir to the throne leaving no clear successor, both died of smallpox. According to Inca family tradition only the son of the Sapa Inca and the Coya, his legitimate wive, can become the next Inca emperor after the death of his father. Following this tradition Huascar was the next in line after the death of his older brother and was crowned Sapa Inca by the nobility in Cusco. Meanwhile in the northern administrative capital of Quito, his half brother, Atahualpa was considered a more capable warrior and proven administrator and was crowned as Sapa Inca by his supporters. However, as Atahualpa was the son of the Inca emperor and one of his concubines he did not have legitimacy to the throne..

Huascar, who considered himself as the heir to the empire started a long civil war that lasted five years until 1532. Atahualpa proved to be a better warrior and won the war. Torn by a long civil war and debilitated by smallpox and influenza the Spanish conquistadors did not find a strong resistance and took advantage of this situation.

The decline of the Inca Empire started before the Spanish arrived in Inca territory but their arrival accelerated its decline and eventually its fall destroying its civilization.

The conquest of Peru started in 1532 when a group led by Francisco Pizarro arrived in the city of Cajamarca, armed with 110 men and a cavalry of 67. The following day he met Atahualpa. It is believed that Atahualpa regarded the meeting as a peaceful gathering where the newcomers would present their respect to the emperor. His view was short lived as he would shortly experience when a priest named Valverde handed him a Bible and tried to make him swear loyalty to the Pope and the King of Spain. Atahualpa threw the Bible on the floor and refused to swear loyalty, at that moment they took him prisoner. The Spanish showed their superiority by killing and capturing his soldiers in less than thirty minutes. Atahualpa knew then that their visit was not peaceful and that the Spaniards were after gold and silver. He offered offered two full rooms of silver and one of gold as payment for his freedom. Atahualpa was never let go and was charged of treason and crimes against the Spanish state. He was executed on August 29, 1533.

After the capture of Cajamarca and with no Inca resistance the conquerors made their way south to capture the capital of the empire, Cusco. Once there they named Manco Inca, brother of Atahualpa, as the new Sapa Inca. He had the support of the nobility in Cusco and would serve as a puppet to capture the Inca capital city. Manco Inca collaborated with the Spaniards but in 1536 he tried to recapture Cusco but failed, retreating to the mountains of Vilcabamba where he created a neo- Inca government that lasted for 36 years.

Consequences of the fall of the Inca Empire

The Inca civilization had unified a vast territory in South America integrating many ethnic groups into a unified society under the rule of a common Inca law. The arrival of the Spaniards stopped the development of this civilization and created a social gap that has endured for more than 500 years. The Incas resisted the conquerors for four decades until 1572 when Tupac Amaru, son of Manco Inca and the last Inca ruler, was executed along with his family and advisers, leaving no successor.

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The fall of the Inca Empire | Discover Peru

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From around 1200 when the first Inca, Manco Capac, settled in Cusco, until 1533 when the last Inca, Atahualpa, was executed; the Inca civilization had grown from a group of settlers to the largest empire in Pre-Columbian America.

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The Incas were magnificent engineers. They built a system of roads and bridges across the roughest terrains of the Andes. Through their system of collective labor and the most advanced centralized economy, the Incas were able to secure unlimited manual labor. They built more than 14,000 miles of paved road that connected Cusco, the capital, to all corners of the empire.

Bridges were built everywhere in the empire. Their suspension bridges were built using natural fibers. Indigenous people still use the same technique in remote areas in the Andes.

Communication was very important to maintain Inca policy. Considering that the Incas did not know the use of the wheel and that their only transportation was llamas or alpacas, it is astonishing that they were able to control such large territory and maintain peace until they were invaded by the Spanish conquistadors.

The success of empire's centralized economy led to social harmony and to its fast expansion. The Inca's central planning economy was, perhaps, the most efficient and successful ever seen. Collective labor from the ayllu was at the center of the economic productivity. Every member was obliged to contribute with his labor as tribute and in exchange they received food, clothing, housing, education and health care security.

The Inca economy did not use money as an exchange unit or markets to trade. However they did trade with other tribes outside their boundaries. Every unit of production was carefully planned and distributed where it was needed.

