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Alexander Fleming ‘accidentally’ discovers lysozymes.

According to popular belief, Fleming had accidentally placed some of his mucus onto a Petri dish, which was then put aside and ignored. Upon inspection 2 weeks later, bacteria growth was observed to be reduced in areas where the mucus was.

reference:

Tan, S. Y., & Tatsumura, Y. (2015). Alexander Fleming (1881-1955): Discoverer of penicillin. Singapore medical journal, 56(7), 366–367. https://doi.org/10.11622/smedj.2015105

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Close to a hundred years ago, authored by Prof. David Hendricks Bergey, the first edition of Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology was first published.

reference:

Aryal, S. (2019). Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology and Determinative Bacteriology. Retrieved March 19, 2021 from https://microbenotes.com/bergeys-manual-of-systematic-bacteriology-and-determinative-bacteriology/

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Frederick Griffith conducts a series of experiments that shows bacterial transformation. This will not be fully understood until later on.

reference:

O'Connor, C. (2008) Isolating hereditary material: Frederick Griffith, Oswald Avery, Alfred Hershey, and Martha Chase. Nature Education 1(1):105 https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/isolating-hereditary-material-frederick-griffith-oswald-ave-336/

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Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, effective against gram-positive bacteria, by accident as he was conducting his studies that involves the staphylococcal bacteria. It was only in later years that Fleming has realized what truly is the thing he discovered and how it will become useful even in the future.

reference:

Tan, S., & Tatsumura, Y. (2015, July). Alexander Fleming (1881-1955): Discoverer of penicillin. Retrieved March 20, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4520913/

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Cornelius Van Niel shows that to not produce oxygen, or anoxygenic photosynthesis, some bacteria instead use reduced compounds as electron donors.

reference:
Whitmarsh, J., Govindjee. (1999). Concepts in Photobiology: Photosynthesis and Photomorphogenesis - The Photosynthetic Process. Narosa Publishing House. Retrieved March 19, 2021 from https://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/paper/gov.html

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Ernst Ruska invented the first transmission electron microscope by making use of magnetic coils that will serve as the lens of the equipment. This invention enabled scientists to view objects that cannot be seen using light microscope.

reference:
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1986. (n.d.). Retrieved March 20, 2021, from https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1986/ruska/facts/

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Wendell Stanley studies tobacco leaves affected by the tobacco mosaic virus which he extracted in crystal form.    Gerhard Domagk introduces sulfa drugs, specifically Prontosil, which was effective against many bacterial diseases.

references:

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1946/stanley/facts/

Gerhard Domagk. (2017). Gerhard Domagk. Science History Institute. Retrieved March 19, 2021 from https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/gerhard-domagk

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1937: Chatton and his classification of microbes

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1937: Chatton and his classification of microbes

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Edouard Chatton categorizes organisms into prokaryotes and eukaryotes. However, it was only in 1962 when this insight was brought back to light by Roger Yate Stanier and Cornelius van Niel.

reference:

Sapp, J. (2005). The Prokaryote-Eukaryote Dichotomy: Meanings and Mythology. American Society for Microbiology Journals. https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.69.2.292-305.2005

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MODERN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY (1940s-present)

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MODERN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY (1940s-present)

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Proposal of George Wells Beadle and Edward Tatum’s hypothesis, the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis, in which there is a production of a single enzyme for every gene.

reference:
Chhetri, D. (2014, May 23). George W. Beadle’s one gene-one enzyme hypothesis. Embryo Project Encyclopedia. ISSN: 1940-5030.  http://embryo.asu.edu/handle/10776/7892.

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Max Delbrück and Salvador Luria revealed the inheritance of characteristics in bacteria through their experiment. The Fluctuation Test demonstrated the genetic mutations of bacteria that may occur from virus sensitivity to virus resistance.

Selman Waksman, Albert Schatz, and Elizabeth Bugie discovered streptomycin, and this was proven to be an effective treatment for tuberculosis.

references:

Luria, S. E., & Delbrück, M. (1943). Mutations of bacteria from virus sensitivity to virus resistance. Electronic Scholarly Publishing. 28: 491L511.