As an agricultural economy, the Incas made sure that they stored enough food in case of bad weather or war so they grew more food than they needed. They built storage buildings called tambos along roads for food to be distributed to nearby villages. The surplus would be kept in storage as a safety net. Production was planned by the central government, each village would produce a specific product and be distributed to other villages the same way food was distributed.

Medicine

The medicine practiced by the Incas was related to religion and rituals. They believed that illnesses were brought by bad spirits or were related to witchcraft. Medicine men were shamans who used plant extracts, fresh or dried plants, life or dead animals and minerals accompanied by chants, prayers and dance. Shamans were thought to have special curative powers. Their most important discovery and one that is widely used in current Andean society is the use of plant extracts such as digitalis purpurea, maticaliz camomilla and plantago paralias, among others.

The Incas also performed cranial surgery called trepanation in order to cure mental illnesses or injuries. They drilled a hole in the patient's skull, let them bleed and then performed a ritual in order to let the bad spirits out.

Fortifications and buildings

The Incas developed superb architecture and engineering techniques without the use of the wheel and modern tools. Their buildings have proved earthquake resistant for 500 years and today they serve as foundations for many buildings. The Incas were skilled stonemasons; they used granite and limestone to build their cities and forts to protect them.

One great example of a fort is Ollantaytambo. Inca Pachacuti built it and Manco Inca refortified it after the conquistadors had invaded Cusco, Ollantaytambo served as a temporary capital of the Inca Empire.

The most magnificent community the Incas built is the citadel of Machu Picchu built between the mountains of Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu.

Quipus

The Incas did not have a written language but had an accounting system. The quipu was a collection of colored strings of alpaca, llama or cotton threads used to record accounting information in the form of knots. The knots signified numeric values using the decimal system. They used the quipu as a record keeping device to track debts, production or any numerical information.

The earliest quipu was found in the City of Caral, it dates approximately to 2600 BC. It confirms the hypothesis that the Incas inherited many aspects of their culture from earlier civilizations they conquered.

Aqueducts and agricultural terraces

Early on the Incas found out that they could not rely on rainfall for their water supply so they learned to divert water from nearby rivers. They built water canals that required the most advanced hydraulic engineering capabilities. Most canals were carved from rocks and the joints were filled with clay. Aqueducts were angled up and down the slopes of mountains in order to reach agricultural terraces and cities.

Because of the rugged and inconsistent terrain of the Andes the Incas created agricultural terraces to maximize their use of fertile land. They cut terraces resembling steep stairs into the hills to create flat land. They used their advanced irrigation system to carry water to the terraces. Terraces also reduced land erosion. They were highly successful and allowed its agricultural production to be maximized. Andean staples such as corn, potatoes and quinoa fed most of the Inca population. The government knew that as long it kept feeding its population social uprising would be kept to a minimum.
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Achievements of the Incas | Discover Peru

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The Incas were magnificent engineers. They built a system of roads and bridges across the roughest terrains of the Andes. Through their system of collective labor and the most advanced centralized economy, the Incas were able to secure unlimited manual labor.

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The Inca society was a vertical hierarchical organization divided in four social classes. At the top of the stratum was the Sapa Inca, the most powerful person in the empire. Below was the royalty, comprised by the sons of the Sapa Inca and his close relatives. The third social class was the nobility which included royal relatives and those who attained distinction through their services such as priests and chiefs. At the bottom of the pyramidal social structure was the ayllu which included the majority of the population.
Ayllu workers gathering potatoes as part of their mita work
Society in the Andes was built around the ayllu. All its members had some kind of family ties, like an extended family. They all believed they were descendants of a common ancestor. The head of the ayllu was the curaca. The ayllu was also the base of economic activity. Ayllu members worked the land and took care of the cattle for food and clothing, and they worked in the mines or as weavers. They were all obliged to work and contribute to the mita or tax. In exchange the Inca would secure food throughout the year, provide agricultural products not produced in the area, education and health care.