Wainwright, M. (1991). Streptomycin: Discovery and Resultant Controversy. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 13(1), 97-124. Retrieved March 20, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23330620

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Joshua Lederberg was the first to describe the conjugation and transduction in bacteria.

reference:

Parkinson, J.S. (2016). Classic spotlight: The discovery of bacterial transduction. J Bacteriol 198:2899–2900. doi:10.1128/JB.00635-16.

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Discovery of the double helix structure of the DNA molecule by James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins.

reference:

https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/sc/feature/doublehelix

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François Jacob, Jacques Monod, and Andre Lwoff formulated the Operon theory wherein this is a concept regarding the gene regulation by repressor proteins.

reference:

Lewis M. (2011). A tale of two repressors. Journal of molecular biology, 409(1), 14–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2011.02.023

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1961: Brenner, Nirenberg, Holley, and Khorana on genetics

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1961: Brenner, Nirenberg, Holley, and Khorana on genetics

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Sydney Brenner discovered messenger RNA (mRNA) and ribosomes as site of protein synthesis.

Marshall Nirenberg, Robert Holley, and Har Gobind Khorana discovered the first triplet or the genetic code. This is a sequence composed of three bases of DNA that codes for one of the twenty amino acids.

references:

Cobb, M. (2015). Who discovered messenger RNA? Current Biology, 25(13), R526–R532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.05.032

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/geneticcode.html

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1970: Smith et al: Discovery of restriction enzymes

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1970: Smith et al: Discovery of restriction enzymes

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Discovery of restriction enzymes by Hamilton Smith, Daniel Nathans, and Werner Arber. This enzyme cuts the DNA at specific sites.

reference:

Restriction enzymes and the “new genetics,” 1970-1980. (n.d.). Daniel Nathans - Profiles in Science. https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/pd/feature/enzymes

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1972: Bishop and Varmus on origin of cancer cells

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1972: Bishop and Varmus on origin of cancer cells

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John Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus discovered cellular origin of cancer genes known as retroviral oncogenes present in retroviruses. These cancer genes originated from normal cells instead or originating from virus.

reference:

Nobel prizes 2020. (n.d.). NobelPrize.Org. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1989/bishop/facts/

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Paul Berg assembled the first DNA molecules that combined genes from different organisms using his recombinant DNA technology. He is known as the Father of Genetic Engineering.

reference:

Paul Berg. (2017, December 11). Science History Institute. https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/paul-berg

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Roger Kornberg discovered the mechanism transcription in eukaryotes.

reference:

Kornberg, R. D. (2007). The molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(32), 12955–12961. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0704138104

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Carl Woese discovered Archaea, group of single-celled prokaryotic organisms, that constituted a third domain of life.

reference:

Arnold, C. (2014, April 30). The man who rewrote the tree of life. NOVA | PBS. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/carl-woese/

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Discovery of the new rapid DNA sequencing techniques by Frederick Sanger and Walter Gilbert.

Eradication of smallpox. Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by the variola virus.

references:

GNN - Genetics and genomics timeline. (n.d.). Genome News Network. https://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/resources/timeline/1977_Gilbert.php

History of smallpox | smallpox | CDC. (n.d.). CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/history/history.html

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Development of the scanning tunneling microscope.

Stanley Prusiner discovered and characterized prions.

Thomas Robert Cech and Sidney Altman discovered the catalytic properties of RNA.

references:

September 1981: Invention of the scanning tunneling microscope. (n.d.). American Physical Society. https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200308/history.cfm

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1989. (n.d.). NobelPrize.org. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1989/summary/

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Stanley Prusiner discovered that prions are causing scrapie, a neurodegenerative disease found in sheep.

reference:

Prusiner, S. B. (1998). Nobel Lecture: Prions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95(23), 13363–13383. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.23.13363

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Barry Marshall and Robin Warren discovered Helicobacter pylori which was found out to be a cause of peptic ulcers

reference:

Nobel prizes 2020. (2005, October 3). NobelPrize.Org. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2005/press-release/

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Luc Montagnier, Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, and Harald zur Hausen independently discovered human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as cause of AIDS.

reference:

Nobel Prizes 2020. (2008, October 6). NobelPrize.Org. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2008/press-release/

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1985: Mullis's Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

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1985: Mullis's Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

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Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was developed and invented by Kary B. Mullis which produces multiple copies of a segment of a DNA in a short period of time.

reference:

The history of PCR. (n.d.). Smithsonian Institution Archives. http://siarchives.si.edu/research/videohistory_catalog9577.html#:%7E:text=The%20Polymerase%20Chain%20Reaction%20(PCR,AIDS%20virus%20in%20human%20cells.