Tags: archeology peru, ayllu, Inca, Inca civilization, inca culture, Inca empire, Inca society, incas, peru inca, Tawantinsuyu

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The Inca society was a vertical hierarchical organization divided in four social classes. At the top of the stratum was the Sapa Inca, the most powerful person in the empire. Below was the royalty, comprised by the sons of the Sapa Inca and his close relatives.

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Central Economy

The Incas had a centrally planned economy, perhaps the most successful ever seen. Its success was in the efficient management of labor and the administration of resources they collected as tribute. Collective labor was the base for economic productivity and for the creation of social wealth in the Inca society. By working together people in the ayllu (the center of economic productivity) created such wealth that the Spanish were astonished with what they encountered. Every citizen was required to contribute with his labor and refusal or laziness was punishable with the death penalty. Labor was divided according to region, agriculture would be centralized in the most productive regions, ceramic production, road building, textile and other skills according to ayllus. The government collected all the surplus after local needs were met and distributed it where it was needed. In exchange for their work citizens had free clothing, food, health care and education.

The Incas did not use money, in fact they did not need it. Their economy was so efficiently planned that every citizen had their basic needs met. Economic exchanges were made using the barter system by which people traded with each other for things they needed. Archaeologists believe that there was no trading class in the Inca society. However there was external trading in small scale with tribes outside the empire mostly from the Amazon.

The Ayllu

The Incas created the most successful centrally planned economy that contributed to the creation of social wealth in Inca society. The ayllu was at the center of the Inca Empire economic success. Ayllus were composed of families that lived near each other in the same village or settlement. Ayllus also provided social cohesion as people who were born in one a yllu also married within the ayllu. Each ayllu specialized in the production of certain products depending on its location. Agricultural ayllus were located close to fertile land and produced crops that would be optimized for the type of soil. Their output would be given to the state which in turn would redistribute it to other locations where the product was not available. Surplus would be kept in collcas, storage houses along the roads and near population centers.

Other ayllus would specialize in producing pottery, clothing or jewelry; skills were transferred from generation to generation within the same a yllu. Ayllus produced virtually anything necessary for everyday living which will be distributed by the state to other ayllus. The abundance and diversity of resources and its availability during bad crops and war made the population loyal to the local government and to the Sapa Inca..

Collective labor and taxes

There were three ways in which collective labor was organized:

The first one was the to help a member of the community who was in need. Helping build a house or help a sick member of the community are examples of ayni.

The second was the or team work for the benefit of the whole community. Examples of minka are building agricultural terraces and cleaning the irrigation canals.

The third one was the mita or the tax paid to the Inca. Since there was no currency taxes were paid with crops, cattle, textile and specially with work. Mita laborers served as soldiers, farmers, messengers, road builders, or whatever needed to be done. It was a rotational and temporary service that each member of the was required to meet. They built temples and palaces, canals for irrigation, agricultural terraces, roads, bridges and tunnels; and all without the technological assistance of the wheel. This system was a balanced system of give and take. In exchange the government would provide food, clothing and medication. This system allowed the empire to have all the necessary produce available for redistribution according to necessity and local interests..

Quipus

The Incas and their predecessor did not develop a writing system, however they created the quipu to keep track of transactions. The Quipu or Khipu were fringes of color strings attached to a horizontal string and made of cotton or llama wool. The hanging strings would contain knots which carried a meaning. There were different types of knots such as the single, figure eight and the four turn long knot. The position in which the knots were tied, the sequence of the knots and the color of the string had a particular meaning.

The Incas used the quipu as an accounting system to record taxes, keep track of livestock, measure parcels of land, recording census, as a calendar, keep track of weather and many other uses.

The largest quipu has 1,500 strings. The oldest quipu found was in the Sacred Cit of Caral Supe and dates from around 2500 BC..

The tenure of land

The use of the land was a right that individuals had as members of the ayllu. The curaca, as the representative of the ayllu, redistributed the land to each member according to the size of their families. The dimensions of the land varied according to its agricultural quality and it was measured in tupus, a local measurement unit. A married couple would get one and a half tupus, for each male child the couple received one tupu and for each female half a tupu. When the son or daughter started their own family each additional tupu was taken away and given to the new family. Each family worked their land but they did not own it, the Inca estate was the rightful owner. The land was used to provide subsistence food for the family.

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Economy of the Inca Empire | Discover Peru

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The Incas had a centrally planned economy, perhaps the most successful ever seen. Its success was in the efficient management of labor and the administration of resources they collected as tribute. Collective labor was the base for economic productivity and for the creation of social wealth in the Inca society.

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According to chronicler Garcilazo de la Vega the Incas imposed a set of three laws on its citizens:Inca law was based on a set of beliefs, customs and practices established by the Sapa Inca or his representatives. Regional leaders had the power to decide in matters of law, however they would lose authority when the penalty was mutilation or death which was ruled by a higher authority. Social stability in the "Ama Sua. Ama Llulla. Ama Quella" or "Do not steal. Do not lie. Do not be lazy". Inca Empire was achieved by applying the laws to maintain a moral and disciplined society.

The Inca government promoted peace among its citizens, there was very little crime, but when a crime was committed the punishment was ruthless. Inca laws were severe and any kind of law transgression was considered an action against divinities. There was no system of imprisonment and offenders were punished so that the penalty was exemplary to the rest of the population. Those who survived a punishment were forced to tell their stories for the rest of their lives, those interested in listening would give them food so basically their survival was based on how engaging and compelling their stories were.

Penalties could be personal or collective according to the crime, from simple mass repressions to the isolation of entire villages. Since the purpose of Inca law was to teach a lesson to the offender and prevent re-occurrence by any member of the society, mutilation and the death penalty were frequently applied. Rebellions, homicide, adultery, second offenses in drunkenness, theft and laziness were all punished to death by stoning, hanging or pushing the person off a cliff. Mutilations were common for theft. Punishment such as public scolding was administered for minor crimes and first time offenders

When the Incas conquered a new territory local laws and rules continued to be applied unless they were in conflict with Inca law. If the leader of the newly conquered territory opposed the new set of rules, he would be executed and a new loyal leader would oversee and secure loyalty among the population. This new leader was usually transferred from another territory along with his family and entourage.

Tags: Inca civilization, inca culture, Inca empire, Inca law, inca punishment, Inca society, incas, peru inca

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According to chronicler Garcilazo de la Vega the Incas imposed a set of three laws on its citizens:Inca law was based on a set of beliefs, customs and practices established by the Sapa Inca or his representatives.

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The Andes are some of the tallest, starkest mountains in the world. Yet the Incas, and the civilizations before them, coaxed harvests from the Andes' sharp slopes and intermittent waterways. They developed resilient breeds of crops such as potatoes, quinoa and corn. They built cisterns and irrigation canals that snaked and angled down and around the mountains. And they cut terraces into the hillsides, progressively steeper, from the valleys up the slopes. At the Incan civilization's height in the 1400s, the system of terraces covered about a million hectares throughout Peru and fed the vast empire.

Over the centuries, cisterns fell into disrepair, canal beds dried up and terraces were abandoned. This process began when the Spanish imposed their own crops and forced people off traditional lands to farm and mine for the conquistadors. The local populations were devastated by war and, more significantly, by disease. Some researchers estimate that as many as half of the Incan population died soon after the Spanish conquest. Much of the traditional farming knowledge and engineering expertise was lost.

The ghost of the Incas' farming achievements still shadows the Andes. The remnants of ancient terraces appear as lines of green on the mountains. Former irrigation canals carve hollows into the land. Today, in a corner of the Andes, people are breathing new life into ancient practices. Inspired by recent archaeological research, they are rebuilding terraces and irrigation systems and reclaiming traditional crops and methods of planting. They do this in part because Incan agricultural techniques are more productive and more efficient in terms of water use. But these modern farmers also believe the Incan ways can offer simple solutions to help protect communities' food supply in the face of climate change.

Archaeologist Ann Kendall began studying terraces in the Cuzco region of Peru in 1968. She intended to focus on Incan architecture and stonework, but she was soon captivated by the dry canal beds and terraces that beckoned from across the valley. "I thought about the problem that local people had no water and didn't cultivate this [agricultural system]," she says. She remembers thinking, "if only one could study traditional technology and rehabilitate all this in the Andes, wouldn't it be wonderful."