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First production of vaccine, specifically a hepatitis B vaccine, via genetic engineering

reference:

Bucci, M. (2020, September 28). First recombinant DNA vaccine for HBV. Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/d42859-020-00016-5?error=cookies_not_supported&code=2619901c-dc19-4f7f-b452-cf8caaabb997

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1990: First human trials of gene-therapy

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1990: First human trials of gene-therapy

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Start of the first human trials of gene-therapy. It works by modifying the expression of human genes (usually abnormal ones) by introducing new healthy genetic materials to the cells. A genetically engineered vector (carrier of the gene) is injected or administered intravenously to the targeted tissue.

references:

http://www.genetherapynet.com/JoomlaTest2/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=161:historic-overview-of-gene-therapy&catid=97:patient-information&Itemid=14

How does gene therapy work?: MedlinePlus genetics. (n.d.). MedlinePlus - Health Information from the National Library of Medicine. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/therapy/procedures/

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Start of the first trials of antisense therapy to treat different neurodegenerative and neuromuscular disorders. The approach uses antisense oligonucleotides which are short DNA-like molecules that would selectively hybridize to modify specific mRNA sequences.

references:

https://www.intechopen.com/books/antisense-therapy/antisense-therapy-an-overview

Lee, J. J., & Yokota, T. (2013). Antisense therapy in neurology. Journal of personalized medicine, 3(3), 144–176. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm3030144

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Sequenced the genome of bacterium Haemophilus influenzae using whole-genome random sequencing

reference:

Iskander M, Hayden K, Van Domselaar G, Tsang R. 2017. First complete genome sequence of Haemophilus influenzae serotype a. Genome Announc 5:e01506-16. https://doi.org/10.1128/genomeA.01506-16.

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Sequenced the genome of archaeon Methanococcus jannaschii using whole-genome random sequencing o   Serves as the connection between bacteria (such as Haemophilus influenzae and Mycoplasma genitalium) and eukaryotic genomes which can be used as basis for in-depth various evolutionary analysis.

Numerous researchers first sequenced the genome of a eukaryote - the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae from a single reference genome of S288C

references:

Garrett, R. A. (1996). Genomes: Methanococcus jannaschii and the Golden Fleece. Current Biology, 6(11), 1377-1380. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0960-9822(96)00735-x

Engel, S. R., Dietrich, F. S., Fisk, D. G., Binkley, G., Balakrishnan, R., Costanzo, M. C., Dwight, S. S., Hitz, B. C., Karra, K., Nash, R. S., Weng, S., Wong, E. D., Lloyd, P., Skrzypek, M. S., Miyasato, S. R., Simison, M., & Cherry, J. M. (2014). The reference genome sequence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae: then and now. G3 (Bethesda, Md.), 4(3), 389–398. https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.113.008995

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Discovery of the largest known bacterium Thiomargarita namibiensis by Heide Schulz.  ·         Sequenced the complete genome of the bacterium Escherichia coli o   Scientists uses the genome sequence of E. coli to understand basic chemical reactions of life and uncover the mechanisms of gene action regulation. o   The genome has 4,600,000 base pairs and around 4,000 genes.

references:

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/04/990416081113.htm

1997: E. coli genome sequenced. (2013, May 28). Genome.gov. https://www.genome.gov/25520386/online-education-kit-1997-e-coli-genome-sequenced

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Andrew Fire and Craig Mello revealed the process of RNA interference.

reference:
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2006/advanced-information/

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Discovery of the unique characteristic of Vibrio cholerae – its genome is divided between two separate chromosomes. o   Multiple chromosomes enable v. cholerae to survive variable environmental conditions.

reference:

Rasmussen, T., Jensen, R. B., & Skovgaard, O. (2007). The two chromosomes of Vibrio cholerae are initiated at different time points in the cell cycle. The EMBO journal, 26(13), 3124–3131. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.emboj.7601747

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Vaccine for Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was developed

reference:

Dong, Y., Dai, T., Wei, Y. et al. A systematic review of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidates. Sig Transduct Target Ther 5, 237 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-020-00352-y