She decided to study the development and technology of the Incan agricultural systems with the idea of rehabilitating them. Over the years, she learned how the Incan builders employed stones of different heights, widths and angles to create the best structures and water retention and drainage systems, and how they filled the terraces with dirt, gravel and sand.

In the 1600s, Garcilaso de la Vega, the child of a conquistador father and an Incan noblewoman, described the Incan terracing system in The Royal Commentaries of the Incas: "In this way the whole hill was gradually brought under cultivation, the platforms being flattened out like stairs in a staircase, and all the cultivable and irrigable land being put to use."

The terraces leveled the planting area, but they also had several unexpected advantages, Kendall discovered. The stone retaining walls heat up during the day and slowly release that heat to the soil as temperatures plunge at night, keeping sensitive plant roots warm during the sometimes frosty nights and expanding the growing season. And the terraces are extremely efficient at conserving scarce water from rain or irrigation canals, says Kendall. "We've excavated terraces, for example, six months after they've been irrigated, and they're still damp inside. So if you have drought, they're the best possible mechanism." If the soil weren't mixed with gravel, points out Kendall, "when it rained the water would log inside, and the soil would expand and it would push out the wall." Kendall says that the Incan terraces are even today probably the most sophisticated in the world, as they build on knowledge developed over about 11,000 years of farming in the region.

Over the past three decades, using archaeological details about the construction of terraces and irrigation systems, a development charity called the Cusichaca Trust, which Kendall formed in 1977, rehabilitated and irrigated 160 hectares of terraces and canals in the Patacancha Valley, near Cuzco. The project was a success: it improved water access and agricultural production, and local families maintain the structures today. Lessons from the Patacancha Valley are now being employed to restore Incan agricultural systems in other areas of Peru.

The thud of hammer on rock reverberates in a remote valley in the Apurímac region. A worker from a nearby village swings a mallet and chips off the edges from a massive stone that has been hauled into the bed of an ancient irrigation channel. That rock will form one wall of the repaired channel. He and a half-dozen workers have been hard at work for a month already, and have rebuilt about a third of the channel.

The work is part of a two-year project to mitigate the effects of climate change. Kendall and her local partners in Cusichaca Andina (an independent Peruvian nonprofit formed in 2003) began activities in the remote regions of Apurímac and Ayacucho because they wanted to expand past Cusco. The area is blanketed with terraces, most unused for centuries. It also was the center of power for the Sendero Luminoso, or Shining Path, during the 1980s and early 1990s. Many locals fled from the guerrilla fighters, abandoning farms and leaving the area with little farming expertise.

The exact age of this particular channel hasn't been determined, but Adripino Jayo, the regional director of Cusichaca Andina, which leads the restoration with funding from the World Bank, estimates that it's been used to funnel water from a nearby spring perhaps since the time of the Wari, whose civilization spread over the Andes for hundreds of years before the Incan empire.

Trainers from Cusichaca Andina schooled the community on how to repair the canal using local materials, which are cheaper than concrete and avoid the need to import materials from the city. One worker swings a pickax to carve out dirt and then shovels it aside. Another worker lines up stones evenly on the channel's sides. They use local clay to fill the gaps between boulders and alongside the earthen banks. When it hardens, the clay is watertight.

Yellowing stalks of corn, quinoa and amaranth drape over and obscure the stone walls that have already been repaired. From September through December last year, local workers rehabilitated 54 hectares of terraces. By the spring of 2012, the teams hope to rebuild nearly two miles of irrigation channels.

In the few restaurants that can be found in nearby villages, rice trucked in from cities and the coast is on offer more frequently than the local quinoa. Jayo quotes a common city refrain that can keep those in the mountains from celebrating their own bounty: only the poor eat quinoa. In the latter half of the 1900s, as remote mountain towns gained increasing access to radio, television and communication with the cities, local crops fell out of favor.

But local grains are more nutritious and better suited to the Andean land and climate. So Cusichaca Andina has conducted educational training campaigns and given away seeds for quinoa, corn and amaranth. The seeds have been planted over 45 hectares, now used as demonstration sites to highlight how traditional farming practices of planting corn, quinoa and squash together, instead of in individual plots, can yield better results, as the crops symbiotically protect and nourish each other.

The organization has also focused on rescuing seeds and varieties that have been in danger of disappearing, such as huaña, a bitter potato variety that resists hail, frost, droughts and excess rain. After being soaked for days and frozen outdoors overnight to remove the bitterness, the potato is dried and can be stored for years.

Jayo highlights the strength and resistance of this crop: "Now that we're facing the crisis of climate change, it's worth recovering crops such as these." Clemente Utani, the mayor of the nearby town of Pomacocha, focuses on the historic significance of Cusichaca's work, saying, "We're recovering what we lost from our ancestors."

Approaches such as these might be crucial for poor Peruvian farmers. Glacial melt and the seasonal rains, the key suppliers of water, are already affected by climate change. Rains have already shown signs of decreasing, temperature swings have become more extreme and Peru's glaciers have shrunk about 20 percent since the 1970s.

The need for water conservation and agricultural development far outstrips the efforts and the available funding, Jayo says. But the idea does seem to be catching on. The Peruvian Ministry of the Environment, in a recent report to the United Nations Framework on Climate Change, highlighted the importance of practices such as reclaiming diverse native Andean crops and rebuilding the infrastructure of pre-Hispanic irrigation.

"At first people thought I was a bit of a nutter with my terraces," says Kendall with a laugh, "but now this is the word everywhere it seems in Peru." And not only in Peru. The Andes stretch from Venezuela and wind down South America as far as Argentina and Chile. Kendall says some countries have terraces that have been maintained, and groups in Bolivia and elsewhere are expressing interest in learning from Cusichaca's rehabilitation experience.

Mountainous regions around the world have a history of terracing. Kendall spoke at a terracing conference in southern China in 2010. She and 50 experts were taken by bus to view the extensive irrigated rice terraces and meet with farmers. These are not, however, the dry mountain terraces that are Kendall's particular expertise. But through the bus windows, Kendall saw evidence of dry terraces lining the hills and mountainsides, mostly abandoned and covered with vegetation-terraces potentially ripe for rehabilitation.

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The Incas were masters of their harsh climate, archaeologists are finding-and the ancient civilization has a lot to teach us today

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History of the Incas - the rise and fall of a mighty empire which left behind some of South America's most important historic highlights.

The Incas were South America's largest and most powerful ancient empire. They rose to prominence in the 12 th century CE and remained in power for over four centuries. Through their formidable military prowess, they ruled over a kingdom which stretched from the northern tip of present-day Ecuador through to central Chile, just past the capital, Santiago. At its peak, the Inca Empire comprised 12 million people hailing from more than 100 different ethnic groups. Throughout the centuries, they managed to create a relatively cohesive state, thanks mostly to a centralised language, government and spiritual/religious belief system. The two most astonishing aspects of the Incas are that they managed to become one of the ancient world's most powerful empire without the use of the wheel, cast iron, or any form of writing, and that, ultimately, they were shown to be utterly defenceless against the Spanish conquistadores. The last flickering remnant of the Inca Empire was extinguished in the late 1500s.

Legend has it that the Incas were created by Inti, the sun god, but historians prefer the version which states the Incas started off as a small and unassuming tribe who lived in current-day Cusco, in the high Peruvian Andes. They lived in relative anonymity and conservative size through their first three kings' reign. Expansion didn't really initiate until Mayta Capac, the 4 th Emperor, took over and was bolstered during Emperor Viracocha Inca's ruling, in the 1400s. His partnership with two influential uncles helped form the first Inca military assemblage of any real substance. The Incas successfully challenged and defeated the Ayarmaca people, in a region now known as the Sacred Valley of the Incas, found just north of Cusco. It was during this time that the Incas developed the practice of challenging, conquering and expanding, and leaving behind a military base from which to defend borders and uphold peace within their now-mixed populace.

One of the famous ethnic groups which the Incas conquered were the Aymara people, which are now Lake Titicaca 's most beloved locals. Many still live on the lake's islands as they have done for hundreds of years.

In the northernmost reaches of the Inca Empire, fell the Chimus and Cajamarcas. During the history of the Incas, it is renowned that crime rate was minimal, however this had much to do with the iron wrist with which they were ruled over their subjects, rather than their subjects' collective contentment at acculturation. The central Inca government went to much effort to quell the numerous uprisings which were undertaken by the many quarrelling ethnic groups, and took to forced resettlement to avoid the forming of major rebelling groups. The Aymara were among the most rebellious, and by the time the Spaniards arrived they formed the greatest portion of the Inca Empire.

Inca expansion grew exponentially with each new emperor due primarily to a law which stated that each new ruler could not inherit the wealth and lands of his predecessor. If they wished to be wealthy, they needed to conquer new lands and it is with this credo that the empire expanded its rule over much of western South America.

The history of the Incas highlights their forward-thinking attributes, not only in governance and self-rule, but also their collective achievements. They invented aqueducts and terraced farming, surmising that slightly different elevation levels could yield better crops for varying foods. They stored supplies and freeze-dried food for times of drought. They worked gold and silver and weaved immensely colourful cloths. They were remarkable artists and musicians, as well as astute mathematicians, inventing an ancient tool for account keeping which used coloured strings and knots. The quipu was also used to record historical events. The Incas adapted Quechua as their primary language, one which was spread throughout the kingdom, and built a complex system of roads which totalled more than 24,000km. Teams of relay runners were used to transport goods and messages to and from every corner of the empire, at an astonishing rate of over 240km a day.

The Inca polytheistic religion was centred on Inti, the sun god, and included the god of rain (Apu Illapu) as well as Viracocha, the god of all creations.

The Incas built shrines and temples, where all-powerful priests initiated ritual animal and human sacrifices to appease the gods and ensure good crops and victory in battles. Many historians now believe the Incas were not as militarily obsessed as first thought. They appeared to have been masters of diplomacy who used force to conquer neighbours only as a last resort. They formed alliances instead, by way of marriage and gift exchanges, and used their powers of persuasion to gain allies which they slowly, and methodically, brought under their rule.

The arrival of European invaders marked the beginning of the end of the Inca Empire. However, many historians believe it simply acted as a catalyst for internal struggles which were already present. Smallpox, the most deadly weapon the Spaniards carried, wiped out a huge portion of the Inca population, as well as the current emperor ( Huayna Capac) and his chosen successor. Amidst the internal skirmish for power, the Incas were no match for European weaponry, and the mighty Inca Empire literally unravelled as if made of fragile strings. The Spaniards sacked Cusco, the formidable capital, and took over power with very little resistance. The last remaining crumbs of the Inca kingdom retreated to Vilcabamba (in southern Ecuador) where they were finally conquered and defeated in 1572.

Ancient Incas - modern day wonders

The discovery of Machu Picchu helped the nearly-forgotten Incas gain international recognition. Due to the fact they had no major writing system, legends and stories were passed on by professional orators and much of their history has been collated with what was discovered in ancient citadels and temples. Much of what we know originates from reports the Spanish invaders sent home. They reported on grandiose cities, more beautiful and better organized than any in Europe, and impressive systems of roads and aqueducts the likes of which they had never encountered.

Thanks to new discoveries, the history of the Incas is still very much an ongoing puzzle, one which the whole world is waiting to complete.
At Chimu Adventures, we offer a wide range of tailor-made travel options to Peru. Come face to face with some of the most awe-inspiring remnants of the ancient Inca Empire. Tackle a heart-pumping hike along the ancient Inca trail to Machu Picchu, or take a comfortable and just as mesmerizing train ride instead. Visit world-class museums and priceless temples, explore the Sacred Valley of the Incas, and come discover one of the most impressive ancient civilizations the world has ever known.
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A Short history of the Incas - The Rise and Fall

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History of the Incas - the rise and fall of a mighty empire which left behind some of South America's most important historic highlights. The Incas were South America's largest and most powerful ancient empire. They rose to prominence in the 12 th century CE and remained in power for over four centuries.

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Using LiDAR technology to explore burial ground

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Using LiDAR technology to explore burial ground

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Threads That Speak: How The Inca Used Strings to Communicate | National Geographic

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